role of transport providers in tourism

The Role of Transport in Tourism Essay

Need to write an essay on the role of transport in tourism? This essay example focuses on the issue. Learn more about the role of transport in tourism, economy, and social development.

Introduction

• Role of Transport in Tourism Development

Reference List

The growth and development of tourism depends on transportation to a great extent. Although transportation and tourism development are, nevertheless, this paper has tried to demonstrate that the relationship between these two issues is somewhat controversial owing to the many schools of thought that are available.

Nevertheless, new technologies in transportation has greatly improved tourism sector. The development of these newer technologies has come about because there is a growing demand for newer, faster and more efficient modes of travel.

Development in transportation impacts on the mobility of individuals, not to mention that it influences their demand and motivation (Duval 2007).

On the other hand, transportation may also impact negatively on tourism development owing to the issues of pollution, destruction of the environment and wildlife, and congestion. The paper attempts to examine the role of transportation in tourism development.

The Role of Transportation in Tourism

The role played by transportation in tourism development remains controversial mainly because there are various schools of thoughts regarding its role in comparison with development.

Some schools of thought have for example sought to categorize the role of transportation in tourism into negative, positive, and neutral. With regard to the positive perspective, transportation is seen as a key driver of the tourism industry.

On the other hand, the neutral perspective holds that transportation facilities may not yield productive tourism activities on their own.

In contrast, the negative point of view seeks to examine circumstances under which transportation might lead to an in the spread of disease, increased migration, or a reduction in per capita income levels (Musa & Ndawayo 2011).

Many scholars have expressed conflicting views on the issue of the role of transportation in tourism development, but most of them prescribe to the base structure described above.

Nevertheless, there is compelling evidence to support the claim that transportation plays a crucial role in the development of the tourism industry in any given economy.

At the same time, there are many common interests shared by both the transportation and tourism sectors. As such, the two sectors appear to be somewhat interdependent (Musa & Ndawayo 2011).

As the tourism industry expands, this interdependence begins to become more apparent, not least because the sector plays a key role in the economic development of a country.

A lot of scholars contend that the infrastructure base of any nation acts as a determining factor of how attractive tourist destinations in such a country are. With regard to specific transport infrastructure, charged with the responsibility of offering vital transportation services, we can rightly assume that transportation plays a key role in this respect.

In their work, Khadarooa and Seetanahb (2008) have identified the role played by transportation network in the growth of a country’s tourism sector. They see transportation network as a vital ingredient for the successful development of the tourism sector.

The authors have further noted that transport is a key component in our quest to create and develop successful new tourist attractions sites.

Transportation is also important in terms of promoting the growth and development of existing tourist destinations. It is important to note that by providing ideal transportation services to hitherto dead centers for tourist attraction, we are likely to transform them into active and successful; tourist destinations and in the process, we could end up witnessing multitudes of people paying visits to such sites every year.

Prideaux (2000) has also recognized the role played by transpiration infrastructure in tourism development. Even as many authors have recognized the importance of efficient transport as a prerequisite for the successful implementation of a tourism development program, there is not much work that has been carried out to explore the role played by transportation in tourism development.

Only a limited number of researchers have dedicated their research to studying the impact of transportation on tourism development.

Majority of the tourism studies appear to define the link between tourism and transport with regard to the issuer of accessibility. In this case, transport acts as a link between on the one hand, tourist destination centers and on the other hand, tourist generating centers.

A number of authors have explored the historical background of tourism within the context of how different modes of transportation have been developed over the years.

Others have deemed it necessary to view transportation from an interdisciplinary approach, in which case it acts as one among several elements which when combined forms the tourism system (Palhares 2003, p. 405).

A number of researchers have also developed and tested various models of tourism flows, although the role of transportation has been quite limited.

We also have other scholars who views transportation form the geographical context and examine the flow of tourists between rural and metropolitan destinations.

Tourism involves a lot of travelling and in this case, transportation links tourists with different tourist destinations, in addition to ferrying goods and services.

As such, transportation plays a crucial role in tourism development. In a bid to demonstrate that tourism and transportation are interconnected, we need to realize that once transportation in a given tourism region has been improved, we end up expanding tourism in such a region.

We have a number of scholars who view transportation as part of the larger tourism system which plays a key role in ensuring that tourists get to the desired destinations.

This means that transportation is seen as only a means to enable such tourists to get to the desired tourist destination and once they are finished with their expeditions, they are ferried back to their place of residence.

According to Page and Lumsdon (2004), the system of transport available at a given tourist destination affects the experience of tourists, and this may perhaps explain the manner in which people decide to travel, as well as their choice of holiday destinations, types of holiday, and mode of transport.

The development of tourist destination relies heavily on transport networks. This is the case especially with regard to the issues of connectivity and accessibility (Duval 2007).

As such, the scope and pattern of tourism is eventually determined by the degree of connectivity and accessibility within a given transport network.

For example, the United States is a key market of tourist destinations in New Zealand. The host country has benefited from the non-stop and long-haul air services that the US provides.

In the same way, the United States operates nonstop air flights from key urban areas such as New York and Washington, D.C to the Caribbean, another tourist destination.

This is a clear indication that as the efficiency and availability of transportation increases, so does the number of tourists to a given destination.

Some tourist destinations have largely remained unpopular in the past simply because they could not be accessed easily as the transport infrastructure was either unavailable or very poorly developed (Sorupia 2005).

However, with improvements in transportation, coupled with reduced transportation costs, accessibility to such areas has increased dramatically. In the process, such areas have continued to attract a large number of tourists all year round.

It is important however to remember that the level of accessibility to tourism sites will differ depending on the state of the existing transport infrastructure, nature of the site, as well as how efficient the public transport system in use is.

Transportation could also impact negatively on tourism development. For example, it could pose a threat to the environment and consequently, hinder tourism development.

With regard to land transportation, both road and rail transport affects the habitat and by extension, the wildlife. This is because the two mode of transport traverse natural areas, in effect dividing hitherto contiguous areas.

In addition, emissions from air and road transport remain by far the most widespread sources of greenhouse gasses (Peters 2000).

Noise and air pollution in the form of engine noises from motor vehicles, planes, overhead cable carts, and constructions can all have negative ramifications on wildlife, thereby impacting negatively on the tourism sector.

Moreover, pollution also affects the natural habitat and may end up driving tourists away as the tourist destination in question is no longer attractive.

On the issue of access and modes of transport, it is important to note that both tourism and accessibility could be connected with the degradation levels of a given tourist destination.

Some of the matters arising from such an association include the impacts per capita, carrying, as well as visitor management. The way in which we are able to manage these issues is an indication of the mode of tourism that the community, the government, and the operator advocate for (Page & Lumsdon 2004).

Therefore, accessibility can ensure the success or failure of a destination. One school of thought regarding this argument is that with a lot of people are likely to frequent a given tourist destination as accessibility increases.

Consequently, the level of degradation increases, thereby affecting the state of natural resources. Another argument considers the ratio of host population to that of visits and the type and level of the impact created.

It is important to ensure that such a ratio is maintained at a level that the local community is comfortable with in order to avoid any emerging conflict on the issue of resources allocation.

As the number of tourist visiting a given tourist destination increases, we are likely to witness increased rail and road congestion, not to mention the rise of air, road and noise pollution levels.

In case the existing infrastructure is not sufficient to accommodate this increase, conflicts could emerge. Besides, an increase in the number of tourists would affect the environment and wildlife as well.

Although a lot of scholars have recognized the importance of efficient transport as a prerequisite for the successful implementation of a tourism development program, only a handful of studies have been dedicated to researching on the role of transportation in tourism development.

There is a controversy surrounding the role of transportation in tourism development as there are divergent schools of thought regarding the issue in question.

The schools of thought have sought to explore the positive, negative, and neutral role played by transportation in as far as tourism development is concerned.

Nonetheless, both the transportation and tourisms sectors share some common interest and for this reason, they are interdependent. Transportation affects the mobility of tourists, in addition to influencing their demand and motivation to visit a certain tourist destinations.

The successful development of new tourist destinations depends heavily on the accessibility and connectivity of the existing transport network.

Transportation is also important in terms of promoting the growth and development of existing tourist destinations. On the other hand, transportation leads to pollution, and this can affect both the wildlife and the natural habitat, thereby driving tourism away.

Also, improved transportation can result in massive migration, with a resultant increase in population and congested transport system. This may bring about conflict between the hosts and the tourists.

Duval, D, 2007,Tourism and transport: modes, networks and flows, Channel View Publications, Bristol Khadarooa, J & Seetanahb, B, ‘The role of transport infrastructure in international tourism development: A gravity model approach’, Tourism Management, vol. 29, pp. 831–840.

Musa, I & Ndawayo, B,’ The role of transportation in the development of tourism in Nigeria’, An international multidisciplinary journal of tourism, vol. 6, no.1, pp. 297-305 Page, S & Lumsdon L, 2004, Tourism and transport: Issues and agenda for the new millennium, Elsevier, Boston.

Palhares, GL 2003, ‘The Role of Transport in Tourism Development: Nodal Functions and Management Practices’, Journal of Tourism Research, vol. 5, no. 5, pp. 403–407.

Peters, D, 2000, A sustainable transport convention for the new Europe. Earthscan Publications Ltd., London.

Sorupia, E 2005, Rethinking the role of transportation in tourism, http://www.easts.info/on-line/proceedings_05/1767.pdf

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Tourism Transportation

The transport industry has gained a vital place in the global network system and is one of the most important components of the tourism infrastructure. It now becomes easier for people to travel from one place to another because of the various modes of transportation available.

The earliest forms of transportation in the ancient times were animals on land and sails on the sea. Travel development from the need to survive, to expand and develop trade to far off countries, and the hunger to capture new lands and territories. This was followed by the use of steams and electricity in the nineteenth century followed by internal combustion engines.

Aircraft with the jet engines were introduced in the 1950s . With the development of technology, travel became faster and more and people could travel around the globe.

Since tourism involves the movement of people from their places of residence to the places of tourist attractions, every tourist has to travel to reach the places of interest. Transport is, thus, one of the major components of the tourism industry. To develop any place of tourist attraction there have to be proper, efficient, and safe modes of transportation.

Transportation is vital to tourism. Studies have shown that tourists spend almost 30 to 40 percent of their total holiday expenditure on transportation and the remaining on food, accommodation, and other activities. This aspect once again highlights the importance of transportation.

A tourist can travel by a variety of means. The tourism professional, as well as tourist, should be aware of the various modes of transport available to reach the destination and at the destination.

The various mode of transport can be broadly divided into the following three categories :

• Air transport
• Land transport
• Water transport

Air Transport

Due to the growth of air transport in recent years, long-distance travel has become much simpler and affordable. Distance is now measured in hours and not in kilometers. The world has indeed shrunk and becomes a small village.

The development of air transport mostly occurred after World War I and II. Commercial airlines were created for travelers. Because of increasing air traffic, the commercial sector grows rapidly. Before the World War II, Swissair already was carrying around 14-16 passenger between Zurich to London.

The first commercial service was introduced by KLM, the Dutch Airlines, in 1920 between Amsterdam and London. Commercial air travel grew mostly after World War II. More facilities were introduced and there was more comfort in travel.

Jet flights were inaugurated by Great Britain in the year 1952. In the year 1958 Pan American introduced the Boeing 707 services between Paris and New York. Due to the introduction of jet flights, the year 1959 onward saw a tremendous increase in air traffic. The concept of chartered flights was also introduced during this year.

Jumbo jets have revolutionized travel. A large number of people travel by air because of the speed, comfort, and economy in terms of time saved.

The modern era, thus, is the era of mass air travel. After road transport, air travel is the most popular mode of travel, particularly for international travel. For the business travelers, air transport is more convenient as it saves their precious time and offers a luxurious and hassle-free travel. Many airlines nowadays offer special facilities to the business tourist such as Internet on board.

There two types of airlines . These are following as:

Scheduled airlines operate as regular schedules. Chartered airlines or the non-scheduled airlines operate only when there is a demand, mainly during the tourist seasons. The chartered flights work out cheaper than the scheduled carriers as they are operated only when there is a high load factor. Chartered flights provide cheaper packages to the destination such as Portugal and Spain.

India receives more than 400 chartered flights, especially to Goa. Goa has a maximum number of chartered flights coming in during the months of December to January.

The International Air Transport Association (IATA) regulates international air travel. IATA has more than 105 major airlines of the world as its members. IATA regulates the price of tickets on different sectors of travel in the world. The concerned government decides the domestic fares.

The airfares are normally determined on the volume and the air travel demand in an area.

The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) is an intergovernmental organization established in the year 1945. Only the government of the country can become a member. The government has to enter into a bilateral agreement for the frequency of flights for operating commercial airlines between them.

Airlines are classified into two broad categories namely small carrier and large carrier . The small carrier also known as commuter airlines have less than 30 seats . The larger carriers, also known as major airlines fly direct routes between the major cities and seat and seat 100 to 800 passengers .

The recent boom in the aviation technology has certainly bought some new development to airlines industry. There has been a major change in the size of the aircraft.

Every year there are a growing number of new airlines being introduced. Because of the growing number of new private airlines, there is stiff competition among them. This has resulted in a considerable reduction in air fairs and has boosted the growth of air traffic. To woo and attract customers, many airlines offer cheaper promotional fares such as excursion fares, group fares, and apex fares.

Million of tonnes of cargo and mail are also handled by the air transport industry.

Road Transport

Humans travel place to place in search of food in the primitive era. They tamed animals such as the dog, ox, horse, camel, reindeer, elephants, etc. for carrying the load and traveling. After the discovery of the wheel, humans developed the cart, the chariot, and the carriage.

Until the seventeenth century, horses were used for traveling. Later on better roads were constructed and some of these roads developed into trade routes, which linked many countries. One of them is the Silk Route which was used for transporting silk from China to Persia and the Blue Gem road from Iran to Afghanistan and India.

Today, the most popular and widely used mode of road travel is the automobile or the car. Road transport is dominated by the automobile, which provides views of the landscape and the freedom to travel. Tourist often travels with their entire family for holidays.

To promote tourism , the vehicle required are coaches and tourist cars. Tourist coaches or buses are preferred for large tourist groups traveling together on a specified tour itinerary. Many tourists prefer to travel in comfort and privacy and hire cars. Cars of various makes and standards are available on a rental basis.

Tourist also uses their own motorcar when holidaying. Cars and coaches carried long distance by train facility is also available in some countries.

The car rental segment of the tourism industry is in a very advanced stage in foreign countries. The client can book a car, himself or through agents, and make it wait at the desired place at the destination. The client can then drive the car himself /herself on reaching the destination.

Rail Transport

The railway is the most economical, convenient, and popular mode of travel especially for long distance travel all over the world. The railroad was invented in the seventeenth century in Germany with wooden tracks. The first steel rail was developed in the USA during the early 1800s . The railways revolutionized transportation and mass movement of people seen in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

The broad gauge lines account for more than 55 percent of the total network and carry 85 percent of total traffic. The steam engines have been replaced by diesel and electric engines which have helped in increasing the speed. Railways have promoted tourism by introducing a special tourist train.

In Europe, the railway systems of six European countries have been clubbed to make rail travel easier for the people of Europe. A rail passenger can buy a ticket in any one country of Europe and travel through six countries. For the foreign tourists, Eurail Passes offer unlimited discounts travel in express trains for periods ranging from a week to three months. In the USA, AMTRAK operates trains.

Water Transport

Humans have been traveling through water since time immemorial and carried good and people from one place to another. The boats progressed from the simple raft with some modifications and improvement and were first used around 6000 BC.

Travel by ship was the only means for traveling overseas until the middle of the twentieth century. The Cunard Steamship Company was formed in 1838 with regular steamship services operating on the North Atlantic. During the World War I, in 1914 the operations of the steamship company had to be suspended. After the World War I, the steamship luxury liners were back to business till World War II.

After the World War II, the large luxury liners again started their operations all over the world and carried passengers and holidaymakers. Some of the linear were very large accommodating up to 1000 passengers and had facilities like swimming pools, cinema halls, shops, casino, etc.

The cruise lines are the new attraction among the tourist. The cruises are booked several months in advance for trips into the tropical and sub-tropical waters of the Hawaii, Caribbean, Mediterranean, etc. Water transport today plays two main roles in travel and tourism namely ferrying and cruising .

Modern vessels such as the wave -piercing, the hydrofoil and the hovercraft are the over the water transport and used for short distance routes.

Water transportation is also used in riverboat travel. The Mississippi River has been a popular tourist river since the first settlers came to the USA. Today, tourists enjoy two or three-day luxury trips along the river. In Europe, the Rhine, winding through the grapes growing areas of Germany, offers similar leisure tourist trips.

Motorized ferries and launches are used over rivers to transport tourists and locals, to transport vehicles, and offer facilities such as car parking, restaurants, viewing decks, etc.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Modes of Transport

Tourist has a wide variety of transport options available today. There are several advantages and disadvantages of all the model of transport. These are following as:

Direct root, high speed, quick service, social and political significance, luxurious travel are the advantages of air transportation.

High cost, jet lag, unsuitable for heavy bulk cargo, accidents always fatal, international rule to be observed are the disadvantages of air transportation.

Flexibility, reliable, door to door service, economical, supplements other modes of transport, quick transit for short distances are the advantages of road transport.

Slow speed, carrying capacity limited, accidents, none- AC coaches not so comfortable, comfort depends upon the conditions of roads are the disadvantages of road transport.

Long distance travel cheaper, carrying capacity large, dependable service, quicker than road transportation, ability to view scenery en route is the advantage of railways.

Inflexible, unfit to hilly regions, difficulties in rural areas, dining car facilities not always available are the disadvantage of railways.

Economical, carrying capacity enormously, develops international and coastal trades are the advantages of water transport.

Transportation As An Attraction

To attract customers as well as take them around an attraction, destination developers have used many forms of transport to move people around. These novel modes of transport ensure that major exhibits are viewed in a certain sequence and ensure that the crowd moves through at a reliable pace.

Overcrowding should be avoided at all costs to prevent untoward incidents and to maintain the beauty of the place. Tourist can cover the entire park in a shorter duration with the help of these modes of transport.

Transportation is the most crucial component of the tourism infrastructure. It is required not only for reaching the destination but also visiting the site and moving about at the destination. Variety in modes of transportation adds color to the overall tourism experience.

Unusual forms of transportation are also an attraction such as the cable cars in hilly terrain, the funicular railway, or jet boating. The choice of mode of transport is vast and tourists can choose a mode to suit their budget. They can opt for scheduled or non-scheduled transport such as the hiring of vehicles, boats, coaches or trains so that they can travel with their group.

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Tourism in the Mediterranean Sea

ISBN : 978-1-80043-901-6 , eISBN : 978-1-80043-900-9

Publication date: 1 March 2021

Tourism sector is one of the main important sectors of the world economy. There are very close, complex and complementary relationships between transport and tourism, in both positive and negative ways. An increase in traffic due to world tourism growth can have adverse effects in terms of congestion, safety and security problems, pollution, etc. But transport is a key element in the tourism industry, facilitating and constraining the development of tourism. In other words, transport is the cause and the effect of the growth of tourism at the same time. There is a close connection between mobility and transport. Mobility is commonly defined as the quality of moving freely. At European level, the right of freedom of movement is ensured by the combined provisions of Articles 45 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (CFR) and Article 3(3) TEU. According to a social approach, the right of movement must be ensured on Community territory within the framework of economic, social and territorial cohesion. Air transport has been transformed from a niche phenomenon to a mass phenomenon thanks to improved mobility, cheap prices of tourists packages and the low-cost airlines, as a result of the liberalization of this sector.

• Transport-tourism-mobility
• Sustainable development
• Low-cost phenomenon
• Tourist packages
• Cruise contract

Pellegrino, F. (2021), "Transport and Tourism Relationship", Grasso, F. and Sergi, B.S. (Ed.) Tourism in the Mediterranean Sea , Emerald Publishing Limited, Leeds, pp. 241-256. https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-80043-900-920211017

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The role of transportation in developing the tourism sector at high altitude destination, Kinnaur

Ravinder jangra.

1 Department of Geography, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, Haryana 136119 India

S. P. Kaushik

Etender singh.

2 Department of Geography, Guru Nanak Khalsa College, Yamunanagar, Haryana India

Parveen Kumar

3 Town and Country Planning, Kurukshetra, India

Poonam Jangra

4 Department of Mathematics, Maharishi Markandeshwar University, Mullana, Ambala, Haryana India

As a supporting factor, transportation is an important element of destination image that provides a base for the successful tourism industry. It is like the blood vessels of an area and is considered a determinant in developing a tourist destination. The article aims to characterize the status or problem of transportation accessibility in Kinnaur. GARMIN hand GPS (Global Positioning System) has been used to identify the damaged roads from their start to endpoints. In addition, a simple random sample technique has been used to register the opinion of 280 tourists about the transport facilities. Study results suggest that the bad condition of National Highway–22 is one of the barriers to tourism development in Kinnaur. There were no significant differences found between the selected destinations. Overall, the district headquarters, Kalpa, has been perceived significantly higher agreements by tourists. The government should ensure that the Border Road Organization, the organization entrusted with the responsibility of construction and maintenance of roads in international border areas, has sufficient resources to invest in transport development and its maintenance.

Introduction

Nowadays, the transport system is a fundamental component of the tourism industry and a prerequisite for the development in any region of the world (Khadaroo and Seetanah, 2007 ; Schiefelbusch et al., 2007 ; Musa & Ndawayo, 2011 ; Currie & Falconer, 2014 ; Szymanska et al., 2021 ). A good transport structure increases travelers’ convenience to diverse destinations and is indispensable to enjoy more leisure activities (Khadaroo and Seetanah, 2007 ). Tourism and transport infrastructure are interconnected and economically beneficial (Chen et al., 2021 ; Haller et al., 2020 ; Nenavath, 2021 ). Tourism and transport are not two diverse organizations, but they complement each other. Moreover, transportation is considered as a determinant of destination attractiveness (Robinson, 1976 ; Chew, 1987 ; Gunn, 1988 ; Martin & Witt, 1988 ; Inskeep, 1991 ; Chon et al., 1991 ; Hu & Ritchie, 1993 ; Gallarza et. al., 2002 ; Naudee and Saayman, 2004 ). It is the most necessary component, and basically, it offers accessibility to tourism. A country attracts more tourists with a good infrastructure of road and transport (Virkar & Mallya, 2018 ). Numerous scholars have suggested a positive link between road infrastructure and tourism activities (Khadaroo and Seetanah, 2007 ; Liu and Shi, 2019 ) which directly impacted the development of tourism development (Nazneen et al., 2019 ; Kanwal et al., 2020 ).

Moreover, tourism infrastructure positively impacts residents’ quality of life (Mamirkulova et al., 2020 ). Certain studies have mentioned that if the destination is deprived of accessibility, tourism cannot occur (Chew, 1987 ; Prideaux, 2000 ). Accessibility constitutes one important consideration to tourism development in the drive for innovation and new recommendations (Gillovic & McIntosh, 2020 ). It is a major component and offers driving pleasure to the tourists. It refers to the ease of reaching goods, services, activities, and destinations. If it is uncomfortable, tourists will seek another destination. The topography of an area plays a significant role in implementing strategies/policies. It is difficult to have a good transportation network in mountain areas compared to plain and plateau areas. (Dhali & Dar, 2019 ). Transportation seems to be the lifeline of the trade, tourism, and commerce industry (Summers, 2000 ), and it provides certification for the development of connectivity (Grydehoj & Casagrande, 2019 ). The development of transportation at natural destinations may also negatively impact, i.e., air pollution, noise pollution, traffic congestion, overcrowding, and destruction of natural attractiveness (Kanwal et al., 2019 ; Nunkoo & Ramkissoon, 2011 ; Park et al., 2015 ).

Therefore, more researchers emphasize green transport or sharing transport mobility. Recently, the introduction of electric vehicles by many companies such as Tata Nexon and Tigor, Mahindra E Verito, Hyundai Kona, MG ZS, Nissan Leaf, Mercedes-Benz EQC, Audi e-Tron, electric scooters, and many more has been instrumental in significantly reducing the environmental impacts of transport. But the technologies are in the initial phase of operation in India and are costly compared to combustion engine vehicles. Besides, taxi operators like Ola, Uber, and Bla-Bla carpooling systems are rapidly increasing in metro cities and inter-city travelling. The government of India has planned to shift different types of vehicles to the electric mode by 2030. In the state of Himachal Pradesh, the government has already started electric buses on an experimental basis in the Kullu–Manali area, a prominent tourist place in the mountain environment adjoining the study area ( https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/auto/news/manufacture-himachal-specific-prototype-electric-buses-state-chief-minister-tells-ev-makers/articleshow/98381562.cms?from=mdr ). So far, the experiences are encouraging, and it is expected that such an environment-friendly mode of transport will be introduced in the entire state in due course of time after laying down the re-charging infrastructure. This would certainly be a great step for sustainable tourism in the study area and relieve the environmental stress put on by the use of combustion engines by the vehicles entering the study area. In that context, accessibility requires a more comprehensive analysis in the recent planning paradigm.

Tourism has been recognized as one of the most important sectors of the economy for generating the livelihood of the local folks in Kinnaur. It is also a vehicle for sustainable poverty reduction and a major growth factor for the future. National Highway-22 is a major road in the cold desert destination of Kinnaur district in Satluj, Baspa, and Spiti valley. However, this road has been considered one of the “Deadliest Roads” globally. It has played a very important role in socio-economic development, trade and travel, defense, and tourism. Improved road connectivity in the freezing desert alleviates transportation constraints and attracts more tourists, boosting local inhabitants’ social and economic advantages. Hence, the article recognizes the role of transport accessibility to increase tourist footfall in Kinnaur. It evaluates their current status as well as associated problems. Transport is recognized as a potential basis for attracting tourism to such terrain, so it is necessary to evaluate transport infrastructure to regulate tourism activities in this ecologically fragile area.

Previous research

From the early times, the transport system has had a strong effect on tourism development (Kaul, 1985 ). Although several researchers acknowledge the necessity for effective transport in the successful program of tourism development but very little attention to the significance of transportation in destination development. Some researchers admit that there has a great link between tourism and transport but fail to identify any specific causal relationships between them (Gilbert, 1939 ; Gunn, 1994 ; Hall, 1991 ; Inskeep, 1991 ; Page, 1994 , 1999 ; Robinson, 1976 ; Thurot, 1980 ). Several models are proposed by academics (Barrett, 1958 ; Barbaza, 1970 ; Butler, 1980 ; Lavery, 1974 ; Smith, 1992 ; Soane, 1993 ; Young, 1983 ) to describe the progress in tourism destinations; they recognized transport as a major factor in the growth process. The economic role of transport is as a bridge between the tourist (buyer) and the tourism services (seller).

Numerous studies have been done in different physiographic regions of the world. Gearing et al. ( 1974 ) reveal the attractiveness of Turkey’s tourist destination, and he stressed the development of transport infrastructure at the destination. Kaul ( 1985 ) has identified the significance of transport setup as a vital element in the effective progress of tourism, especially the creation of new attractions and the development of existing ones. Furthermore, Gunn ( 1988 ) states that tourists use multiple services, especially transportation. In other studies, in the case of Victoria (Canada) (Murphy et al., 2000 ), the case of Australia, the case of Turkey (Kozak & Rimmington, 1999 ) case of Sun Lost City, South Africa (Kim et al., 2000 ) and the case of 51 islands (McElroy, 2003 ) also emphasized the significance of transport infrastructure for a destination success. It is not possible to grow tourism without roads and other infrastructure (Crouch & Ritchie, 1999 ).

Most tourists of developed countries are familiar with modern and efficient transport infrastructure, and they also expect that experience to be in the destination country (Prideaux, 2000 ). Moreover, the various infrastructure elements interact with the tourists (Murphy et al., 2000 ). Australia’s Tourism Task Force ( 2003 ) states that transport infrastructure is a big part of linking tourism-generating regions to destinations. Naude and Saayman ( 2004 ) emphasize the importance of infrastructure in tourism development. The local government established an electric bus line around the Khon Kaen to respond to the citizens and tourism needs (Sorupia, 2005 ).

Similarly, automobile transportation makes tourism stress-free to perceive local culture and nations (Oter, 2007 ). On Phuket Island, the transportation system resolves the problems such as public transportation and improving the Island’s road network (Sakolnakorn et al., 2013 ). The Government of Thailand collaborates with a local organization in all the areas of north-eastern Thailand. In European countries included in the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), progress in road infrastructure development could be associated with increased tourism spending.

The preceding review suggests that enormous work has been done in the field of transport’s role in the development of tourism. However, no study related to transportation has been reported on the cold desert, especially the Himachal Pradesh part of Himalayas, India. According to the Road Accident Data Management System (RADMS), of the state, there were 213 road accidents in Kinnaur during the year 2015–20 and consequently, occurred 205 fatalities and 353 persons became injured. To regulate and develop tourism as a sustainable livelihood option at high altitude destinations, robust transportation development is necessitated as a threshold benchmark to attract prospective travelers. It is in this context that the present study is an attempt to fill this gap.

The article consists of five sections; the introduction section presents the background of the study and a review of literature that focuses on transportation’s role in tourism development. Section  2 examines the study area characteristics briefly. Further, Sect.  3 analyzes the database and methodology to identify the actual condition of transport infrastructure. Section  4 discusses the results after applying the proposed methodology. Finally, Sect.  5 reveals the conclusions and recommendations.

Study area description

Kinnaur is a well-known tourist destination at high altitudes in the Himalayan region. It is situated in the northeastern part of Himachal Pradesh near the Indo-China border with 6401 sq. km (Fig.  1 ). With an average of 1,11,393 tourist arrivals per year from 1990 to 2020, Kinnaur gives huge exposure to tourism worldwide. The study area offers an extensive range of products, i.e., natural attractions, hiking, skiing, bungee jumping, rock climbing, mountain biking, paragliding, etc., that attract mass tourism. For the present research, three major tourist destinations, Chitkul, Kalpa, and Nako, have been selected. Spread on both sides of the Great Himalaya range that traverses through the state, well-connected by an all-weather motorable National Highway-22, popularly known as Hindustan-Tibet Road. After the construction of NH-22 along the river, many new riverside villages Bhabanagar, Wangtu, Tapri, Powari have spilled over closer to the river. Besides, many traditional villages Spillo, Kanan, Poo, Maling, etc., have also extended downwards to the road edge. There are several places, namely, Nichar, Kothi, Ribba, Moorang, Sangla, Rakcham, Chitkul, Namgya, Pooh, Chango, Nako, Leo, and Lippa that attract lots of tourists.

Map of the study area

Database and methodology

The study requires the collection of a wide range of primary and secondary data to comprehensively examine. Adequate care has been taken to ensure that all the data meet the research objectives. The data have been collected from government organizations and downloaded from the official websites of different departments (Table 1 ). The primary data required for achieving the stated goal were collected from selected destinations of Chitkul, Kalpa, and Nako in the Kinnaur district through a well-structured questionnaire. To analyze the road condition of different travel routes in Kinnaur, GARMIN hand GPS was used to point out the damaged road from its start to end portions. Data about bus services have been recorded from the schedule chart available at the Reckong-Peo bus stand, while a focused group discussion (FGD) was accomplished with employees of fuel stations.

Secondary data and their sources

Sample procedure

A simple random sampling method was applied to collect data from the tourists. A total of 280 samples were collected over the two weeks in June 2016. About 80 tourist samples have been collected from three selected tourist destinations. Moreover, 40 additional samples have been collected from Reckong-Peo, the new district headquarters of Kinnaur (about 13 km. from Kalpa), which is the center of whole tourism activities. In Nako and Chitkul, only 10 to 30 tourists visited per day during the survey period. In addition, there is only one daily bus service between headquarters and some destinations like Nako in Kinnaur and Kaza in Lahaul and Spiti. Therefore, collecting such a large number of samples had consumed a lot of time, and a further increase in samples was not possible because the next month was July, which falls in the rainy monsoon season. There is a sharp decline in travelers during the rainy season because of frequent landslides and shooting stones. The emphasis has always been on collecting representative samples for good research results. Hence, 280 interviews of tourists were conducted in 2016 during the peak tourist month, June, before the rainy period to avoid extreme weather conditions and incidences of landslides. It remains cut off from the rest of the country during the winter season due to climate constraints and poor transportation infrastructure.

Survey instrument

A questionnaire is the most commonly used instrument to gather survey data. The questionnaire is comprised of three sections. The first section was structured to characterize a tourist’s gender, age, education level, occupation, place of residence, etc. The second section includes questions related to the visitor’s journey to the destination. The last section is concerned with respondents’ perceptions about the destination (Questionnaire attached in appendix). Tourist perceptions were recorded on a five-point Likert scale, from score 1 (negative) to score 5 (positive).

Data analysis

In a comparative analysis, the quality of particular characteristics allows us to compare that with others. After reviewing the literature, the tourism infrastructure has been classified into four broad categories. The study focused on accessibility and transport services that are major physical infrastructure components. Table 2  shows the types of facilities characterized by the author that fit in the study area. In the context of road conditions of major travel routes, the Global Positioning System (GPS) was used to determine the coordinates of road conditions. The road conditions have been classified as:

• Good condition—road with a good surface layer or without damage
• Partially damaged road—road having upper layer washed out or under maintenance
• Fully damaged road—a road that completely or mostly washed away

Types of facilities characterized by the author

The Google earth image was digitized through the ArcGIS 10.4 software for the mapping. Besides, a traffic flow diagram was prepared for understanding the routes from and to the destination. In addition, skewness and kurtosis have been examined to measure the data symmetry. If the distribution is close to 0 value, it is probably close to normal. The correlation coefficient has been calculated to identify any relationship between the destinations. After that, the ANOVA test and Tukey test were conducted to examine the differences in tourist perceptions as well as to compare all the possible pairs of means at the statistical significance level of 0.05 (Haralambopoulos & Pizam, 1996 ; Tosun, 2002 ; Singla, 2014 ; Hritz & Ross, 2010 ; Turker and Ozturk, 2013 ; Karnchanan, 2011 and Brida et al., 2012 ). Lastly, a radar diagram has been used for the graphical representation of differences between items at the selected destinations.

Results and discussion

Tourist profile.

The socio-demographic variables include individual and personal characteristics such as nationality, gender, age, religion, marital status, education level, language known, and occupation. Researchers have identified the differences in the perception depending on these variables (Beerli and Mart, 2004 ; Baloglu & McCleary, 1999 ). These characteristics influence tourists’ attitudes toward tourism development (Harrill, 2004 ). The ratio between male and female tourists was 73.50 to 26.50. The share of international tourists was about 26 percent coming from 19 countries. The majority of the tourists were aged 21 to 40 years, whereas those aged less than 15 or older than 60 were insignificant, suggesting that the harsh terrain conditions are challenging to some age groups and females. The analysis reveals that the largest proportion (65.3 percent) of tourists were Hindu, followed by Jewish (11.8 percent), Sikhs, Christians, and Buddhists. Approximately 60 percent of tourists completed graduation and university degrees. About half of the tourists were married. Tourists engaged in their own business (36.0 percent) constituted the largest share, followed by students (24.9 percent). Most of the tourists were comfortable speaking Hindi and/or English; however, many were well versed in multiple languages (Table ​ (Table3 3 ).

Demographic profile of surveyed tourist’s ( N  =  280 ) Source: Field survey, 2016

Seasonality in tourism

The seasonal pattern of tourist arrivals has been detected in two peak seasons in Kinnaur, which are ‘May–June’ and ‘September–October’ (Fig.  2 ). The May–June season is the most favorable tourist season in Kinnaur and entire hilly areas due to the scorching summer season added by the vacation period in surrounding plain areas. While September–October months are considered as mini peak season in Kinnaur. Though upper Kinnaur is a cold desert area, heavy rainfall occurred during the month of July–August in lower Kinnaur. Besides, the winter months (December, January, February, and March) are marked as lean months due to extremely low temperatures and heavy snowfall in Kinnaur. Both climatic phenomena trigger landslides and worked as constraints in the development of tourism in the study area. There is a need to develop good road infrastructure like in Europe and Russia that minimize the impact of natural constraints at high altitudes.

Seasonal index of tourist arrivals in Kinnaur, 1991–2020

Accessibility to the Kinnaur

There are no direct rail services to Kinnaur, and the nearest railway station is at Shimla. It is a narrow-gauge railway line (Kalka–Shimla railway line distance of 96 km.) and is around 226 km. from Kinnaur (Fig.  3 ). It is one of the UNESCO world heritage sites.

Major travel routes to Kinnaur

Similarly, there is no direct flight to Kinnaur from any airport like rail networks. The nearest airport at Shimla is around 226 km. from Reckong-Peo, the district headquarter. Shimla airport is also connected to Delhi and Kullu, which provides air accessibility to the destination. Moreover, 11 helipads have been constructed in Kinnaur for strategic reasons and natural disaster rescue operations (Himachal Pradesh State Disaster Management Authority, 2018 ). In the context of selected destinations, Nako and Reckong-Peo, ITBP has helipads that can be used by Indian defense forces for tourists in adverse situations (Fig.  3 ).

Road transport is a major mode of access to Kinnaur through which tourists can reach the destination directly. Also, most tourists preferred road mode to explore the Himalayas, which makes them understand the geomorphology and geology of the Himalayas more closely and instills self-confidence and energy. Moreover, the Trans-Himalayan rough terrain acts as a barrier to constructing railway lines and developing airports. The frequent trip circle used by tourists is Chandigarh–Shimla–Narkanda–Reckong-Peo–Kalpa–Nako–Kaza–Rohtang–Manali–Chandigarh, mainly covered by NH-21 and NH-22. Some of the tourists preferred Shimla–Narkanda–Reckong-Peo–Kalpa–Nako–Kaza–Rohtang Pass–Keylong–Leh Ladakh and the back trip circle. The major route to reach the destination is NH-22 which directly connects it with Shimla (state capital), Chandigarh (state capital of both Haryana and Punjab), and Delhi (national capital).

National highway -22

The National Highway -22 is an important route for socio-economic sectors, trade and travel, defense, and tourism. The route is the lifeline of Solan, Shimla, and Kinnaur districts connecting the new townships Reckong-Peo, Bhavanagar, Jhakri, and Jari. The old recognize towns are Theog, Narkanda, Ani, Nirmand, Rampur, Pooh, and Tapri on this route. This route is known as the ‘Hindustan-Tibet road,’ or ‘Silk route’ that starts from Ambala (Haryana) to Kaurik (Indo-Tibet border) and represents its strategic importance. The route also provides direct connectivity to Shimla, Chandigarh, and the national capital Delhi through National Highway-1 (now re-designated as NH-44). The road was featured on the ‘History Channel’ as one of the “Deadliest Roads” in the world ( https://www.financialexpress.com/auto/car-news/5-most-dangerous-roads-in-india-think-twice-before-taking-these-routes/1539265/ ). On this route, a police post has been put at Sumdo where foreigners have to submit their permits to enter the protected area of Kinnaur.

Other route connectivity with National Highway

Apart from National Highway-22, other state highways and national highways that connect Kinnaur to other states or destinations play an important role in the accessibility to Kinnaur (Table 4 ). The NH-20 provides a comfortable journey for tourists coming from northern Punjab, and its connection with NH-21 moves tourists to Kinnaur from the side of Lahaul and Spiti. Similarly, NH-70 connects it to Punjab state. Mandi district is the joining point of NH-20, NH-70, and NH-21, providing a way to the destination from the Lahaul and Spiti route. Moreover, NH-72 connects Kinnaur with Uttrakhand and Haryana state that joins NH-22 to reach the destination ( Fig.  3 ) . A connection between Kalpa–Reckong Peo–Powari will be provided through NH-5, a newly constructed national highway in Kinnaur.

Major national highways in Himachal Pradesh as on 09.09.2019.

Source: http://hppwd.hp.gov.in/sites/default/files/NH%20Length%209-9-2019.pdf

NHAI : National Highway Authority of India

Other route connectivity with state highway

One of the most traveled routes selected by bikers is Reckong-Peo-Nako-Kaza-Keylong-Leh-Ladakh. The Leh–Keylong highway, which is part of the Leh–Manali highway, connects Jammu and Kashmir with Himachal Pradesh and Kinnaur. It is the major road selected by tourists who come from the side of Jammu and Kashmir. Also, this route has significance for tourists who visit Leh–Ladakh via Kinnaur (Fig.  3 ).

Accessibility within the Kinnaur

The major mode of transport within Kinnaur is a road, and NH-22 is the district’s lifeline. Although it connects the major villages or tourist destinations, it is not maintained adequately and needs to develop the travel route infrastructure of high quality to link tourist spots. The total length of the road, including national highways, was 1134 km. in the year 2018–19. Most of the roads mounted in the district are motorable with a single lane (839 km.). Length of about 45 Kilometers of the motorable road is a double lane that provides comfortable and safe driving in the district. However, due to the tough terrain in a high mountain area, it does not have any motorable four-lane road. (Fig.  4 ).

Road length with conditions in Kinnaur, 2018–19. Note: Road length includes NH and border roads Source: Public Works Department, H.P

Table ​ Table5 statistics 5  statistics represent the total metalled and un-metalled road length in Kinnaur. The roads in the district are under the Public Works Department for construction and maintenance. However, beyond Pooh Tehsil toward the Tibet border, the work of maintenance is regularly done by BRO (Border Road Organization) due to its strategic importance. The destination has an international border with Tibet and China; thus, the location is important for the country. The development of roads is very poor as of December 2020, though it has improved a lot compared to earlier conditions. The result of derived information indicates that the density of the road per 100 sq. km. is very low due to its tough terrain, low density of population, and political apathy. The density of metalled roads is 8.42 km per 100 km2 which is the lowest among all the districts except Lahaul and Spiti (4.97 km. per 100 km2) and far less than the state average (51.92 km. per 100 km2). The destination is located in a cold desert condition where life is too difficult, and due to that situation, the district is very sparsely populated. The area is under the tribal region of the state. Thus, the road density per 1000 persons is much better than the rest of the state of Himachal Pradesh. The climate of high-altitude destinations has many effects on tourist arrivals. The density of un-metalled roads which constitutes 35% of the total road length, per 100 km2 and per1000 persons was 4.50 and 3.42, respectively. Therefore, the seasonality in transport is a challenge for planners because the road is open for transportation during the summers (April to June) and autumn months of September–October. The destinations are not easily accessible for tourists during rainy and winter seasons due to poor maintenance of major and rural roads and highly inadequate resources such as snow removing machines with the PWD and BRO. No doubt, NH-22 provides good connectivity, but it also lacks a desirable level of maintenance, especially in geological weaker sections near Karcham and Powari of Kinnaur district, where landslides and shooting stone is a perennial problem during snowfall and rainfall. These two points are serious threats to tourism as many causalities have happened here in the recent past, which has jolted the confidence of prospective travelers.

Metalled and un-metalled road density as on 31.10.2020

Area of Kinnaur 6401 sq. km. and Himachal Pradesh 55,673 sq. km

Population of Kinnaur 84,121 persons and Himachal Pradesh 6,864,502 persons (Census, 2011)

Source: http://hppwd.hp.gov.in/district-wise-metalled-and-unmetalled-road-density

Public Works Department, H.P

Road condition of major travel route: NH-22

As discussed, NH-22 is the Kinnaur district’s lifeline and the major route that connects Kinnaur with major centers such as Shimla, Chandigarh, and Delhi. The road is four-lane up to Kalka, and further, the construction by NHAI (National Highway Authority, India) is in progress to convert it into a four-lane till Shimla, the capital of the state. Kalka-Solan’s four-lane section has been operationalized, and work is in progress between Solan and Shimla. The expansion of roads would also provide easy accessibility to tourist destinations and increase the bear of vehicles. Moreover, such types of transport deliver a comfortable drive and escape from road accidents. The authors, through field visits, examined that the bad condition of NH-22 starts from Narkanda. About 24.15 km of the road is partially damaged between Narkanda to Jeori (Kinnaur’s entry point). The surveying team has identified 11 big damaged patches in Kinnaur. Thus, the road is not only partially or fully damaged, but also the length of each patch is more than 3 km. which would be problematic and unsafe for travelers in such topography. In Kinnaur, around 43.45 percent of the total road length is not in good condition. The total length surveyed through field visits is 262.1 km. out of which 113.92 km of road length is damaged (Table ​ (Table6). 6 ). The government should take stringent steps to check and ensure that it is well maintained by entrusted agencies, the PWD, and BRO because the road is significant for travel and strategically important. (Fig.  5 ).

Road condition of major travel routes in Kinnaur Source : Area examined by the author through GPS, 2016

Length wise road condition of major travel routes in Kinnaur.

Source: Area examined by the author through GPS, 2016

Figure  6 shows the major travel routes and their condition in terms of good, partially damaged and fully damaged. Undoubtedly, the vulnerable physiography and hazard susceptibility produce challenges for road construction and its maintenance in highland areas of the state. It is also the main cause of low road density and damaged roads. According to the Geological Survey of India (GSI), the state is broadly divided into 5 physiographic zones—Alluvial plain, Shivalik foothills, Lesser Himalayas, Central, and Trans Himalayas. National Highway-22 passes through four physiographic zones except for Trans Himalayas; in the alluvial plain and Shivalik foothills, roads construction and maintenance are easy, but it becomes harder as altitude increases. Further, NH-22 becomes narrow from the point it enters in lesser and central Himalayas. Tough terrain and snowfall damage the roads frequently. On the route to Reckong-Peo, Jeori to Wangtu, a 12.41 km road was partially damaged.

Condition of major travel routes in Kinnaur

Further, the road was fully damaged with a longer patch of 17.99 km. length between Wangtu to Karcham, the single longest poorly maintained patch in Kinnaur. The road was also not good from Karcham to Reckong-Peo; it had just 9.56 km. in good condition out of the total length of 23 km. The condition of a 20 km road between Sangla to Chitkul was also not good, and it was partially damaged. These parts were damaged either by landslide activities or due to blasting for the construction of hydropower tunnels. Landslides are the main natural hazard faced by Kinnaur, and from 1971 to 2009, the number of such events was 123, constituting 13.38 percent of the total landslides events in Himachal Pradesh (Kahlon et al., 2014 ). The Kalka–Shimla–Kinnaur highway is one of the most vulnerable stretches. Kinnaur has the highest landslide events after Shimla and Solan, with several landslide casualties (Bilham, 2004 ; Chandel, 2015 ; Chandra, 1992 ). The Parwanoo–Solan–Shimla section of NH-22 falls under ‘Zone-A’, which is tectonically active, characterized by steep slopes, high relief, and very immature topography (Sharma & Kumar, 2008 ). The structure of rocks in Kinnaur is the Granitoids group (Granite rocks) which is highly jointed. The rocks have been disintegrated into small or large blocks by the freeze and thaw process of weathering. The Hindustan-Tibet road between Rampur to Khab (Zone-C) traverses through sparsely vegetated steep slopes consisting of highly jointed and weathered rocks belonging to the Wangtu Gneissic Complex, the Vaikrita Group, and the Haimanta Group (Gupta & Shah, 2008 ; Sharma, 1977 ; Tewari et al., 1978 ). Besides the range of lithology, this area has glacial, glacio-fluvial, fluvial, and paleo-slide material of Quaternary origin (Kahlon et al., 2014 ) and several faults such as Karcham and Vaikrita thrusts. Landslide activity in this area results from the weak structure and steep slopes. A Granitoids tectonically occurring as a window have been identified near the Jeori to Wangtu plausible cause of the landslide. Furthermore, hydropower projects are also found as another major cause of NH-22 destruction. NH-22 is buildup along the Satluj River, and there are 9 big hydel projects of more than 7500 MW running in the basin of this river from Khab to Bhakra. The river passes from tunnels for power generation, which caused major two-way impacts on the basin: change in the shape of the river and loosening of the rock strata. There are 13 small and big hydropower plants working in the Kinnaur, and most of them are along the NH-22 on the Sutlej River (Fig.  7 ). Considering the size of the area, it is a quite big number of power plants, and it has been observed during the field visit that the construction process of hydropower projects and tunnels greatly harms the roads. The road from Jeori to Powari, in particular, faces serious issues regarding road conditions created by construction activities. There are two major power projects of Himachal Pradesh working over this damaged patch; Nathpa-Jhakri HEP (1500 MW) and Karcham-Wangtu HEP (1000 MW). A huge landslide near Urni (Fig.  8 ) village was the result of the Karcham-Wangtu project. The rocks near this place were found sliding intermittently for more than 2 years. This landslide has blocked the straight path of 3 km to cross the Karcham-Wangtu project area but was diverted via Urni hill and lengthened to near about 14 km. According to Gupta and Shah ( 2008 ), the increased frequency of landslides is attributed to a shift in climatic pattern and escalating anthropogenic activity, as evident from the growing population, increased road length, and alteration in land use. The road condition between Karcham–Sangla–Chitkul was quite better than Jeori–Karcham. Out of the total stretch of 43 km., about 4.60 km. length of the road was fully damaged, while 21.71 km. was found partially damaged. Chitkul is the last village toward Tibet, and it is the main attraction for tourists. The road is also used by ITBP (India-Tibet Border Police) to reach the Hindustan-Tibet border, but tourists are restricted to Chitkul village. The weathering process has disjointed rocks since the area receives heavy snowfall during the winter season. Large boulders of rocks can be seen on both sides of the road. Highly fractured landscapes offer good tourism products, especially to earth scientists. On the route to Kalpa–ReckongPeo–Powari, the condition of the road was very good due to the construction of a new highway named 505-A, which is a junction with NH-5 at Powari. On the way to Nako–Sumdo, a stretch between Jhakri and Spillow was announced on a 24/7 landslide alert. Furthermore, the damaged patch of around 6.47 km. Nako to Malling was also on landslide alert for more than a year. Landslide in the Malling area (Zone-D) results from highly jointed, fractured, and weathered schist and high water discharge due to snowmelt during summer and alteration of slopes for transport networks (Kahlon et al., 2014 ).

Hydropower projects in Kinnaur.

Source: Field survey, 2016

Landslides on NH-22 (Urni-left side, Malling- right side).

Transport services

The major component of tourist activity must necessarily be an element of transportation. There is a requirement of quick, comfortable, safe and fairly cheap transport facilities at the suitability of tourists. In the hilly areas, buses are the preferred budget mode of transportation to and within destinations. It is considered a lifeline in Kinnaur, where other transportations means are negligible. According to the Registration and Licensing Authorities of Himachal Pradesh, 1136 vehicles were registered in 2018–19.

Figure  9  demonstrates the major route of bus services from Reckong-Peo, the district headquarters, to tourist destinations. The highest bus services operate between Reckong-Peo to Kalpa, a major tourist destination in Kinnaur. It is also the former headquarter of the district that attracts many tourists every year. On the route of Sangla–Chitkul, the ‘last village toward Tibet’, the service is not good, and only 2 buses run directly to Chitkul. Likewise, there are just 2 buses that ply between Nako and district headquarters, Reckong-Peo; one of those goes beyond Nako up to Kaza. To enter the Nako, foreign tourists need an Inner-Line Permit (ILP) from the police check post located at village Poo. Tourists can apply it online and use offline options (SDM office, Reckong-Peo) for the permits. The bus services to Shimla and Chandigarh provide good connectivity, and their number is higher on these routes. However, beyond Shimla toward Reckong-Peo, bus frequency declined significantly. Only 1 bus runs between Reckong-Peo and Delhi, the national capital. One bus connects it with Haridwar, the religious place of Hindus. Although a sharp increase can be observed in the number of personal and hired vehicles, still there is a need for more public transport modes, especially buses because the destination has very rough topography and at such terrain, everyone could not drive safely. Therefore, a lot of accidents have been noticed. Even HRTC also encountered major accidents sometimes. Therefore, improvement of road condition is necessary with proper signboards and deployment of JCB machines, etc., as a precautionary step in landslide zones to escape the mishaps and make road plying worthy 24 × 7. Strengthening public transport also becomes necessary since many prospective visitors may not afford to travel by personnel vehicle or taxi.

Major routes of bus services from and to Kinnaur.

Source: Based on data given by HPRTC, 2016

Mode of travel chosen by tourists

Figure  10  shows that many domestic tourists have used their personnel car/taxi to reach Kinnaur (54.59 percent). The destination offers an ultimate experience of driving, and many national tourists reach in groups here to enjoy the drive-in Himalayan landscape. Besides, mostly foreigners preferred public transport, i.e., buses. Many foreign visitors are from Israel, and they aim to spend minimum currency on travel; hence, they prefer public transport. Tourists from Australia, Russia, and Germany preferred bikes (26.03 percent). They came in groups and enjoyed biking through one of the ‘deadliest roads of the world’. There are a lot of opportunities for adventure tourism in Kinnaur, and the response of foreign tourists is more positive than domestic tourists.

Mode of transport used by tourists to visit Kinnaur.

Fuel station

The modern world runs on wheels; therefore, to develop the tourism industry, there is a need for the good availability of fuel stations. At such tourist destinations, the importance is more significant where sites are so remote. Bikers carry extra fuel in cans or other containers in the study area because filling stations are few and far. In 2018–19, 6 outlets were available; 4 were run by Indian Oil Corporation (IOC) and 2 by Hindustan Petroleum Corporation ( https://himachalservices.nic.in/economics/pdf/StatisticalAbstract_2018_19.pdf ). Most tourists fill the fuel tank of their vehicles at Tapri fuel station because the next filling station is 227 Kilometers away at Kaza on this route. Besides, the district headquarter, Reckong-Peo, has many options. Hence, there is a need to increase the number of fuel outlets. This is one area where urgent improvement is needed for the sustainable growth of tourism. Poo, Nako, and Sangla would be appropriate locations for additional development of filling stations.

Descriptive analysis

Skewness and kurtosis values of items were examined to assess the normality of data distribution. According to the criteria of Chou and Bentler ( 1995 ), the items with skewness and kurtosis greater than 3.0 point would be considered extreme. The skewness and the kurtosis statistics are 0.699 and − 1.265, respectively, which shows that there are no items that fell outside the ranges, implying that all the study items are reasonably free from skewness and kurtosis (Table ​ (Table7 7 ).

Descriptive statistics for transport facilities items

Responses were based on a five-point Likert scale

Tourist’s perception of transport facilities

Many renowned tourist destinations face pollution problems worldwide, and it is challenging to manage them. Moreover, people who live in metro cities explore such destinations which are free from pollution. Further, in the context of the study area, which is free from those kinds of problems (pollution and huge crowd) and offers a serene environment is also reflected in tourists’ agreement which has been positively favorable in concerns to ‘air pollution’ (Mean = 4.19) and ‘noise pollution’ (Mean = 4.05). Considering the observation of tourists, the mean values of items such as ‘road network and linkages’ (Mean = 2.44), ‘auto-mechanic facility’ (Mean = 2.58), ‘filling station’ (Mean = 2.73), and availability of public parking spaces (Mean = 2.99) indicate their poor status ( Table ​ Table8, 8 , Fig.  11 ). Also, tourists were satisfied with the work of BRO (Border Road Organization), acknowledging their good efforts in the tough terrain located in the high Himalayas. Also, tourists suggested that there should be more road signs at destinations, especially in English. Techniques should be improved, and high-tech machines should be used to clear the blockage of roads during snowfall or landslides as traveling through these roads takes a lot of time and usually creates  jams.

Tourist’s perception about transport facilities

Responses were based on a five-point Likert scale, 2016

Difference in tourist’s perception by destinations.

Source: Responses were based on a five-point Likert scale, 2016

Correlation between tourist’s perception by destination

Pearson correlation has been calculated to find out any relation between the destinations. The absolute value of correlation describes the magnitude of the correlation; the greater the value, the stronger the correlation. The correlation coefficients of the selected destinations are found to be very strong. The correlation between the destinations of Kalpa and Nako is 0.787 due to their diverse landscape (Table 9 ). Kalpa is placed among apple orchards and pine greenery at the base of the Kinner Kailash Mountain. The road setup is pretty good compared with other destinations. Whereas, Nako is situated in the cold desert near the Indo-China border in the Trans-Himalayan region. The road mostly remains broken or damaged due to the mountain’s poor structure. It is very difficult to construct a good road network on such terrain; however, the maintenance of the road is lookout by the Border Road Organization (BRO) timely.

Correlation in tourist’s perception by destinations

*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)

**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

The difference in tourist’s perception by destination

An analysis of variance (ANOVA) at a significance level of 0.05 has been used to determine the statistically significant differences between selected destinations such as Chitkul, Kalpa, and Nako. The selected destinations are located nearby river banks, i.e., Nako (Spiti River), Kalpa (Sutlej River), and Chitkul (Baspa River), and have almost similar terrain. The significant value ( P value = 0.487) is above the significance level of 0.05, implying that no significant difference has been found in tourist perceptions among the items of transport facilities (Table ​ (Table10 10 ).

Differences in tourist’s perception toward transport facilities (ANOVA)

*Significant at the level of 0.05 level

Tukey test, also called Tukey’s Honest Significant Difference Test, was applied to the tourist’s perception of transport facilities. Tukey test is the preferred test for conducting post hoc tests on a one-way ANOVA. This test compares all the possible pairs of means. From the results of ANOVA, no significant difference has been found in tourist perceptions among the items of transport facilities. Table 11  shows the differences, if any, among different groups. No statistically significant difference has been found between the destinations. However, the results suggest that the tourists who visited Kalpa ( P value = 0.460) perceived significantly higher agreements in selected destinations. The possible reason may be that Kalpa is the major destination and former district headquarters and has many facilities to fulfill the needs of travelers. It is the center of all tourism activities that extend services to the whole of Kinnaur.

Differences in tourist’s perception by destinations (Tukey HSD)

* Mean difference is significant at the level of 0.05 level

Research acknowledges the need for robust transport infrastructure in a successful strategy for developing tourism. The role of transport in tourism development has been analyzed by explaining both exogenous and endogenous parameters of the system. Transport has much strategic importance due to its specific location, i.e., cold desert and the international border with Tibet. The government of Himachal Pradesh needs to make all-weather roads with appropriate maintenance. The roads are narrow at certain locations and need to widen, preferably two or more lanes. However, the physiography of the high altitude and fractured rocks due to weathering and human-induced factors creates many problems that make the connectivity paralyzed during the rainy and winter season. On the positive side, the Government of Himachal Pradesh has pushed for green transportation to conserve the serene environment of the cold desert destinations. More recently, an attempt has been made to shift public transportation from hydrocarbon fuel to electric buses or taxies on experimental bases. Himachal Roads Transport Corporation (HRTC) recently launched an electric bus service on the Mandi Kullu–Manali and Rohtang Pass routes, and the results are quite positive. It was the first hill state in the country that run electric buses in the country ( https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/shimla/himachal-pradesh-first-hill-state-in-country-to-run-electric-buses/articleshow/60787007.cms ). The encouraging results may push for electric vehicles in a couple of years in both public, and private sector provided re-charging infrastructure is strengthened to an appropriate level. Transport connectivity has affected various systems of the cold desert, not only tourism but also health, education, commerce, and trade. Besides, the total number of international tourist arrivals declined almost 83 percent in 2020 compared with the previous year (UNWTO, 2021 ). Coronavirus effects have shattered the tourism economy of the study area. During the pandemic, the hotel association of Kinnaur announced to close its doors to tourists, while the majority of the population engaged in the tourism industry for their livelihood. Because of the fears of the third wave, tourists are not expected to venture out for the hills anytime soon. However, taking advantage of the absence of tourist vehicles, the road infrastructure has been strengthened but needs to do more. It would significantly increase the tourist inflow and economic development at high-altitude destinations of the study area shortly if good road transport infrastructure is put in place.

Recommendations

• There is a need for proper signboards and reflectors on roadsides showing the way forward of roads to major destinations with proper marking and important information about the place at a regular distance.
• The administration could install boulder binding/catching nets along the hill slopes for those sites which frequently face landslides. The major portion of Jeori–Karcham–Wangtoo–Reckong-Peo road has been found fully damaged, which could be bound by slope infilling and earth embankment along the hill slopes.
• Boulder gathering trenches are used as the static method to reduce the impact of rock falls. The patches between Sangla-Chitkul and near Powari and Malling are affected by rockfalls; accordingly, boulder gathering trenches are efficient in absorbing the kinetic energy of falling rocks, which could be applied to those areas.
• To maintain the road in a highly jointed, fractured, and weathered schist, with high water discharge due to snowmelt during summer (landslide in the Malling area), NHAI can install the prefabricated channels by converting the water flow from cracks to the surface flow. Prefabricated channels not only slow down the process of crack expansion, but it is also helpful to fulfill the need for fresh water for travelers and residents.
• The hydropower projects are also one of the major causes of NH-22 destruction due to blasting during the tunneling process and instilling the rocks leading to rockslides or landslides. The authorities ignored the maintenance of roads destructed by rockfalls caused by the tunneling process. Therefore, NHAI should penalize the builders involved in tunneling for their lack of maintenance around the tunnels.
• To maintain the road for the future, the authorities can use reinforcement measures to overcome the block disintegration in this area. They should use controlled demolition during the tunneling process. The reinforcement measures include joining loose rocks with metal rock nails and anchors. This method can easily control further rock disintegration in the affected area. The concrete insertion also includes reinforcement measures for giving support to the rocks.
• The destination has a highly inadequate frequency of public transport vehicles from Shimla, Chandigarh, and Delhi. Due to rough topography, everyone could not drive safely on such terrain; therefore, more public transport vehicles like mini busses are needed. Moreover, there is a need to promote eco-friendly means of transportation and accessibility to all the tourist destinations, such as electric vehicles; electric charging points can be easily developed in the area by using abundantly available solar and hydro energy.
• There is a lot of demand for bikes and bicycles for rent, encouraging local youths to start providing this facility at prominent destinations; the government should act as a facilitator by arranging low-interest rate loans.
• Tourists traveling through private vehicles felt concerned about the absence of an adequate number of fuel stations and mechanics. Additional fuel stations should be developed at Powari and Nako to fulfill travelers’ needs.

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What is the relationship between transport and tourism?

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One thing that many people in the travel industry may not realise is the important and vital relationship between transport and tourism. This is something that I teach to my tourism students each year as part of their tourism management degree and it is the relationship between transport and tourism which forms the basis of the tourism industry. 

Without transport, the tourism sector would not be able to exist. Therefore, transport is a fundamental part of the tourism industry.

The relationship between transport and tourism

Image source: Unsplash

As seen in the dictionary, the definition of transport is to “take or carry (people or goods) from one place to another by means of a vehicle, aircraft, or ship.” Also found in the dictionary is the definition of tourism which is “the commercial organisation and operation of vacations and visits to places of interest.

Transport is a hugely complex activity, impacting on every one of us in our daily lives. In a sense, we are all transport stakeholders-we all have an involvement with the transport industry in some way or another. Whether it means travelling to your job every day or flying to your holiday spot, transportation is essential to each of us in many different ways.

To help understand this relationship further there are a couple of core texts that I would recommend for any student studying travel and tourism or person who is interested in learning more about the relationship between transport and tourism.  Transport and Tourism: Global Perspectives by Steven Page is my favourite book in this area as it is the leading, authoritative text providing a much-needed synthesis of the key, contemporary issues occurring at the intersection of transport and tourism. I also recommend  Tourism, Transport and Travel Management by M.R Dileep , which analyses the structure, functions, activities, strategies and practices of each of the sectors in the travel industry, such as airlines, airports, tour operators, travel agencies and cruises. 

Transport within the tourism industry

The key task for the tourism sector is to comprehend and present the vital importance of adequate transport links to destinations – recognising the appropriate modes of travel for the different types of journeys – and to advocate a proper understanding of those links and the value that they have to local economies among the transport policy and planning community.

A better understanding of the tourism sector must be built with those public bodies (government, local authorities and relevant agencies) responsible for transport policy and planning, and for maintaining and developing transport infrastructure. This is imperative to ensure sustainable tourism management. 

Likewise, the tourism sector must understand how the transport sector operates and to what extent it is able to influence decisions and planning. This can become rather complex when you take into consideration different transport infrastructures , rules and regulations across different geographical contexts. Some countries, for example, will rely heavily on train infrastructure, others may be reachable only by boat and some may require private charter transport for tourists to get around. 

The impacts of transport on tourism

Compared to some of our European competitors such as Switzerland , England has a lack of transport integration and this is compounded by deregulated service provision in areas outside London. This can cause problems for local attractions, accommodations and such like… because if a tourist cannot reach a destination then it I likely to thrive from tourism! 

This is an issue that has been demonstrated time and time again with regards to air transport. Many budget airlines have started up new routes where they fly into destinations that had previously had little business from tourism. This encourages the growth of tourism in the area and it is common for new businesses to open up and to be successful. Should the airline feel that said route, however, is no longer profitable, they will simply remove the route from their operations. This has been known to decimate the tourism industry of an area, which can have devastating impacts on the local economy and livelihoods of local people. 

This is an area where destination organisations can take a lead by ensuring transport is integrated into destination management planning. More can also be done to ensure that individual attractions and organisations that operate a number of sites develop travel plans and provide options to reach them by public transport.

Tourism helps support transport services and infrastructure across the country. Without tourism many areas of England would be likely to lose many of the public transport services that are currently provided and benefit residents as well as visitors.

Benefits particularly apply to remote communities with low population thresholds and in rural areas throughout the country. However, even in popular destinations such as seaside resorts or in the densely populated South East, the transport infrastructure that serves visitors provides benefits to local residents as well.

All in all, it is important to understand the relationship between transport and tourism and the benefits that tourism brings to the economy. One cannot be successful without the other!

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The Geography of Transport Systems

The spatial organization of transportation and mobility

B.7 – Tourism and Transport

Author: dr. jean-paul rodrigue.

Tourism, as an economic activity, relies on transportation to bring tourists to destinations, and transportation can be part of the touristic experience.

1. The Emergence of the Tourism Industry

Since the 1970s where tourism became increasingly affordable, the number of international tourists has more than doubled . The expansion of international tourism has a large impact on the discipline of transport geography since it links traffic generation, interactions at different scales (from the local to the global), and the related transportation modes and terminals. As of 2016, 1.2 billion international tourist receipts were accounted for, representing more than 10% of the global population. The industry is also a large employer accounting for 10% of all the global employment; 30 tourist visits are usually associated with one job. 30% of the global trade of services is accounted for by tourism. Tourism dominantly takes place in Europe and North America , but geographical diversification is taking place.

Traveling has always been an important feature, but its function has substantially evolved. Historically, travelers were explorers and merchants looking to learn about regions, potential markets and to find goods and resources. The risks and exoticism associated also attracted the elite that could afford the large expenses and the time required to travel to other remote destinations. Many wrote realistic and even imaginary travel accounts. As time moved on and as transportation became more reliable, traveling became a more mundane activity taking place in an organized environment; tourism. In the modern world, traveling is more centered around annual holidays and can be reasonably well predicted.

As an economic activity, tourism is characterized by a high demand level of elasticity. As transport costs are significant for international transportation, cost fluctuations strongly influence demand. Therefore, transport is a key element in the tourism industry. The demand in international and even national transport infrastructures implies a large number of people to be transported in an efficient, fast, and inexpensive manner. It requires heavy investments and complex organization. Well-organized terminals and planned schedules are essential in promoting adequate transportation facilities for tourists, notably since the industry is growing at a fast rate.

Transport is the cause and the effect of the growth of tourism. First, the improved facilities have incited tourism , and the expansion of tourism has prompted the development of transport infrastructure. Accessibility is the main function behind the basics of tourism transport. In order to access sought-after destinations, tourists have a range of transportation modes that are often used in a sequence. Air transport is the primary mode for international tourism, which usually entails travel over long distances. Growth rates of international air traffic are pegged to growth rates of international tourism.

Transport policies and national regulations can influence destinations available to tourists. One dimension concerns the openness to tourism through travel visa restrictions , which vary substantially depending on the countries of origin of tourists. Unsurprisingly, travelers from developed countries, particularly Europe, face the least restrictions, while travelers from developing countries face a much more stringent array of restrictions. Another dimension concerns the provision of infrastructure. If the public sector does not cope with the demand in terms of transport infrastructures, the tourist industry might be impaired in its development. However, land transport networks in various countries are designed to meet the needs of commercial movements that tourism requires.

Tourism usually contributes enough to the local economy that governments are more than willing to improve road networks or airport facilities, especially in locations with limited economic opportunities other than tourism. There are, however, significant differences in the amount of spending per type of mode, namely between cruise and air transport tourism. Cruise shipping tourism provides much less revenue than a tourist brought by air travel. A significant reason is that cruise lines are capturing as much tourism expenses within their ships as possible (food, beverages, entertainment, shopping) and have short port calls, often less than a day. Tourists arriving by air transport usually stay several days at the same location and use local amenities.

2. Means and Modes

Tourism uses all the standard transportation modes since travelers rely on existing passenger transport systems, from local transit systems to global air transportation.

• Car traveling is usually an independent transport conveyance where the traveler decides the route and the length of the trip. It is usually cheaper since road fees are not directly paid and provided as a public. It is the only transportation mode that does not require transfers, in the sense that the whole journey, from door to door can be achieved. Along major highway corridors, service activities such as restaurants, gas stations, and hotels have agglomerated to service the traffic, many of which touristic. Car transport is the dominant mode in world tourism (77% of all journeys), notably because of advantages such as flexibility, price, and independence. Tourists will often rent cars to journey within their destinations, which has triggered an active clustering of car rental companies adjacent to main transport terminals (airports, train stations) and touristic venues.
• Coach traveling uses the same road network as cars. Coaches are well suited for local mass tourism but can be perceived as a nuisance if in too large numbers since they require a large amount of parking space. They can be used for short duration local tours (hours) but also can be set for multi-days journeys where the coach is the conveyance moving tourists from one resort to another.
• Rail travel was the dominant form of passenger transport before the age of the automobile. The railway network usually reflects more the commercial needs of the national economy then holiday tourist flows which can make it a less preferred choice as a traveling mode. The railway systems of several countries, notably in Europe, have seen massive investments for long-distance routes and high-speed services. Due to the scenery or the amenities provided, rail transportation can also be a tourist destination in itself. Several short rail lines that no longer had commercial potential have been converted for tourism.
• Air transport is by far the most effective transport mode. Notably because of prices, only 12.5% of the tourists travel by plane, but for international travel, this share is around 40%. Air transport has revolutionized the geographical aspect of distances; the most remote areas can now be reached any journey around the world can be measured in terms of hours of traveling. Business travelers are among the biggest users of airline facilities, but low-cost air carriers have attracted a significant market segment mainly used for tourism.
• Cruises are mainly providing short sea journeys of about a week. Cruising has become a significant tourist industry. Cruise ships act as floating resorts where guests can enjoy amenities and entertainment while being transported along a chain of port calls. The international market for cruising was about 22.2 million tourists in 2015, which involves an annual growth rate above 7% since 1990. The main cruise markets are the Caribbean and the Mediterranean, with Alaska and Northern Europe fjords also popular during the summer season. This industry is characterized by a high level of market concentration with a few companies, such as Carnival Corporation and Royal Caribbean Cruises who account for about 70% of the market. The impacts of cruising on the local economy are mitigated as the strategy of cruising companies is to retain as much income as possible. This implies that tourists spend most of their money on the cruise ship itself (gift shops, entertainment, casinos, bars, etc.) or on-island facilities owned by cruise shipping companies.

3. Mass Tourism and Mass Transportation

Tourism transport can be divided into two categories:

• Independent means of travel ; controlled by individual tourists who book them on their own. This mainly involves the private automobile, but also mass conveyances that are booked to travel on an individual basis such as regularly scheduled flights, rail connections, ferries, and even cruises.
• Mass travel ; where tourists travel in organized groups. The most common form involves chartered buses and flights used for this single purpose.

When tourism was mainly for the elite, independent means of travel prevailed. However, the emergence of mass tourism and the significant revenue it provides for local economies required the setting of mass transportation systems and specialized firms such as travel agencies organizing travel on behalf of their customers. These firms were able to take advantage of their pricing power being able to negotiate large volumes of passengers for carriers and hotels. Some were even able to become air carriers, such as Thomas Cook Airlines and Air Transat, which are major charterers in their respective markets. Paradoxically, the growth of online travel booking services has favored the re-emergence of independent means of travel since an individual is able to book complex travel services, including transport and hotel accommodations. Thus, the segmentation of the travel industry is linked with the segmentation of the supporting transport systems.

The seasonality of tourism has an important impact on the use and allocation of transportation assets.

• Air transport has a notable seasonality where tourism results in variations in demand, summer being the peak season. Because of this seasonality and the high cost of acquiring additional assets to accommodate peak demand, the airline industry has pricing power during peak touristic demand. This also leads the seasonal charter services to pick up the potential unmet demand. During the winter, charterers focus on subtropical destinations (e.g. Caribbean, Mexico), while during the summer there is more a focus on the European market.
• Cruises also have a seasonality where many cruise lines are repositionning their assets according to variations in the destination preferences. During winter months, the Caribbean is an important destination market, while during the summer, destinations like the Mediterranean, Alaska, and Norway are more prevalent.

4. Covid-19 and its Impacts

Related topics.

• Air Transport
• Airport Terminals
• Transportation and Economic Development
• The Cruise Industry

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Transportation Systems for Tourism pp 247–267 Cite as

Air Transport and Tourism

• M. R. Dileep 10 &
• Francesca Pagliara   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6332-6313 11  
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Part of the book series: Advances in Spatial Science ((ADVSPATIAL))

Indeed, the majority of the tourists, more than fifty percent of those crossing borders each year, arrive at their destinations by air transport. According to United Nations World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO. (2012). Global Report on Aviation: Responding to the needs of new tourism markets and destinations. Madrid, Spain: World Tourism Organization (UNWTO).), the proportion is much higher in many parts of the world, including most long-haul and developing country destinations, especially small islands, and landlocked states. The dependence of tourism on air transport has been evolving steadily since the beginning of aviation in the early decades of the last century.

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Dileep, M.R., Pagliara, F. (2023). Air Transport and Tourism. In: Transportation Systems for Tourism. Advances in Spatial Science. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22127-9_13

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