history of community based tourism in south africa

Community-Based Tourism as a Pathway Towards Sustainable Livelihoods and Well-being in Southern Africa

• First Online: 01 June 2022

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• Alinah Kelo Segobye 7 ,
• Maduo Mpolokang 8 ,
• Ngoni Courage Shereni 9 , 10 ,
• Stephen Mago 11 &
• Malatsi Seleka 12  

Part of the book series: Geographies of Tourism and Global Change ((GTGC))

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Community-based tourism (CBT) has become an integral part of national economies through its potential ways of sustaining the livelihoods of many local communities. This chapter focuses on the role of community-based tourism in fostering sustainable livelihoods and contributing to development in the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region. The SADC region has had the challenge of diversifying the regional economies as countries relied heavily on extractive industries, especially mining. With the declining revenues from mining, it has become necessary for the region to explore ways of harnessing the tourism sector to reduce unemployment and poverty, especially in rural areas. The chapter explores how initiatives like trans-border frontier parks and community-based natural resources-based management (CBNRM) programmes promote more inclusive development. Furthermore, the chapter highlights the need to incorporate conflict management and peacebuilding into biodiversity conservation through CBNRM programmes.

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Alinah Kelo Segobye

Department of Environmental Science, University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana

Maduo Mpolokang

Department of Accounting and Finance, Lupane State University, Lupane, Zimbabwe

Ngoni Courage Shereni

School of Tourism and Hospitality, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa

Department of Development Studies, Nelson Mandela University, Gqeberha, South Africa

Stephen Mago

Centre for Africa Studies, University of Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa

Malatsi Seleka

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Segobye, A.K., Mpolokang, M., Shereni, N.C., Mago, S., Seleka, M. (2022). Community-Based Tourism as a Pathway Towards Sustainable Livelihoods and Well-being in Southern Africa. In: Saarinen, J., Lubbe, B., Moswete, N.N. (eds) Southern African Perspectives on Sustainable Tourism Management. Geographies of Tourism and Global Change. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99435-8_9

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Natural resources, tourism and community livelihoods in Southern Africa

Journal of Tourism Futures

ISSN : 2055-5911

Article publication date: 18 December 2020

Issue publication date: 18 December 2020

Lehmann, S.M. (2020), "Natural resources, tourism and community livelihoods in Southern Africa", Journal of Tourism Futures , Vol. 6 No. 3, pp. 291-293. https://doi.org/10.1108/JTF-09-2020-157

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2020, Sabine Michaela Lehmann.

Published in the Journal of Tourism Futures . Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this license may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode

Southern Africa is a global outlier. Like much of the world its wildlife had been decimated, but unlike the rest of the world and despite significant challenges, this region has seen impressive recovery over the past four decades. This book looks at a range of case studies from Southern Africa and unpacks the complex and dynamic relationship between natural resources, tourism and community livelihoods. This four-part book based on regional case studies is of particular interest to those working in the region and forms part of a study series in conservation and environment.

Part 1, consisting of six chapters, includes an introduction and looks at the historical evolution of conservation and tourism in Southern Africa.

Historically, conservation and tourism have been viewed through a colonial lens with little research and recording of how indigenous people viewed these two concepts. The chapters in this section present a historical review, and notes that the “immediate needs [of communities] often precludes the development […] to address longer-term challenges”.

The historical evolution of conservation and tourism, a case study in Botswana.

Nature tourism, wildlife resources and community-based conservation, a case study in Malawi.

A review of community social upliftment practices by tourism multinational companies in Botswana.

Navigating community conservancies and institutional complexities in Namibia.

In total, 14 years of tourism and climate change research in Southern Africa: lessons on sustainability under conditions of global change.

In particular, Chapter 4: “The context and future of tourism in Africa’s national parks” may be of interest to tourism futurists. The chapter reminds us that there is no over-arching model to address the key issues and challenges in the nexus of tourism and national parks in Africa. The traditional “people out” park management system has been losing popularity as a strategy and that the future of conservation and tourism in national parks is dependent on a model that concretises the benefits to local communities including ownership, benefit sharing and general well-being of communities.

Part 2 consisting of four chapters focusses on policy issues, practices and challenges associated with the growth of natural resource-based tourism development.

An analysis of land use conflicts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Exploring the conflict over land use between tourism and agricultural activities the writers conclude that a balance needs to be found between contemporary (ranches and commercial use associated with tourism) and traditional land (primarily for subsistence farming).

A case study of the Lusaka National Park in Zambia with a view to understanding local people’s perspective of protective areas. Local communities resent “fortress conservation” areas unless they perceive a net benefit.

A Namibian case study unpacks the complexities in using corporate social responsibility (CSR) as a poverty alleviation tool. The chapter interrogates a new conceptional framework for poverty alleviation through CSR towards responsible tourism.

Using a Zimbabwean case study, the authors found that while authorities recognise the need of community involvement in the management of natural resources; they are in fact reluctant to devolve power in decision-making to the grassroots level of the community.

Part 3 consists of four chapters focussing on the origins, narratives and progress of development debates in conservation and tourism.

A review of the wildlife economy in dryland Southern Africa. Colonial wildlife policies originated in the 1900s in the North America’s. These were misaligned and later, outdated for Southern Africa. Radical policy reforms since the 1960s focussing on community-based nature resource management resulted in the successful and significant expansion of wildlife in the region.

A case study from the Chobe District in Botswana finds that forest and livelihoods are intertwined, as assets, activities and access shape how communities close and adjacent to the forest sustain their livelihoods. Eco-tourism needs to take this into account.

A Mauritian study, a country where tourism contributes 18% to the island country’s gross domestic product. Despite tourism playing such an important role in its economy, the island is known for its all-inclusive beach holiday offerings and ecotourism as a subsector has seen “painfully slow” growth. The chapter explores the constraints to the growth of the eco-tourism economy and concludes with the need for an integrated eco-tourism plan.

The final chapter in this section looks at a South African wetland park and investigates sustainable development goals, livelihoods and tourism development in a rural protected area. The conclusion notes that as a survivalist community, immediate livelihoods need to be sustained first with sustainable tourism development only possible once the immediate need of livelihood is taken care of.

Part 4 consists of three chapters and situates Southern Africa in the world, acknowledging that natural resources and community livelihoods are not only inseparable and interlinked entities but also have a complex and dynamic relationship.

A comparison between a developed USA site and a developing Botswanan site. It found that success was dependent on the level of involvement, empowerment of local communities and the diversity of services on offer. Power dynamics in the developing nation tended to not be as favourable as in the USA.

A case study on the use of handicrafts in Southern and Eastern Africa. Handicrafts are considered part of the informal economy despite the significant contribution they play to economic development and the high participation rate by rural communities and in particular women. Handicrafts may be informal in nature but play an important role in human well-being – particularly in rural settings. A major hurdle faced is the lack of access to capital; political and physical but in particular financial capital.

Tourism flows have increased to parks, but tend to be focussed on a few selected, primarily iconic parks. In Southern Africa, there is a competition for the tourist visit and parks struggle to differentiate themselves. Park-based tourism tends to be dependent on wildlife, scenery and infrastructure and parks compete with each other on this basis.

The conclusion highlights the interdependence of community development and sustainable land-use practices and the link to land tenure and property rights. There is a general move towards a more people-centred approach and away from ring fenced parks. There is an agreement that tourism development has the potential to support a healthy relationship between natural resources and the improvement of community livelihoods – but this has not yet been realised.

Despite the subject matter, the set of case studies does not have a futures focus. Conservation is ultimately a futures-based activity whereby, according to the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED, 1987), sustainable development is defined as: “a pattern of development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”.

It would be interesting to use futures and foresight tools to explore the medium- to long-term future particularly as its success is based on the interaction of local community, international visitors and diminishing natural resources. It is interesting to consider how current and future tourists view a nature park experience as one with wildlife and scenery but no people. This “people out” view is no longer the view of those managing and living in natural resources but still abounds in the tourist’s view of an authentically wild and wildlife experience. There is much food for thought in this set of case studies to form the basis of some much-needed foresight work in the field. Natural resources parks were formed with the future in mind, but more work needs to be done to bring in the conversation of the future.

About the author

Sabine Michaela Lehmann is based at the Curiositas, Self-employed, Cape Town, South Africa.

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Reconciling Neo-liberalism and Community Based Tourism in South Africa: The African Ivory Route

The commodification of culture in tourism is often critiqued and lamented in academic texts (Wishitemi et al. 2007). What this process often seems to entail is that so called “cultures” of local communities are showcased to tourists from around the world. Often, it is especially what is considered “exotic” and “indigenous” that is showcased to tourists (Wels 2004). This is the case in South Africa, for instance, regarding Zulu culture, however, white Afrikaner or English cultures in the same country are not promoted or put up for consumption by tourists. One of the reasons these practices is critiqued is because powerful tourist entrepreneurs are accused of “exploiting” less-powerful local communities for their carefully crafted and marketed exoticism (cf. Lindfors 1999) while not giving them enough in return, either financially speaking or in terms of management and decision-making (Spierenburg et al. 2011). In other words, “the winner takes it all” and the local communities are once again on the losing end. Would it be possible for communities to showcase their own local cultures, while at the same time earning a serious income and being involved with the management and decision making around the tourism venture? Is it possible to reconcile showcasing community cultures and local participation in tourism operations? To put it more abstractly, more conceptual and more radical: is it possible to reconcile neo-liberalism with the strong ideological principles of Community Based Tourism (CBT) (cf. Suansri 2003)? Or is this too good to be true?

We would like to present the South African case study of the African Ivory Route (AIR) that involves a partnership between a private sector tourism company, Transfrontier Parks Destinations (TFPD) and the AIR Secondary Cooperative. This latter legal based entity was established when the Provincial Government transferred ownership of the AIR to this entity representing the local communities. Provincial Government took this step when, after 2011, several tourism camps ceased operation due to financial constraints and a resulting lack of maintenance. TFPD teamed up with the provincial government, and continued to work together with all the communities like the provincial government had done before, in order to try and promote tourism as a viable livelihood strategy for the communities. But TFPD also intends and is in the process of extending the number of tents and huts in all the camps, generally upgrading them to comply with the demands of the industry. This process is not yet completed due to financial constraints. So, the operation continues based on the same ideological principles, but also with the explicit private sector’s aim to try and make a profit.

The question of whether it is possible to reconcile (aspects of) neo-liberalism with principles of Community Based Tourism is relevant given a recent academic, but also ideological, debate in tourism studies, between two academics, one Dutch, Stasja Koot (2016) and one South African, Keyan Tomaselli (2017), about how to assess the combination of commercial exploitation of a community owned lodge in the Kalahari. Based on two months of ethnographic fieldwork, Koot (2016) criticized the tourism entrepreneur, who happens to be the owner of Transfrontier Parks Destinations, for neoliberalism, while Tomaselli in a response article (2017) criticized the approach of the Dutch scholar, based on his own extensive fieldwork over years with TFPD management consent at !Xaus Lodge (Tomaselli 2012), arguing that aside from more theoretical considerations, Koot had not done proper fieldwork, had not triangulated his data, and as a consequence had come up with too speculative interpretations and conclusions, critiquing the neo-liberalism of !Xaus Lodge, while Tomaselli argued for the fact that !Xaus Lodge is a good example of where neo-liberalism and Community Based Tourism are reconciled. Here, we take a closer look at a trail of other destinations of TFPD, the African Ivory Route. What do the qualitative data tell us about this destination in relation to neo-liberalism and community involvement and ownership? Contradictions or reconciliation? Here, a Dutch and a South African academic write together. One of the authors, Chris Boonzaaier, has been involved with the development of the African Ivory Route from its inception and has combined his work on the route with years of ethnographic fieldwork. The other author, Harry Wels, has been working with Boonzaaier on tourism related research, and together they have supervised a number of South African and Dutch Master students doing their research on various topics in relation to the African Ivory Route.

The establishment of the African Ivory Route

In the late 1990s, the African Ivory Route (AIR) was initiated by the Directorate Tourism of the Limpopo Province, with the vision to make the Limpopo Province the preferred eco-cultural tourism destination in southern Africa (Directorate Tourism n.d. The Golden Horseshoe of Tourism). In order to achieve this, the route would be based on the metaphoric notion of a Golden Horseshoe. The Golden Horseshoe refers to a vast arc of land along the eastern, northern, and western borders of the Limpopo Province. Its outer core is predominantly land of which the majority is dedicated to wildlife conservation or ranching land in a comparatively unspoilt condition, or land that is rehabilitated. The inner core boasts a diversity of traditional cultural settlements and lifestyles. The product of the African Ivory Route was visualized as a combination of the cultural dimension (primarily the inner core) with the wildlife dimension (primarily located within the outer core). This would imply that communities would be given the opportunity to own tourism products within high potential provincial parks, which included so-called Big Five properties (where four of the five wildlife camps were located).

The strategy with the African Ivory Route development, as outlined in the development plans (Directorate Tourism n.d., The Golden Horseshoe of Tourism), was to assist disadvantaged communities who do not have the capacity, skills, or financial resources to become established as participants, at the level of operators and managers of products, in a highly competitive industry. The approach was thus for government first to identify cultural communities representative of the cultural diversity of the Limpopo Province, which they expected would have the potential cultural attractiveness that would draw tourists. Secondly, small community cultural homesteads (based on the traditional lay-out of cultural homesteads), as well as small tented safari camps (inside protected areas (reserves)), would be developed, both on state and community owned land, and then to lease these cultural homesteads and safari camps to the respective appropriate community structures for the sole purpose of tourist accommodation. Today, the African Ivory Route consists of eight destinations in the Limpopo Province, five cultural homesteads and three tented safari camps. Thirdly, cultural routes would be developed in the rural villages of the selected communities in order to enable tourists to observe and experience authentic indigenous cultures. In the fourth instance, all of these developments would empower local people in order to administer the camps and route themselves as an integrated product with joint marketing and centralized, coordinated marketing taken care of by the Provincial Government.

This latter meant that the respective communities had to be structured into legal entities. Originally, the community structures were esatblished as Community Tourism Associations but they did not have any legal status and were therefore subsequently changed and registered as Cooperatives – Primary Coops for the respective individual camps and a Secondary Coop with representation from all the resepctive Primary Coops. As such, communities had to nominate candidates to be trained as camp managers/operators towards which the government would also contribute. The intention was that government would play a purely facilitative role (Directorate Tourism n.d., Official Document).

The initial aims and objectives of the African Ivory Route as formulated by the Limpopo Provincial Government fall squarely into the alternative development paradigm of community-based tourism. But what happened to these ideals when a private sector tour operator, TFPD, in 2011 went into a partnership agreement with the African Ivory Route Secondary Cooperative and started to restructure its operations? How far were private sector interests for profit and a fitting neo-liberal approach to be reconciled with the initial community based tourism approach?

The African Ivory Route as a Community-based tourism development initiative

Academic research distinguishes and characterizes community-based tourism on the basis of the following criteria, people-centerdness, sensitivity towards the environment, sustainability, participation and empowerment (Scheyvens, 2002; Telfer, 2002: Timothy, 2002)

People centeredness

This principle distinguishes CBT, which form part of the alternative development paradigm, from all other development paradigms (Telfer 2002). However, it is not always spelled out exactly how people centeredness should be understood.

In the case of the African Ivory Route, this principle has been introduced by the establishment of cultural homesteads where only a limited number of visitors can be accommodated in order to reduce the cultural impact on the local community as far as possible. In addition, evening programs are presented in order to expose and entertain visitors to indigenous games and plays, indigenous cuisine and storytelling. In this way, a particular appreciation and understanding of the host community is expected to be created among visitors. People centeredness or cultural sensitivity is not only demonstrated at the cultural homesteads, but to some extent, also in respect of the location of the cultural homesteads.   

A representative example concerns the Baleni cultural homestead in the north eastern lowveld of the Limpopo Province (Kolkman, 2002). This homestead has been established close to the last unspoilt hot spring in South Africa. Apart from salt extraction from the soil surrounding the hot spring, the hot spring and the immediate area surrounding it are regarded as sacred. A few years after the establishment of the cultural homestead, the hot spring suddenly started to cool down. The local people ascribed it to the fact that no rituals had been performed before the visitor homestead was erected (Boonzaaier 2007). This case demonstrates that cultural impact assessments must be done prior to developments of this nature, preferably by anthropologists who are acquainted with the specific people. Government officials are not necessarily aware of cultural meanings and practices associated with particular sites and natural phenomena. Although this case could be interpreted as a lack of cultural sensitivity, it appears rather to be an issue of ignorance of particular cultural beliefs than anything else.

The development of cultural routes in the rural villages in order to expose visitors to (authentic) cultural practices was a significant step doing justice to the principle of people centeredness. In this way, tourists are enabled to experience the host community’s everyday life. In order to achieve this, local people from the respective communities were trained as tourist guides. In the training of these guides, particular attention was given to the concept of culture and how tourism could endanger it.

Sensitivity towards the environment

Too many developments in developing countries have experienced the appropriation of their natural environment, which is often endowed with cultural meaning and sacredness, by foreign developers as part of their neo-liberal approach to tourism. Robinson (1999:14) remarks that “(t)he environmental intrusions of the tourism industry are frequently cultural intrusions.” In the process, such communities have become estranged from their natural assets and very seldom receive any benefits from the tourism developed in this way.

To a certain extent, this also happened in the case of the African Ivory Route. An article of Chris Boonzaaier (2010) reveals that the Reserve was established without taking the cultural beliefs and practices of the relevant community, surrounding the Reserve, into consideration. The initiative to turn the area into a nature reserve was taken by the former Lebowa Bantustan, a creation of the Apartheid government in 1985 (Minutes of the Masebe Nature Reserve Management Committee, n.d.). The agreement was entered into with the chief (and his councillors). The government officials were obviously not aware of the cultural meanings attached to many of the mountains, and obviously the chief and his councillors did not tell them about it, and the possible impact that the fencing could have on the people adjacent to the Reserve who do attach meanings to the mountains. It appears that it is actually the people in the seven rural villages adjacent to the Reserve that have been affected by the fencing. Consequently, the community has become estranged from particular cultural practices that prior to the fencing of the Reserve had been performed inside the Reserve. This has led to considerable discontent among community members. The establishment of the African Ivory Route safari camp in the Reserve has not improved the situation. On condition that the Reserve starts benefitting the seven rural villages surrounding it, it is doubtful that their dicontent towards the Reserve will be resolved (Boonzaaier 2010). Within the context of CBT development these are challenges that the African Ivory Route Secondary Cooperative via its Primary Coop, will have to attend to. This case also demonstrates that the principle of people centeredness should not only be pursued in pure cultural practices, but also in respect of the environment. From the Directorate Tourism of Limpopo Province’s side there has also been positive operations in terms of sensitivity towards the environment. The safari tented camps for instance have been designed only to accommodate a limited number of vistors in order to keep the impact on the environment as low as possible (Directorate Tourismn.d., Official Document).

Sustainability, participation and empowerment in Community Based Tourism

Sustainable community-based tourism development requires the involvement of local communities. Different types of participation are distinguished by Timothy (2002). However, the ideal is that participation will take place at the level of decision-making, as well as the implementation and management of development projects. In this respect, the mission of the African Ivory Route to assist disadvantaged communities to become established as participants in the tourism industry, corresponds with the realization by researchers that indigenous communities are not only impacted upon by tourism but that they respond to it through entrepreneurial activity (Telfer 2002).

However, local involvement can only be achieved by empowering local communities (Telfer 2002; Timothy 2002; Scheyvens 2002). Probably one of the best examples of empowerment and entrepreneurial activity on the African Ivory Route has been the creation of a traditional cultural homestead by one of the local Tsonga community members. The purpose of this homestead is to serve as an educational facility for visiting school groups and to accommodate tourists. For this purpose, he worked hand in hand with Harold Kolkman, the Dutch Master student who, under the supervision of Harry Wels, had previously obtained his Master degree on natural resource management with Baleni as a case study. With Kolkman’s assistance this community member received R2 million from the European Union, which enabled him to establish the cultural homestead and so became an entrepreneur.

Another example of entrepreneurship was the creation of Telekishi cultural village by one of the Langa Ndebele community members adjacent to Masebe Nature Reserve. This village offers accommodation for up to sixteen people with complete self-catering facilities. Since its establishment, a considerable number of researchers from academic institutions have made use of this village. The accommodation tariff at Telekishi competes favorably with that of the African Ivory Route camp inside Masebe Nature Reserve. In addition, cultural dances are performed while exhibits of archaeology, geology, and rock art at the site and its surrounds are on display.

From the Directorate of Tourism’s side, training programs were provided in order to enable community members to become operators and managers of the safari camps and visitor homesteads on the Ivory Route. This training was supplemented by a company, Afrika Leadership, that was contracted by Boonzaaier to deliver education and training in respect of particular topics, such as culture, eco-system, tourism impacts, elementary bookkeeping, catering, drafting of a business plan, tourist guiding, destination marketing, entrepreneurship and leadership. In retrospect, these programs were maybe a bit too ambitious if the number of communities involved, the amount of money and the time available are taken into account. The fact is that the African Ivory Route had never developed to the extent that the management and promotion could be transferred to the respective communities. This situation was exaggerated by the low occupancy rates of particularly the cultural homesteads. As a result, the African Ivory Route could not sustain itself and remained totally dependent on the provincial government for the management, marketing, and remuneration of the staff members. The provincial budget, however, was not sufficient to address these challenges. Hence, by 2011, ten years after the start and initiation of the African Ivory Route, some cultural homesteads had to be closed. In order to rescue the African Ivory Route, the African Ivory Route Secondary Cooperative entered into a partnership agreement with a private company, Transfrontier Parks Destinations (TFPD).

Partnering with TFPD

Entering into a partnership with TFPD makes perfect sense, since it subscribes complteley to the same ideological principles as the African Ivory Route. In fact, this was one of the conditions that TFPD had to adhere to in order to enter into a partnership agreement with the African Ivory Route Secondary Cooperative.

So, the African Ivory Route remained to adhere to be people centered, sensitive towards the environment, emphasizing the empowerment of not only staff members, but also community members to establish entrepreneurships (personal communication). No matter that TFPD is a private sector company and adhering to and believing in the neo-liberal assumption that profits have to be made, this does not necessarily mean that TFPD cannot be activist in its ambitions towards social justice for local communities. Actually, it is a rather sweeping statement to assume that private sector interest will always be a barrier to achieving social justice or that private sector ambitions into that direction should always be looked upon with only suspicion.

In terms of people centeredness, TFPD has retained the existing community structures. These structures are the African Ivory Route Secondary Cooperative, which is a legal entity and the owner of the African Ivory Route. For each of the communities in whose areas safari camps or cultural homesteads have been erected, Primary Cooperatives as legal entities have been established. As a legal entity the African Ivory Route Secondary Cooperative went into the agreement with TFPD in 2012. TFPD is responsible for the management and marketing of the African Ivory Route as well as the training of employees.

The TFPD subscribes to the principles of democracy, sustainable development whilst maintaining cultural diversity, tolerance and individual freedom (personal communication, O’Leary 2018). TFPD is also responsible for the marketing. Well aware that tourism is a global phenomenon and that no tourism enterprise will survive without a global network, another important responsibility is the marketing of the African Ivory Route by TFPD internationally.

The African Ivory Route basically and generally adheres to the principles of Community-based tourism development. No matter the dynamics between academics and civil servants, this does not deny the intention of the African Ivory Route to adhere to the principle of people centeredness, environmental sensitivity, and sustainability of which the latter implies the participation of people who have been empowered to do so.

TFPD’s approach towards the African Ivory Route and its subscription of the principles of CBT, is clear proof that neo-liberalism can best be reconciled with the principles of CBT through a form of social entrepreneurship. In fact, it is the opinion that a narrow minded clinging to the principles of CBT would be detrimental. The AIR started to make a name for itself when it combined and reconciled aspects of a neo-liberal approach to tourism with clear CBT ambitions. This only happened after TFPD partnered with the Limpopo Provincial Government on the AIR. The exercise also clearly illustrates that academics can play a role in the identification and investigation of issues that arise in a project of this nature. Where undiluted neo-liberalism might only see the instrumental benefit of academic involvement towards realizing profit maximization, it could well be that we have by now entered a different era, an era where challenges we are facing in the world of today, ranging from climate change to increasing economic inequalities, demand a rethinking and reconciliation of neo-liberalism with ambitions towards social justice. Social entrepreneurialism might be one answer to this call. This also seems to be the tone of the call of the latest World Economic Forum, where in a Dutch national newspaper it was reported that “radical times ask for radical answers” (REF,). The social entrepreneurialism of TFPD in the context of the AIR might be a South African answer to that call.

Chris Boonzaaier is an Associate Professor in the Department of Anthropology and Archaeology at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.  In 1997 he was appointed as programme manager of a newly introduced degree course specialising in Heritage and Cultural Tourism. His publications in this field include ‘Community perceptions of tourism in the Tshivhase area of the Limpopo Province, South Africa.’ Anthropology Southern Africa Vol. 35(3&4), together with JHF Grobler (2012); ‘Towards a community-based integrated institutional framework for ecotourism management: the case of the Masebe Nature Reserve, Limpopo Province of South Africa . ‘ Journal of Anthropology  (2012); Juxtaposing a cultural reading of landscape with institutional boundaries: the case of Masebe Nature Reserve, South Africa. Landscape Research , 7, together with Harry Wels (2016); ‘Authenticity lost? The significance of cultural villages in the conservation of heritage in South Africa. ‘ Journal of Heritage Tourism , together with Harry Wels (2017).

Harry Wels is an Associate Professor at Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam and Publication Manager at the African Studies Centre Leiden at Leiden University. His research interest are in private wildlife conservation, tourism and animal studies in Southern Africa. His publications include Securing wilderness landscapes in South Africa. Nick Steele, private wildlife conservancies and saving rhinos, Leiden (2015) and ‘Rewilding white lions: Conservation through the eyes of carnivores?’ in ‘Wildlife conservation in Southern Africa: Taking stock’ (Leiden, in press).

Photo: Signposting the African Ivory Route by Harry Wels; Salt production at Baleni by Chris Boonzaaier

Boonzaaier, C.C. 2007. Community Dynamics and the quest for Sustainable Tourism Development: An Exploratory Study , in: Wishitemi, B., Spenceley, A & Wels, H. (eds.) Culture and Community: Tourism Studies in Eastern and Southern Africa . Rozenberg Publishers: Amsterdam.

Boonzaaier, C. C 2010 Rural people’s perceptions of wildlife conservation – the case of Masebe Nature Reserve in Limpopo Province of South Africa. Anthropology Southern Africa 33(1&2), 55-64.

Cukier, W., Trenholm, S., Carl, D, and Gekas, G. (2011) Social entrepreneurship: A content analysis, Journal of Strategic Innovation and Sustainability , 7(1), 99-119

Directorate Tourism, n.d. Minutes of the Masebe Nature Reserve Management Committee meetings . Diretorate Tourism, Limpopo Province.

Directorate Tourism, n.d. The Golden Horseshoe of Tourism: A framework for tourism development in the Northern Province. Directorate Tourism, Limpopo Province.

Directorate Tourism, n.d. Official Document.

Hamilton, C. (1998) Terrific majesty: The powers of Shaka Zulu and the limits of historical intervention , Cape Town: David Philip.

Kolkman, H. 2002 Baleni: A research on community based natural resource management in South Africa . Amsterdam: Vrije Universiteit.

Koot, S.P. (2016) Contradictions of capitalism in the South African Kalahari: Indigenous Bushmen, their brand and baasskap in tourism, Journal of Sustainable Tourism , 24(8-9), 1211-1226.

Lindfors, B. (1999) (ed.) Africans on stage. Studies in ethnological show business , Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, Cape Town: David Philip.

Robinson, M. 1999 Cultural conflicts in tourism: Inevitability and inequality, in: Robinson, M. & Boniface, P. Tourism and cultural conflicts . CABI Publishing, 1-32).

Scheyvens, R. 2002. Tourism for development: empowering communities . Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.

Spierenburg, M., Steenkamp, C. and Wels H. (2011) Resistance of local communities against marginalisation in the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area, in: Salman, T. and de Thije, M. (eds.) Local battles, global stakes. The globalization of local conflicts and the localization of global interests , Amsterdam: VU University Press, 259-278.

Suansri. P. (2003) Community Based Tourism Handbook , Thailand: REST Project.

Telfer, D. J. 2002. The Evolution of Tourism and Development Theory, in: Sharpley, R. & Telfer, D. J. (eds.) Tourism and Development, Concepts and Issues . England: Channel View Publications.

Timothy, D. J. 2002. Tourism and community development Issues, in: Sharpley R. & Telfer, D. J. (eds.) Tourism and Development, Concepts and Issues . England: Channel View Publications.

Tomaselli, K. (2017) Picking on the poor: The contradictions of theory and neo-liberal critique. A response to Stasja Koot’s paper on contradictions of capitalism for Indigenous tourism in the South African Kalahari, Journal of Sustainable Tourism , 25(8), 1182-1196.

Wels, H. (2004) About romance and reality: Popular European imagery in postcolonial tourism in southern Africa, in: Hall, C.M. and Tucker, H. (eds.) Tourism and postcolonialism. Contested discourses, identities and representations , London, New York: Routledge.

Wishitemi, B. Spencely, A. and Wels, H. (2007) (eds.) Culture and community. Tourism studies in Eastern and Southern Africa , Amsterdam: Rozenberg Publishers.

Wylie, D. (2009) White myths of Shaka, in: Carton, B. Laband, J. and Sithole, J. (eds.) Zulu identities. Being Zulu, past and present , Pietermaritzburg: University of KwaZulu-Natal Press.

Published on March 1, 2018.

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From coast to culture: South Africa’s sustainable tourism journey

S S ustainability in tourism isn’t a grand gesture or some abstract concept, but rather about the people, their heritage and prosperity and the planet,” writes Bronwen Auret of South African Tourism.

Navigating the intricate landscape of modern tourism, especially post-COVID-19 pandemic, one fundamental question resonates deeply: How do we meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs? At its core, sustainability is about securing our continued survival on this planet. Nowhere is this more evident than in South Africa, where our rich and diverse cultural heritage intertwines with the imperative of preserving our natural environment.

From marine conservation to sustainable agriculture and farm stays, community-based ecotourism, and township tourism, South Africa offers a diverse array of sustainable tourism experiences.

In our pursuit of sustainability, we acknowledge that the heart of our tourism lies within our people. The true essence of South Africa is discovered within their stories, traditions, and communities. We are renowned not solely for our breathtaking landscapes and vibrant cultures but also for the warmth and friendliness of the people. According to the World Economic Forum’s Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report, South Africa consistently ranks among the top countries in the world for tourism competitiveness, with factors such as the “attitude of the population towards foreign visitors” contributing to its allure.

Community-based ecotourism lies at the heart of our sustainability efforts, empowering local communities to benefit from tourism while preserving their cultural and natural heritage. We boast community-owned lodges such as Bulungula Lodge, nestled in the breathtaking landscapes of the Eastern Cape, which stands as a testament to the transformative power of tourism in uplifting and empowering marginalised communities. The lodge operates entirely off-grid, epitomising a commitment to carbon neutrality.

Moreover, cultural tourism and heritage sites provide a window into South Africa’s rich history and diverse cultural tapestry. From the ancient rock art of the Drakensberg Mountains to the vibrant streets of Soweto in Johannesburg, including the world-famous Vilakazi Street, these experiences preserve our heritage and provide economic opportunities for local communities. Among these treasures is the KwaZulu-Natal iSimangaliso Wetland Park, designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, which boasts a variety of ecosystems such as coastal forests, wetlands, and estuaries. Similarly, the Cape Floral Region, renowned as a global biodiversity hotspot, stands out for its extraordinary plant diversity and endemism. It represents less than 0.38% of Africa’s landmass yet harbours nearly 20% of its flora, including five of its twelve endemic families. Despite covering only 90,000 km², this area supports 8,996 plant species and 988 genera, with 32% being unique to the region.

Marine conservation efforts showcase South Africa’s commitment to preserving its coastal ecosystems while promoting responsible tourism. The Table Mountain National Park Marine Protected Area (MPA) in the Western Cape is a shining example of marine conservation. Established in 2004, this MPA encompasses various coastal and aquatic habitats, including kelp forests, rocky shores, and sandy beaches. It serves as a sanctuary for many marine species, including endangered African penguins and Cape fur seals.

Similarly, sustainable agriculture and farm stays allow us to celebrate the bounty of our land while promoting regenerative farming practices and rural development. In Gauteng, one similar example is the African Pride Irene Country Lodge, situated in Centurion. This lodge is set within a working farm environment, offering guests a unique opportunity to experience sustainable farming practices first-hand. The lodge’s organic farm produces fresh fruits, vegetables, and herbs used in on-site restaurants to create delicious farm-to-table dishes. Visitors can explore the farm through guided tours, learning about eco-friendly farming techniques and the importance of biodiversity conservation.

Waste management and recycling initiatives are essential for keeping our landscapes pristine and our communities healthy. From beach clean-ups along the Wild Coast to recycling programmes in urban centres, these efforts demonstrate our commitment to responsible tourism and environmental sustainability. One example is the “Clean C” project implemented by the City of Cape Town. The project focuses on coastal clean-up efforts along the beaches of the Wild Coast, aiming to remove litter and debris from these pristine areas and promote environmental conservation.

Wildlife conservation and responsible safaris are synonymous with South Africa’s tourism industry, allowing visitors to witness iconic species in their natural habitats. From the majestic elephants of Kruger National Park to the endangered rhinos of Hluhluwe-iMfolozi, these experiences support conservation efforts while providing unforgettable memories for visitors.

Environmental education and conservation programmes that promote sustainability among tourists and locals. The Environmental Education and Training Programme (EETP), led by the Department of Environment, Forestry, and Fisheries, boosts environmental awareness and skills in local communities via educational initiatives. These cover biodiversity conservation, climate change, waste management, and sustainable resource use.

We excel in sustainability stakes, receiving external validation for our efforts. The 2023 WTM Africa Responsible Tourism Awards recognised excellence in sustainability across the sector, presenting various establishments with awards ranging from silver to Gold. BirdLife South Africa took Gold for best diversity and inclusion. Lemala Camps & Lodges also took Gold for efforts in tackling plastic waste. At the 2022 WTM Responsible Tourism Awards, Witsieshoek Mountain Lodge secured the Gold in “Local Economic Benefit” category. While, the Tzaneen Country Lodge owner received the “Celebrate Her Award” from the International Institute of Peace for Sustainable Tourism at ITB 2024, showcasing our commitment to a sustainable and responsible tourism industry.

In conclusion, as we chart the course for sustainable tourism in South Africa, remember that our greatest asset is our people. By prioritising their well-being, preserving their heritage, and protecting our natural environment, we can ensure that tourism continues to be a force for good in our country for generations to come.

Bronwen is the Chief Quality Assurance Officer at The Tourism Grading Council of South Africa, a South African Tourism business unit.

• https://www.sanparks.org/parks/table-mountain
• https://www.southafrica.net/za/en/travel/page/welcome-to-vilakazi-street
• https://www.irenecountrylodge.co.za/contact-us-v1/
• https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/914
• https://thedrakensberg.net/drakensberg-san-rock-art
• https://www.weforum.org/publications/the-travel-tourism-competitiveness-report-2019/
• https://www.westerncape.gov.za/110green/flagships/clean-c-cape-town-beach-cleanup
• https://bulungula.co.za/
•   https://www.sanparks.org/parks/kruger
•   https://www.hluhluwegamereserve.com/
•  https://www.isimangaliso.com/
•  https://www.naturalworldheritagesites.org/sites/cape-floral-region-protected-areas/
•  https://www.bizcommunity.com/Article/196/787/237577.html
•   https://www.goodthingsguy.com/environment/south-african-lodge-named-best-responsible-tourism-destination-in-the-world/
•  https://www.satsa.co.za/news/tourism-tuesdays-latest-updates-sat-1

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No effort spared in protecting much-needed visitors as South African tourism blossoms

T he Republic of South Africa, endowed with a diverse range of natural attractions and world-famous destinations continues to be a favourite choice for wanderlust international tourists seeking a unique, unparalleled African experience.

Last year, South Africa was voted as the Best Country to Visit by 27,000 passionate readers of the United Kingdom’s Telegraph Travel publication. The Britons also voted for Cape Town as their favourite city in the world in the 2023 Telegraph Travel Awards.

Speaking to IOL, Department of Tourism spokesperson Zara Nicholson said South Africa continues to be rated as a prime tourist destination and the government is continually working “hard” to diversify and improve the country’s tourism offering “so that we can continue to attract more visitors”.

Earlier this month, another United Kingdom publication The Times reported that South Africa’s high crime rates are one of the factors that have been putting off tourists in recent years.

Citing a travel advice issued by the UK Foreign Office, the publication highlights the potential of terrorist attacks, in a country bedevilled car hijackings, armed robberies and other violent crimes.

Earlier this month, IOL reported that three Zimbabwean men, Jan Thabonga Moshabi, Abstein Madzvimbo, and Thomas Moyo were remanded in custody when they appeared before the Northam Magistrate’s Court in Limpopo for the brutal murder of a German tourist.

The trio allegedly assaulted, robbed, kidnapped and killed 74-year-old German tourist, Herman Gunter Friedrich Westphal at Northam, in Limpopo.

The incident, like other unfortunate incidents of crime involving tourists spurred local and international headlines, shedding the light once again on the safety of tourists visiting South Africa.

Some commentators however highlighted that tourists are not specifically targeted, but fall victim to the rampant which affects all people within South Africa.

In a reassuring message, Nicholson emphasised that stakeholders in South Africa, including the government and the private sector are doing much to ensure the safety of tourists is guaranteed.

“The safety and security of our visitors is of utmost importance to the South Africa’s tourism sector - government and the private sector. We regret any incident of crime against visitors and we continue to work closely with SAPS (SA Police Service), local authorities and community members to ensure the safety of all visitors,” she said.

Nicholson pointed that Pretoria is making considerable efforts through media campaigns and activations in key source markets at global travel trade shows to market and sell destination South Africa.

“We have showcased our country at all major global travel trade shows in the USA, China, UK, Rwanda and in Berlin at shows such as World Travel Market London and ITB Berlin which took place earlier in March,” she said.

The government also continue to support enterprise development and showcasing of all South Africa has to offer, with the Department of Tourism providing funding for tourism businesses to travel to and exhibit at global travel trade shows, to sell their tourism offerings and to be part of Team South Africa showcasing what the vast southern African nation has to offer.

Recent official statistics of international tourist arrival figures by Statistics South Africa for January to December 2023 underscored the rising momentum of South Africa's tourism sector.

International tourist arrivals from January to December 2023 totalled 8.5 million, representing a remarkable 48.9% increase when compared with same period in 2022.

Africa continues to lead the way regarding inbound tourists in South Africa. The country welcomed 6.4 million visitors from the rest of the African continent between January and December 2023, marking a significant 75.6% of all arrivals.

“Zimbabwe and Kenya stood out for their remarkable growth, according to the Department of Tourism,” the national department said in a previous statement.

“Zimbabwe experienced a 70.8% increase in tourist arrivals to South Africa when compared to 2022, totalling 2.1 million arrivals; while Kenya recorded a 99% surge when compared to 2022, reaching 42,403 arrivals for January to December 2023.”

Another leading player in the bountiful South African tourism sector is the Southern Africa Tourism Services Association (SATSA), and David Frost is its chief executive.

Responding to a query by IOL, Frost said ensuring the safety of visitors is not just a priority, but a mission.

“Our government and tourism sector stand united in this commitment, and we are setting new standards in enhancing our safety protocols and measures to ensure a welcoming environment for visitors to the country,” he said.

“The tourism private and public sectors in South Africa have never worked as closely and as actively as we are currently to mitigate risks. Actions speak louder than words. We have deployed a collaborative, robust and proactive approach to tourism safety as one industry.”

In collaboration, Frost said the government and private sector stakeholders have rolled out several new safety initiatives which include over 2,300 Tourism Monitors who have been “strategically” deployed in high-density tourist areas across South Africa to provide visibility, guidance, emergency assistance, and deter criminal activity.

“⁠Enhanced security measures have been established in locations where incidents were reported, including increased police patrols equipped with improved response capabilities, state-of-the-art security camera systems with analytics, better street lighting, and more,” said Frost.

“We have also rolled out an emergency response app, called SECURA Traveller, which tourists can access on arrival, providing them with quick support in any emergency. Prompt support is accessible via our SECURA Traveller 24-hour emergency service alongside area first responders specially trained to aid visitors if incidents arise, providing assistance until authorities arrive,” he said.

“We also have incident management specialists who assist tourists who have been affected by crime, accidents, etc. These Tourism Angels assist affected tourists with trauma counselling, translation services, transport, lodging, logistics, and other support as needed. Travellers have access to over 300 angels who will assist in crisis response to promptly aid visitors who have experienced distressing situations.”

In addition, Frost said comprehensive safety details are proactively provided across multiple sources - prominent websites, social channels, printed materials in accommodations and airports, plus in-person from local tourist guides across South Africa.

“This encompasses prudent practices and current risks to be aware of,” he said.

The SATSA reiterated that the key role of tourism in the South African economy cannot be overemphasised.

“It is important to highlight the immense value and promise of tourism for South Africa's economy and its people. Every tourist's safety is an investment in our country's future, highlighting the sector's pivotal role in empowering women, youth, and small and medium enterprises.

“As the third-highest contributor to our GDP, tourism generates over R120 billion in foreign exchange annually and supports approximately 1.5 million direct and indirect jobs. Notably, many of these jobs are in peri-urban and rural areas where other industries have limited presence. Tourism is also a significant employer of women (70%) and youth (60%) and offers abundant opportunities for small and medium enterprises,” said Frost.

He said the economic benefits of tourism extend far beyond the direct impact.

Through its extensive supply chain, tourism supports sectors such as manufacturing, agriculture, and services.

“For every R1 of direct GDP (gross domestic product) impact, an additional R1.50 is spent on supply chain and capital, creating a ripple effect throughout the economy. Given the immense potential of tourism to drive inclusive economic growth, job creation, and social upliftment, every South African must commit to create a safe and welcoming environment for all residents and visitors,” said Frost.

“By working hand in hand with our partners in government, law enforcement, technology, and other sectors, we are confident in our ability to implement global best practices in tourism safety and security.”

Frost reiterated that South Africa remains a destination that offers unparalleled breadth of tourism experience and hospitality, as evidenced in the many accolades it has stacked up in the past year, including South African Tourism being awarded the Best Adventure Tourism Destination at Today’s Traveller Awards 2023.

“We fully recognise the potential impact any negative incidents impacting tourists can have on South Africa's image and reputation as a tourist destination. We're committed to ensuring that the narrative of South Africa is not defined by isolated incidents but by the overwhelmingly positive experiences of millions of visitors,” Frost emphasised.

“It is however crucial to note that most of the millions of tourists who visit South Africa each year have a positive, incident-free experience. This is evidenced by our high rate of repeat visitors, a testament to the incredible offerings and warm hospitality of our nation.”

Renowned investigator and anti-crime analyst Calvin Rafadi told IOL that there are a few reasons why tourists at times fall victims to the rampant crime which also besieges South Africans.

“Tourist are attacked because they carry foreign currency and expensive cameras, and also criminal believe that if you take a foreigner cell phone, it’s difficult for them to blacklist/block (the gadget), so therefore they can still be used even after tourists have left South Africa,” said Rafadi.

He said as a precaution, when touring known crime hotspots in parts of South Africa, the visitors could minimise potential attacks by travelling together avoid robberies.

“Tourist buses should always be escorted by unarmed guards - not to cause panic to our tourists,” said Rafadi.

He said the crime intelligence unit of the SAPS should play a leading role in tracing the criminals.

“SAPS crime intelligence should by now know who are the syndicates operating in and around those villages, informal settlements or townships,” said Rafadi.

“It’s important to protect our tourist, especially if any persons Google search for a place to visit they start with checking the weather, followed by the crime statistics for that place. So therefore our SAPS , the National Prosecuting Authority (NPA) and private security should take this industry very seriously as it’s part of our economy.”

He said in some cases, cases opened by tourists might crumble before courts because the complainants would have left South Africa to their native countries after the crime incidents.

“Cases whereby suspects are arrested and are attending courts, I wish Department of Justice should utilize zoom or teams for the victims, the tourists. If they (courts) always insist that the victims attend court physically, many cases end up being withdrawn from fear of the victims coming back into South Africa, especially to face those horrible criminals/syndicates in courts,” said Rafadi.

Cultural Relativity and Acceptance of Embryonic Stem Cell Research

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Main Article Content

There is a debate about the ethical implications of using human embryos in stem cell research, which can be influenced by cultural, moral, and social values. This paper argues for an adaptable framework to accommodate diverse cultural and religious perspectives. By using an adaptive ethics model, research protections can reflect various populations and foster growth in stem cell research possibilities.

INTRODUCTION

Stem cell research combines biology, medicine, and technology, promising to alter health care and the understanding of human development. Yet, ethical contention exists because of individuals’ perceptions of using human embryos based on their various cultural, moral, and social values. While these disagreements concerning policy, use, and general acceptance have prompted the development of an international ethics policy, such a uniform approach can overlook the nuanced ethical landscapes between cultures. With diverse viewpoints in public health, a single global policy, especially one reflecting Western ethics or the ethics prevalent in high-income countries, is impractical. This paper argues for a culturally sensitive, adaptable framework for the use of embryonic stem cells. Stem cell policy should accommodate varying ethical viewpoints and promote an effective global dialogue. With an extension of an ethics model that can adapt to various cultures, we recommend localized guidelines that reflect the moral views of the people those guidelines serve.

Stem cells, characterized by their unique ability to differentiate into various cell types, enable the repair or replacement of damaged tissues. Two primary types of stem cells are somatic stem cells (adult stem cells) and embryonic stem cells. Adult stem cells exist in developed tissues and maintain the body’s repair processes. [1] Embryonic stem cells (ESC) are remarkably pluripotent or versatile, making them valuable in research. [2] However, the use of ESCs has sparked ethics debates. Considering the potential of embryonic stem cells, research guidelines are essential. The International Society for Stem Cell Research (ISSCR) provides international stem cell research guidelines. They call for “public conversations touching on the scientific significance as well as the societal and ethical issues raised by ESC research.” [3] The ISSCR also publishes updates about culturing human embryos 14 days post fertilization, suggesting local policies and regulations should continue to evolve as ESC research develops. [4]  Like the ISSCR, which calls for local law and policy to adapt to developing stem cell research given cultural acceptance, this paper highlights the importance of local social factors such as religion and culture.

I.     Global Cultural Perspective of Embryonic Stem Cells

Views on ESCs vary throughout the world. Some countries readily embrace stem cell research and therapies, while others have stricter regulations due to ethical concerns surrounding embryonic stem cells and when an embryo becomes entitled to moral consideration. The philosophical issue of when the “someone” begins to be a human after fertilization, in the morally relevant sense, [5] impacts when an embryo becomes not just worthy of protection but morally entitled to it. The process of creating embryonic stem cell lines involves the destruction of the embryos for research. [6] Consequently, global engagement in ESC research depends on social-cultural acceptability.

a.     US and Rights-Based Cultures

In the United States, attitudes toward stem cell therapies are diverse. The ethics and social approaches, which value individualism, [7] trigger debates regarding the destruction of human embryos, creating a complex regulatory environment. For example, the 1996 Dickey-Wicker Amendment prohibited federal funding for the creation of embryos for research and the destruction of embryos for “more than allowed for research on fetuses in utero.” [8] Following suit, in 2001, the Bush Administration heavily restricted stem cell lines for research. However, the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005 was proposed to help develop ESC research but was ultimately vetoed. [9] Under the Obama administration, in 2009, an executive order lifted restrictions allowing for more development in this field. [10] The flux of research capacity and funding parallels the different cultural perceptions of human dignity of the embryo and how it is socially presented within the country’s research culture. [11]

b.     Ubuntu and Collective Cultures

African bioethics differs from Western individualism because of the different traditions and values. African traditions, as described by individuals from South Africa and supported by some studies in other African countries, including Ghana and Kenya, follow the African moral philosophies of Ubuntu or Botho and Ukama , which “advocates for a form of wholeness that comes through one’s relationship and connectedness with other people in the society,” [12] making autonomy a socially collective concept. In this context, for the community to act autonomously, individuals would come together to decide what is best for the collective. Thus, stem cell research would require examining the value of the research to society as a whole and the use of the embryos as a collective societal resource. If society views the source as part of the collective whole, and opposes using stem cells, compromising the cultural values to pursue research may cause social detachment and stunt research growth. [13] Based on local culture and moral philosophy, the permissibility of stem cell research depends on how embryo, stem cell, and cell line therapies relate to the community as a whole. Ubuntu is the expression of humanness, with the person’s identity drawn from the “’I am because we are’” value. [14] The decision in a collectivistic culture becomes one born of cultural context, and individual decisions give deference to others in the society.

Consent differs in cultures where thought and moral philosophy are based on a collective paradigm. So, applying Western bioethical concepts is unrealistic. For one, Africa is a diverse continent with many countries with different belief systems, access to health care, and reliance on traditional or Western medicines. Where traditional medicine is the primary treatment, the “’restrictive focus on biomedically-related bioethics’” [is] problematic in African contexts because it neglects bioethical issues raised by traditional systems.” [15] No single approach applies in all areas or contexts. Rather than evaluating the permissibility of ESC research according to Western concepts such as the four principles approach, different ethics approaches should prevail.

Another consideration is the socio-economic standing of countries. In parts of South Africa, researchers have not focused heavily on contributing to the stem cell discourse, either because it is not considered health care or a health science priority or because resources are unavailable. [16] Each country’s priorities differ given different social, political, and economic factors. In South Africa, for instance, areas such as maternal mortality, non-communicable diseases, telemedicine, and the strength of health systems need improvement and require more focus [17] Stem cell research could benefit the population, but it also could divert resources from basic medical care. Researchers in South Africa adhere to the National Health Act and Medicines Control Act in South Africa and international guidelines; however, the Act is not strictly enforced, and there is no clear legislation for research conduct or ethical guidelines. [18]

Some parts of Africa condemn stem cell research. For example, 98.2 percent of the Tunisian population is Muslim. [19] Tunisia does not permit stem cell research because of moral conflict with a Fatwa. Religion heavily saturates the regulation and direction of research. [20] Stem cell use became permissible for reproductive purposes only recently, with tight restrictions preventing cells from being used in any research other than procedures concerning ART/IVF.  Their use is conditioned on consent, and available only to married couples. [21] The community's receptiveness to stem cell research depends on including communitarian African ethics.

c.     Asia

Some Asian countries also have a collective model of ethics and decision making. [22] In China, the ethics model promotes a sincere respect for life or human dignity, [23] based on protective medicine. This model, influenced by Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), [24] recognizes Qi as the vital energy delivered via the meridians of the body; it connects illness to body systems, the body’s entire constitution, and the universe for a holistic bond of nature, health, and quality of life. [25] Following a protective ethics model, and traditional customs of wholeness, investment in stem cell research is heavily desired for its applications in regenerative therapies, disease modeling, and protective medicines. In a survey of medical students and healthcare practitioners, 30.8 percent considered stem cell research morally unacceptable while 63.5 percent accepted medical research using human embryonic stem cells. Of these individuals, 89.9 percent supported increased funding for stem cell research. [26] The scientific community might not reflect the overall population. From 1997 to 2019, China spent a total of $576 million (USD) on stem cell research at 8,050 stem cell programs, increased published presence from 0.6 percent to 14.01 percent of total global stem cell publications as of 2014, and made significant strides in cell-based therapies for various medical conditions. [27] However, while China has made substantial investments in stem cell research and achieved notable progress in clinical applications, concerns linger regarding ethical oversight and transparency. [28] For example, the China Biosecurity Law, promoted by the National Health Commission and China Hospital Association, attempted to mitigate risks by introducing an institutional review board (IRB) in the regulatory bodies. 5800 IRBs registered with the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry since 2021. [29] However, issues still need to be addressed in implementing effective IRB review and approval procedures.

The substantial government funding and focus on scientific advancement have sometimes overshadowed considerations of regional cultures, ethnic minorities, and individual perspectives, particularly evident during the one-child policy era. As government policy adapts to promote public stability, such as the change from the one-child to the two-child policy, [30] research ethics should also adapt to ensure respect for the values of its represented peoples.

Japan is also relatively supportive of stem cell research and therapies. Japan has a more transparent regulatory framework, allowing for faster approval of regenerative medicine products, which has led to several advanced clinical trials and therapies. [31] South Korea is also actively engaged in stem cell research and has a history of breakthroughs in cloning and embryonic stem cells. [32] However, the field is controversial, and there are issues of scientific integrity. For example, the Korean FDA fast-tracked products for approval, [33] and in another instance, the oocyte source was unclear and possibly violated ethical standards. [34] Trust is important in research, as it builds collaborative foundations between colleagues, trial participant comfort, open-mindedness for complicated and sensitive discussions, and supports regulatory procedures for stakeholders. There is a need to respect the culture’s interest, engagement, and for research and clinical trials to be transparent and have ethical oversight to promote global research discourse and trust.

d.     Middle East

Countries in the Middle East have varying degrees of acceptance of or restrictions to policies related to using embryonic stem cells due to cultural and religious influences. Saudi Arabia has made significant contributions to stem cell research, and conducts research based on international guidelines for ethical conduct and under strict adherence to guidelines in accordance with Islamic principles. Specifically, the Saudi government and people require ESC research to adhere to Sharia law. In addition to umbilical and placental stem cells, [35] Saudi Arabia permits the use of embryonic stem cells as long as they come from miscarriages, therapeutic abortions permissible by Sharia law, or are left over from in vitro fertilization and donated to research. [36] Laws and ethical guidelines for stem cell research allow the development of research institutions such as the King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, which has a cord blood bank and a stem cell registry with nearly 10,000 donors. [37] Such volume and acceptance are due to the ethical ‘permissibility’ of the donor sources, which do not conflict with religious pillars. However, some researchers err on the side of caution, choosing not to use embryos or fetal tissue as they feel it is unethical to do so. [38]

Jordan has a positive research ethics culture. [39] However, there is a significant issue of lack of trust in researchers, with 45.23 percent (38.66 percent agreeing and 6.57 percent strongly agreeing) of Jordanians holding a low level of trust in researchers, compared to 81.34 percent of Jordanians agreeing that they feel safe to participate in a research trial. [40] Safety testifies to the feeling of confidence that adequate measures are in place to protect participants from harm, whereas trust in researchers could represent the confidence in researchers to act in the participants’ best interests, adhere to ethical guidelines, provide accurate information, and respect participants’ rights and dignity. One method to improve trust would be to address communication issues relevant to ESC. Legislation surrounding stem cell research has adopted specific language, especially concerning clarification “between ‘stem cells’ and ‘embryonic stem cells’” in translation. [41] Furthermore, legislation “mandates the creation of a national committee… laying out specific regulations for stem-cell banking in accordance with international standards.” [42] This broad regulation opens the door for future global engagement and maintains transparency. However, these regulations may also constrain the influence of research direction, pace, and accessibility of research outcomes.

e.     Europe

In the European Union (EU), ethics is also principle-based, but the principles of autonomy, dignity, integrity, and vulnerability are interconnected. [43] As such, the opportunity for cohesion and concessions between individuals’ thoughts and ideals allows for a more adaptable ethics model due to the flexible principles that relate to the human experience The EU has put forth a framework in its Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being allowing member states to take different approaches. Each European state applies these principles to its specific conventions, leading to or reflecting different acceptance levels of stem cell research. [44]

For example, in Germany, Lebenzusammenhang , or the coherence of life, references integrity in the unity of human culture. Namely, the personal sphere “should not be subject to external intervention.” [45]  Stem cell interventions could affect this concept of bodily completeness, leading to heavy restrictions. Under the Grundgesetz, human dignity and the right to life with physical integrity are paramount. [46] The Embryo Protection Act of 1991 made producing cell lines illegal. Cell lines can be imported if approved by the Central Ethics Commission for Stem Cell Research only if they were derived before May 2007. [47] Stem cell research respects the integrity of life for the embryo with heavy specifications and intense oversight. This is vastly different in Finland, where the regulatory bodies find research more permissible in IVF excess, but only up to 14 days after fertilization. [48] Spain’s approach differs still, with a comprehensive regulatory framework. [49] Thus, research regulation can be culture-specific due to variations in applied principles. Diverse cultures call for various approaches to ethical permissibility. [50] Only an adaptive-deliberative model can address the cultural constructions of self and achieve positive, culturally sensitive stem cell research practices. [51]

II.     Religious Perspectives on ESC

Embryonic stem cell sources are the main consideration within religious contexts. While individuals may not regard their own religious texts as authoritative or factual, religion can shape their foundations or perspectives.

The Qur'an states:

“And indeed We created man from a quintessence of clay. Then We placed within him a small quantity of nutfa (sperm to fertilize) in a safe place. Then We have fashioned the nutfa into an ‘alaqa (clinging clot or cell cluster), then We developed the ‘alaqa into mudgha (a lump of flesh), and We made mudgha into bones, and clothed the bones with flesh, then We brought it into being as a new creation. So Blessed is Allah, the Best of Creators.” [52]

Many scholars of Islam estimate the time of soul installment, marked by the angel breathing in the soul to bring the individual into creation, as 120 days from conception. [53] Personhood begins at this point, and the value of life would prohibit research or experimentation that could harm the individual. If the fetus is more than 120 days old, the time ensoulment is interpreted to occur according to Islamic law, abortion is no longer permissible. [54] There are a few opposing opinions about early embryos in Islamic traditions. According to some Islamic theologians, there is no ensoulment of the early embryo, which is the source of stem cells for ESC research. [55]

In Buddhism, the stance on stem cell research is not settled. The main tenets, the prohibition against harming or destroying others (ahimsa) and the pursuit of knowledge (prajña) and compassion (karuna), leave Buddhist scholars and communities divided. [56] Some scholars argue stem cell research is in accordance with the Buddhist tenet of seeking knowledge and ending human suffering. Others feel it violates the principle of not harming others. Finding the balance between these two points relies on the karmic burden of Buddhist morality. In trying to prevent ahimsa towards the embryo, Buddhist scholars suggest that to comply with Buddhist tenets, research cannot be done as the embryo has personhood at the moment of conception and would reincarnate immediately, harming the individual's ability to build their karmic burden. [57] On the other hand, the Bodhisattvas, those considered to be on the path to enlightenment or Nirvana, have given organs and flesh to others to help alleviate grieving and to benefit all. [58] Acceptance varies on applied beliefs and interpretations.

Catholicism does not support embryonic stem cell research, as it entails creation or destruction of human embryos. This destruction conflicts with the belief in the sanctity of life. For example, in the Old Testament, Genesis describes humanity as being created in God’s image and multiplying on the Earth, referencing the sacred rights to human conception and the purpose of development and life. In the Ten Commandments, the tenet that one should not kill has numerous interpretations where killing could mean murder or shedding of the sanctity of life, demonstrating the high value of human personhood. In other books, the theological conception of when life begins is interpreted as in utero, [59] highlighting the inviolability of life and its formation in vivo to make a religious point for accepting such research as relatively limited, if at all. [60] The Vatican has released ethical directives to help apply a theological basis to modern-day conflicts. The Magisterium of the Church states that “unless there is a moral certainty of not causing harm,” experimentation on fetuses, fertilized cells, stem cells, or embryos constitutes a crime. [61] Such procedures would not respect the human person who exists at these stages, according to Catholicism. Damages to the embryo are considered gravely immoral and illicit. [62] Although the Catholic Church officially opposes abortion, surveys demonstrate that many Catholic people hold pro-choice views, whether due to the context of conception, stage of pregnancy, threat to the mother’s life, or for other reasons, demonstrating that practicing members can also accept some but not all tenets. [63]

Some major Jewish denominations, such as the Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionist movements, are open to supporting ESC use or research as long as it is for saving a life. [64] Within Judaism, the Talmud, or study, gives personhood to the child at birth and emphasizes that life does not begin at conception: [65]

“If she is found pregnant, until the fortieth day it is mere fluid,” [66]

Whereas most religions prioritize the status of human embryos, the Halakah (Jewish religious law) states that to save one life, most other religious laws can be ignored because it is in pursuit of preservation. [67] Stem cell research is accepted due to application of these religious laws.

We recognize that all religions contain subsets and sects. The variety of environmental and cultural differences within religious groups requires further analysis to respect the flexibility of religious thoughts and practices. We make no presumptions that all cultures require notions of autonomy or morality as under the common morality theory , which asserts a set of universal moral norms that all individuals share provides moral reasoning and guides ethical decisions. [68] We only wish to show that the interaction with morality varies between cultures and countries.

III.     A Flexible Ethical Approach

The plurality of different moral approaches described above demonstrates that there can be no universally acceptable uniform law for ESC on a global scale. Instead of developing one standard, flexible ethical applications must be continued. We recommend local guidelines that incorporate important cultural and ethical priorities.

While the Declaration of Helsinki is more relevant to people in clinical trials receiving ESC products, in keeping with the tradition of protections for research subjects, consent of the donor is an ethical requirement for ESC donation in many jurisdictions including the US, Canada, and Europe. [69] The Declaration of Helsinki provides a reference point for regulatory standards and could potentially be used as a universal baseline for obtaining consent prior to gamete or embryo donation.

For instance, in Columbia University’s egg donor program for stem cell research, donors followed standard screening protocols and “underwent counseling sessions that included information as to the purpose of oocyte donation for research, what the oocytes would be used for, the risks and benefits of donation, and process of oocyte stimulation” to ensure transparency for consent. [70] The program helped advance stem cell research and provided clear and safe research methods with paid participants. Though paid participation or covering costs of incidental expenses may not be socially acceptable in every culture or context, [71] and creating embryos for ESC research is illegal in many jurisdictions, Columbia’s program was effective because of the clear and honest communications with donors, IRBs, and related stakeholders.  This example demonstrates that cultural acceptance of scientific research and of the idea that an egg or embryo does not have personhood is likely behind societal acceptance of donating eggs for ESC research. As noted, many countries do not permit the creation of embryos for research.

Proper communication and education regarding the process and purpose of stem cell research may bolster comprehension and garner more acceptance. “Given the sensitive subject material, a complete consent process can support voluntary participation through trust, understanding, and ethical norms from the cultures and morals participants value. This can be hard for researchers entering countries of different socioeconomic stability, with different languages and different societal values. [72]

An adequate moral foundation in medical ethics is derived from the cultural and religious basis that informs knowledge and actions. [73] Understanding local cultural and religious values and their impact on research could help researchers develop humility and promote inclusion.

IV.     Concerns

Some may argue that if researchers all adhere to one ethics standard, protection will be satisfied across all borders, and the global public will trust researchers. However, defining what needs to be protected and how to define such research standards is very specific to the people to which standards are applied. We suggest that applying one uniform guide cannot accurately protect each individual because we all possess our own perceptions and interpretations of social values. [74] Therefore, the issue of not adjusting to the moral pluralism between peoples in applying one standard of ethics can be resolved by building out ethics models that can be adapted to different cultures and religions.

Other concerns include medical tourism, which may promote health inequities. [75] Some countries may develop and approve products derived from ESC research before others, compromising research ethics or drug approval processes. There are also concerns about the sale of unauthorized stem cell treatments, for example, those without FDA approval in the United States. Countries with robust research infrastructures may be tempted to attract medical tourists, and some customers will have false hopes based on aggressive publicity of unproven treatments. [76]

For example, in China, stem cell clinics can market to foreign clients who are not protected under the regulatory regimes. Companies employ a marketing strategy of “ethically friendly” therapies. Specifically, in the case of Beike, China’s leading stem cell tourism company and sprouting network, ethical oversight of administrators or health bureaus at one site has “the unintended consequence of shifting questionable activities to another node in Beike's diffuse network.” [77] In contrast, Jordan is aware of stem cell research’s potential abuse and its own status as a “health-care hub.” Jordan’s expanded regulations include preserving the interests of individuals in clinical trials and banning private companies from ESC research to preserve transparency and the integrity of research practices. [78]

The social priorities of the community are also a concern. The ISSCR explicitly states that guidelines “should be periodically revised to accommodate scientific advances, new challenges, and evolving social priorities.” [79] The adaptable ethics model extends this consideration further by addressing whether research is warranted given the varying degrees of socioeconomic conditions, political stability, and healthcare accessibilities and limitations. An ethical approach would require discussion about resource allocation and appropriate distribution of funds. [80]

While some religions emphasize the sanctity of life from conception, which may lead to public opposition to ESC research, others encourage ESC research due to its potential for healing and alleviating human pain. Many countries have special regulations that balance local views on embryonic personhood, the benefits of research as individual or societal goods, and the protection of human research subjects. To foster understanding and constructive dialogue, global policy frameworks should prioritize the protection of universal human rights, transparency, and informed consent. In addition to these foundational global policies, we recommend tailoring local guidelines to reflect the diverse cultural and religious perspectives of the populations they govern. Ethics models should be adapted to local populations to effectively establish research protections, growth, and possibilities of stem cell research.

For example, in countries with strong beliefs in the moral sanctity of embryos or heavy religious restrictions, an adaptive model can allow for discussion instead of immediate rejection. In countries with limited individual rights and voice in science policy, an adaptive model ensures cultural, moral, and religious views are taken into consideration, thereby building social inclusion. While this ethical consideration by the government may not give a complete voice to every individual, it will help balance policies and maintain the diverse perspectives of those it affects. Embracing an adaptive ethics model of ESC research promotes open-minded dialogue and respect for the importance of human belief and tradition. By actively engaging with cultural and religious values, researchers can better handle disagreements and promote ethical research practices that benefit each society.

This brief exploration of the religious and cultural differences that impact ESC research reveals the nuances of relative ethics and highlights a need for local policymakers to apply a more intense adaptive model.

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[27] Luo, D., Xu, Z., Wang, Z., & Ran, W. (2021). China's Stem Cell Research and Knowledge Levels of Medical Practitioners and Students.  Stem cells international ,  2021 , 6667743. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6667743

[28] Zhang, J. Y. (2017). Lost in translation? accountability and governance of Clinical Stem Cell Research in China. Regenerative Medicine , 12 (6), 647–656. https://doi.org/10.2217/rme-2017-0035

[29] Wang, L., Wang, F., & Zhang, W. (2021). Bioethics in China’s biosecurity law: Forms, effects, and unsettled issues. Journal of law and the biosciences , 8(1).  https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsab019 https://academic.oup.com/jlb/article/8/1/lsab019/6299199

[30] Chen, H., Wei, T., Wang, H.  et al.  Association of China’s two-child policy with changes in number of births and birth defects rate, 2008–2017.  BMC Public Health   22 , 434 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-12839-0

[31] Azuma, K. Regulatory Landscape of Regenerative Medicine in Japan.  Curr Stem Cell Rep   1 , 118–128 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40778-015-0012-6

[32] Harris, R. (2005, May 19). Researchers Report Advance in Stem Cell Production . NPR. https://www.npr.org/2005/05/19/4658967/researchers-report-advance-in-stem-cell-production

[33] Park, S. (2012). South Korea steps up stem-cell work.  Nature . https://doi.org/10.1038/nature.2012.10565

[34] Resnik, D. B., Shamoo, A. E., & Krimsky, S. (2006). Fraudulent human embryonic stem cell research in South Korea: lessons learned.  Accountability in research ,  13 (1), 101–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/08989620600634193 .

[35] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[36] Association for the Advancement of Blood and Biotherapies.  https://www.aabb.org/regulatory-and-advocacy/regulatory-affairs/regulatory-for-cellular-therapies/international-competent-authorities/saudi-arabia

[37] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia.  BMC medical ethics ,  21 (1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[38] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics , 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

Culturally, autonomy practices follow a relational autonomy approach based on a paternalistic deontological health care model. The adherence to strict international research policies and religious pillars within the regulatory environment is a great foundation for research ethics. However, there is a need to develop locally targeted ethics approaches for research (as called for in Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6), this decision-making approach may help advise a research decision model. For more on the clinical cultural autonomy approaches, see: Alabdullah, Y. Y., Alzaid, E., Alsaad, S., Alamri, T., Alolayan, S. W., Bah, S., & Aljoudi, A. S. (2022). Autonomy and paternalism in Shared decision‐making in a Saudi Arabian tertiary hospital: A cross‐sectional study. Developing World Bioethics , 23 (3), 260–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12355 ; Bukhari, A. A. (2017). Universal Principles of Bioethics and Patient Rights in Saudi Arabia (Doctoral dissertation, Duquesne University). https://dsc.duq.edu/etd/124; Ladha, S., Nakshawani, S. A., Alzaidy, A., & Tarab, B. (2023, October 26). Islam and Bioethics: What We All Need to Know . Columbia University School of Professional Studies. https://sps.columbia.edu/events/islam-and-bioethics-what-we-all-need-know

[39] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics.  Research Ethics ,  17 (2), 228-241.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[40] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics.  Research Ethics ,  17 (2), 228-241.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[41] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[42] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[43] The EU’s definition of autonomy relates to the capacity for creating ideas, moral insight, decisions, and actions without constraint, personal responsibility, and informed consent. However, the EU views autonomy as not completely able to protect individuals and depends on other principles, such as dignity, which “expresses the intrinsic worth and fundamental equality of all human beings.” Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[44] Council of Europe. Convention for the protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine: Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine (ETS No. 164) https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list?module=treaty-detail&treatynum=164 (forbidding the creation of embryos for research purposes only, and suggests embryos in vitro have protections.); Also see Drabiak-Syed B. K. (2013). New President, New Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research Policy: Comparative International Perspectives and Embryonic Stem Cell Research Laws in France.  Biotechnology Law Report ,  32 (6), 349–356. https://doi.org/10.1089/blr.2013.9865

[45] Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[46] Tomuschat, C., Currie, D. P., Kommers, D. P., & Kerr, R. (Trans.). (1949, May 23). Basic law for the Federal Republic of Germany. https://www.btg-bestellservice.de/pdf/80201000.pdf

[47] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Germany . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-germany

[48] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Finland . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-finland

[49] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Spain . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-spain

[50] Some sources to consider regarding ethics models or regulatory oversights of other cultures not covered:

Kara MA. Applicability of the principle of respect for autonomy: the perspective of Turkey. J Med Ethics. 2007 Nov;33(11):627-30. doi: 10.1136/jme.2006.017400. PMID: 17971462; PMCID: PMC2598110.

Ugarte, O. N., & Acioly, M. A. (2014). The principle of autonomy in Brazil: one needs to discuss it ...  Revista do Colegio Brasileiro de Cirurgioes ,  41 (5), 374–377. https://doi.org/10.1590/0100-69912014005013

Bharadwaj, A., & Glasner, P. E. (2012). Local cells, global science: The rise of embryonic stem cell research in India . Routledge.

For further research on specific European countries regarding ethical and regulatory framework, we recommend this database: Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Europe . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-europe   

[51] Klitzman, R. (2006). Complications of culture in obtaining informed consent. The American Journal of Bioethics, 6(1), 20–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/15265160500394671 see also: Ekmekci, P. E., & Arda, B. (2017). Interculturalism and Informed Consent: Respecting Cultural Differences without Breaching Human Rights.  Cultura (Iasi, Romania) ,  14 (2), 159–172.; For why trust is important in research, see also: Gray, B., Hilder, J., Macdonald, L., Tester, R., Dowell, A., & Stubbe, M. (2017). Are research ethics guidelines culturally competent?  Research Ethics ,  13 (1), 23-41.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016116650235

[52] The Qur'an  (M. Khattab, Trans.). (1965). Al-Mu’minun, 23: 12-14. https://quran.com/23

[53] Lenfest, Y. (2017, December 8). Islam and the beginning of human life . Bill of Health. https://blog.petrieflom.law.harvard.edu/2017/12/08/islam-and-the-beginning-of-human-life/

[54] Aksoy, S. (2005). Making regulations and drawing up legislation in Islamic countries under conditions of uncertainty, with special reference to embryonic stem cell research. Journal of Medical Ethics , 31: 399-403.; see also: Mahmoud, Azza. "Islamic Bioethics: National Regulations and Guidelines of Human Stem Cell Research in the Muslim World." Master's thesis, Chapman University, 2022. https://doi.org/10.36837/ chapman.000386

[55] Rashid, R. (2022). When does Ensoulment occur in the Human Foetus. Journal of the British Islamic Medical Association , 12 (4). ISSN 2634 8071. https://www.jbima.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/2-Ethics-3_-Ensoulment_Rafaqat.pdf.

[56] Sivaraman, M. & Noor, S. (2017). Ethics of embryonic stem cell research according to Buddhist, Hindu, Catholic, and Islamic religions: perspective from Malaysia. Asian Biomedicine,8(1) 43-52.  https://doi.org/10.5372/1905-7415.0801.260

[57] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[58] Lecso, P. A. (1991). The Bodhisattva Ideal and Organ Transplantation.  Journal of Religion and Health ,  30 (1), 35–41. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27510629 ; Bodhisattva, S. (n.d.). The Key of Becoming a Bodhisattva . A Guide to the Bodhisattva Way of Life. http://www.buddhism.org/Sutras/2/BodhisattvaWay.htm

[59] There is no explicit religious reference to when life begins or how to conduct research that interacts with the concept of life. However, these are relevant verses pertaining to how the fetus is viewed. (( King James Bible . (1999). Oxford University Press. (original work published 1769))

Jerimiah 1: 5 “Before I formed thee in the belly I knew thee; and before thou camest forth out of the womb I sanctified thee…”

In prophet Jerimiah’s insight, God set him apart as a person known before childbirth, a theme carried within the Psalm of David.

Psalm 139: 13-14 “…Thou hast covered me in my mother's womb. I will praise thee; for I am fearfully and wonderfully made…”

These verses demonstrate David’s respect for God as an entity that would know of all man’s thoughts and doings even before birth.

[60] It should be noted that abortion is not supported as well.

[61] The Vatican. (1987, February 22). Instruction on Respect for Human Life in Its Origin and on the Dignity of Procreation Replies to Certain Questions of the Day . Congregation For the Doctrine of the Faith. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19870222_respect-for-human-life_en.html

[62] The Vatican. (2000, August 25). Declaration On the Production and the Scientific and Therapeutic Use of Human Embryonic Stem Cells . Pontifical Academy for Life. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_academies/acdlife/documents/rc_pa_acdlife_doc_20000824_cellule-staminali_en.html ; Ohara, N. (2003). Ethical Consideration of Experimentation Using Living Human Embryos: The Catholic Church’s Position on Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research and Human Cloning. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology . Retrieved from https://article.imrpress.com/journal/CEOG/30/2-3/pii/2003018/77-81.pdf.

[63] Smith, G. A. (2022, May 23). Like Americans overall, Catholics vary in their abortion views, with regular mass attenders most opposed . Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2022/05/23/like-americans-overall-catholics-vary-in-their-abortion-views-with-regular-mass-attenders-most-opposed/

[64] Rosner, F., & Reichman, E. (2002). Embryonic stem cell research in Jewish law. Journal of halacha and contemporary society , (43), 49–68.; Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[65] Schenker J. G. (2008). The beginning of human life: status of embryo. Perspectives in Halakha (Jewish Religious Law).  Journal of assisted reproduction and genetics ,  25 (6), 271–276. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-008-9221-6

[66] Ruttenberg, D. (2020, May 5). The Torah of Abortion Justice (annotated source sheet) . Sefaria. https://www.sefaria.org/sheets/234926.7?lang=bi&with=all&lang2=en

[67] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[68] Gert, B. (2007). Common morality: Deciding what to do . Oxford Univ. Press.

[69] World Medical Association (2013). World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki: ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. JAMA , 310(20), 2191–2194. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.281053 Declaration of Helsinki – WMA – The World Medical Association .; see also: National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. (1979).  The Belmont report: Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research . U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.  https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/read-the-belmont-report/index.html

[70] Zakarin Safier, L., Gumer, A., Kline, M., Egli, D., & Sauer, M. V. (2018). Compensating human subjects providing oocytes for stem cell research: 9-year experience and outcomes.  Journal of assisted reproduction and genetics ,  35 (7), 1219–1225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-018-1171-z https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6063839/ see also: Riordan, N. H., & Paz Rodríguez, J. (2021). Addressing concerns regarding associated costs, transparency, and integrity of research in recent stem cell trial. Stem Cells Translational Medicine , 10 (12), 1715–1716. https://doi.org/10.1002/sctm.21-0234

[71] Klitzman, R., & Sauer, M. V. (2009). Payment of egg donors in stem cell research in the USA.  Reproductive biomedicine online ,  18 (5), 603–608. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1472-6483(10)60002-8

[72] Krosin, M. T., Klitzman, R., Levin, B., Cheng, J., & Ranney, M. L. (2006). Problems in comprehension of informed consent in rural and peri-urban Mali, West Africa.  Clinical trials (London, England) ,  3 (3), 306–313. https://doi.org/10.1191/1740774506cn150oa

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[75] Pirzada, N. (2022). The Expansion of Turkey’s Medical Tourism Industry.  Voices in Bioethics ,  8 . https://doi.org/10.52214/vib.v8i.9894

[76] Stem Cell Tourism: False Hope for Real Money . Harvard Stem Cell Institute (HSCI). (2023). https://hsci.harvard.edu/stem-cell-tourism , See also: Bissassar, M. (2017). Transnational Stem Cell Tourism: An ethical analysis.  Voices in Bioethics ,  3 . https://doi.org/10.7916/vib.v3i.6027

[77] Song, P. (2011) The proliferation of stem cell therapies in post-Mao China: problematizing ethical regulation,  New Genetics and Society , 30:2, 141-153, DOI:  10.1080/14636778.2011.574375

[78] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[79] International Society for Stem Cell Research. (2024). Standards in stem cell research . International Society for Stem Cell Research. https://www.isscr.org/guidelines/5-standards-in-stem-cell-research

[80] Benjamin, R. (2013). People’s science bodies and rights on the Stem Cell Frontier . Stanford University Press.

Olivia Bowers

MS Bioethics Columbia University (Disclosure: affiliated with Voices in Bioethics)

Mifrah Hayath

SM Candidate Harvard Medical School, MS Biotechnology Johns Hopkins University

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