space travel and health answers

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Space Travel and Health

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A. Space biomedicine is a relatively new area of research both in the USA and in Europe. Its main objectives are to study the effects of space travel on the human body, identifying the most critical medical problems, and finding solutions to those problems. Space biomedicine centers are receiving increasing direct support from NASA and/or the European Space Agency (ESA).

B. This involvement of NASA and the ESA reflects growing concern that the feasibility of travel to other planets, and beyond, is no longer limited by engineering constraints but by what the human body can actually withstand. The discovery of ice on Mars, for instance, means that there is now no necessity to design and develop a spacecraft large and powerful enough to transport the vast amounts of water needed to sustain the crew throughout journeys that may last many years. Without the necessary protection and medical treatment, however, their bodies would be devastated by the unremittingly hostile environment of space.

C. The most obvious physical changes undergone by people in zero gravity are essentially harmless; in some cases, they are even amusing. The blood and other fluids are no longer dragged down towards the feet by the gravity of Earth, so they accumulate higher up in the body, creating what is sometimes called ‘fat face`, together with the contrasting ‘chicken legs’ syndrome as the lower limbs become thinner.

D. Much more serious are the unseen consequences after months or years in space. With no gravity, there is less need for a sturdy skeleton to support the body, with the result that the bones weaken, releasing calcium into the bloodstream. This extra calcium can overload the kidneys, leading ultimately to renal failure. Muscles too lose strength through lack of use. The heart becomes smaller, losing the power to pump oxygenated blood to all parts of the body, while the lungs lose the capacity to breathe fully. The digestive system becomes less efficient, a weakened immune system is increasingly unable to prevent diseases and the high levels of solar and cosmic radiation can cause various forms of cancer.

E. To make matters worse, a wide range of medical difficulties can arise in the case of an accident or serious illness when the patient is millions of kilometers from Earth. There is simply not enough room available inside a space vehicle to include all the equipment from a hospital’s casualty unit, some of which would not work properly in space anyway. Even basic things such as a drip depend on gravity to function, while standard resuscitation techniques become ineffective if sufficient weight cannot be applied. The only solution seems to be to create extremely small medical tools and ‘smart` devices that can, for example, diagnose and treat internal injuries using ultrasound. The cost of designing and producing this kind of equipment is bound to be, well, astronomical.

F. Such considerations have led some to question the ethics of investing huge sums of money to help a handful of people who, after all, are willingly risking their own health in outer space, when so much needs to be done a lot closer to home. It is now clear, however, that every problem of space travel has a parallel problem on Earth that will benefit from the knowledge gained and the skills developed from space biomedical research. For instance, the very difficulty of treating astronauts in space has led to rapid progress in the field of telemedicine, which in turn has brought about developments that enable surgeons to communicate with patients in inaccessible parts of the world. To take another example, systems invented to sterilize wastewater onboard spacecraft could be used by emergency teams to filter contaminated water at the scene of natural disasters such as floods and earthquakes. In the same way, miniature monitoring equipment, developed to save weight in space capsules, will eventually become tiny monitors that patients on Earth can wear without discomfort wherever they go.

G. Nevertheless, there is still one major obstacle to carrying out studies into the effects of space travel: how to do so without going to the enormous expense of actually working in space. To simulate conditions in zero gravity, one tried and tested method is to work underwater, but the space biomedicine centers are also looking at other ideas. In one experiment, researchers study the weakening of bones that results from prolonged inactivity. This would involve volunteers staying in bed for three months, but the center concerned is confident there should be no great difficulty in finding people willing to spend twelve weeks lying down.AII in the name of science, of course.

Questions 1-5

Reading Passage 1 has seven paragraphs A-G. Choose the correct heading for paragraphs B-E and G from the list of headings below. Write the correct member (i-x) in boxes 1—5 on your answer sheet.

List of Headings

i. The problem of dealing with emergencies in space ii. How space biomedicine can help patients on Earth iii. Why accidents are so common in outer space iv. What is space biomedicine? v. The psychological problems of astronauts vi. Conducting space biomedical research on Earth vii. The internal damage caused to the human body by space travel viii. How space biomedicine First began ix. The visible effects of space travel on the human body x. Why space biomedicine is now necessary

Example Paragraph A Answer iv 1 i ii iii iv v vi vii viii ix x Paragraph B Answer: x 2 i ii iii iv v vi vii viii ix x Paragraph C Answer: ix 3 i ii iii iv v vi vii viii ix x Paragraph D Answer: vii 4 i ii iii iv v vi vii viii ix x Paragraph E Answer: i Example Paragraph F Answer ii 5 i ii iii iv v vi vii viii ix x Paragraph G Answer: vi

Questions 6-7

Answer the questions below using NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS for each answer. 6. Where, apart from Earth, can space travelers find water? 6 Answer: (ON/FROM) MARS 7. What happens to human legs during space travel? 7 Answer: THEY BECOME THINNER

Questions 8-12

Do the following statements agree with the writer’s views in Reading Passage? Write YES if the statement agrees with the views of the writer NO, if the state does not agree with the views of the writer NOT GIVEN if there is no information about this in the passage

8 YES NO NOT GIVEN The obstacles to going far into space are now medical, not technological. Answer: YES 9 YES NO NOT GIVEN Astronauts cannot survive more than two years in space. Answer: NOT GIVEN 10 YES NO NOT GIVEN It is morally wrong to spend so much money on space biomedicine. Answer: NO 11 YES NO NOT GIVEN Some kinds of surgery are more successful when performed in space. Answer: NOT GIVEN 12 YES NO NOT GIVEN Space biomedical research can only be done in space. Answer: NO

Questions 13-14

Complete the table below. Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer

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Space travel and health Answers and Questions

The Blog post contains the following IELTS Reading Questions :

IELTS Reading Yes/No/Not given
IELTS Reading Matching headings
IELTS Reading Sentence completion

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IELTS Reading Passage: Space travel and health

Space travel and health

A. Both in the United States and Europe, space biomedicine is a relatively new field of study. Its primary goals are to investigate how space travel affects the human body, pinpoint the most pressing medical issues, and come up with solutions for those issues. NASA and/or the European Space Agency are providing more direct funding to space biomedicine centres. (ESA).

B. NASA and the ESA’s involvement reflects a growing concern that human endurance limits rather than engineering limitations are limiting the viability of travel to other planets and beyond. For example, the discovery of ice on Mars eliminates the need to design and build a spacecraft that is both large and powerful enough to transport the enormous quantities of water required to keep the crew alive during journeys that could last for many years. However, without the proper safeguards and medical care, the relentlessly hostile environment of space would wreak havoc on their bodies.

C. In many cases, the most noticeable physical changes people experience in zero gravity are harmless or even amusing. Because Earth’s gravity no longer pulls blood and other bodily fluids downward toward the feet, they accumulate higher up in the body, resulting in what is sometimes referred to as a “fat face” and the contrasting “chicken legs” syndrome as the lower limbs become thinner.

D. The unobserved effects following months or years in space are much more severe. Without gravity, the body doesn’t need a strong skeleton to support it, which causes the bones to deteriorate and release calcium into the bloodstream. The kidneys may become overloaded by the extra calcium, which ultimately results in renal failure. Muscles also lose strength from inactivity. The lungs lose their ability to fully expand while the heart gets smaller, losing the ability to pump oxygenated blood to every part of the body. The immune system weakens, the digestive system becomes less effective, and high levels of solar and cosmic radiation can result in different types of cancer.

E. To make matters worse, in the event of an accident or serious illness, a variety of medical challenges may present themselves to the patient while they are millions of kilometres away from Earth. Simply put, the equipment from a hospital’s casualty unit cannot be transported inside a spacecraft because there is not enough room for it, and some of it would not function properly in space anyway. Even simple things like a drip rely on gravity to work, whereas standard resuscitation techniques fail if enough weight is not applied. The only option appears to be to develop incredibly tiny medical tools and “smart” gadgets that can, for instance, use ultrasound to identify and treat internal injuries. The price of creating and manufacturing this type of equipment is inevitably astronomical.

F. Given these factors, some have questioned the morality of spending enormous sums of money to aid a small group of individuals who are willingly risking their health in space when there is a great need for assistance much closer to home. However, it is now obvious that every issue with space travel has an equivalent issue on Earth that will gain from the knowledge amassed and the expertise honed through space biomedical research. For instance, the difficulty of treating astronauts in space has accelerated the field of telemedicine’s development, allowing surgeons to communicate with patients in inhospitable locations around the world. Another illustration: Systems developed to purify waste water on spacecraft could be used by rescue personnel to filter contaminated water at the scene of earthquakes and floods. Similar to how tiny monitoring devices that However, there is still a significant barrier to conducting studies into the effects of space travel: how to do so without incurring the astronomical costs of working in space. Working underwater is a tried-and-true method to simulate conditions in zero gravity, but the space biomedicine centres are also considering other approaches. In one experiment, scientists look at the deterioration of bones brought on by extended inactivity. This would require volunteers to spend three months in bed, but the centre in question is confident that it shouldn’t be too difficult to find volunteers willing to spend a month lying down.Of course, AII was done in the name of science.were created to reduce weight in spacecraft will eventually become monitors that patients on Earth can wear comfortably wherever they go.

G. However, there is still a significant barrier to conducting studies into the effects of space travel: how to do so without incurring the astronomical costs of working in space. Working underwater is a tried-and-true method to simulate conditions in zero gravity, but the space biomedicine centres are also considering other approaches. In one experiment, scientists look at the deterioration of bones brought on by extended inactivity. This would require volunteers to spend three months in bed, but the centre in question is confident that it shouldn’t be too difficult to find volunteers willing to spend a month lying down. Of course, AII was done in the name of science.

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Space travel and health IELTS Reading Questions

Questions 1 – 3

Do the following statements agree with the writer’s views in the Reading Passage? Write:

YES if the statement agrees with the views of the writer NO, if the state does not agree with the views of the writer NOT GIVEN if there is no information about this in the passage

1. The obstacles to going far into space are now medical, not technological. 2. Astronauts cannot survive more than two years in space. 3. It is morally wrong to spend so much money on space biomedicine. 4. Some kinds of surgery are more successful when performed in space. 5. Space biomedical research can only be done in space.

Want to excel in identifying the writer’s views and claims? Click here to explore our in-depth guide on how to accurately determine Yes, No, or Not Given in the IELTS Reading section .

Questions 6-10

Reading Passage 1 has seven paragraphs A-G. Choose the correct heading for paragraphs B-E and G from the list of headings below. Write the correct member (i-x) in boxes 6 —10 on your answer sheet.

List of Headings

i. The issue of handling emergencies in space ii. How space biomedicine can benefit patients here on Earth (ii) iii. The reason accidents happen so frequently in space iv. What is biomedicine in space? v. Astronauts’ mental health issues vi. conducting on-planet biomedical research in space vii. The internal harm that space travel does to the human body viii. The history of space medicine ix. The physical repercussions of space travel on the human body, item x. The current need for space biomedicine

Example: Paragraph A Answer iv

6. Paragraph B 7. Paragraph C 8. Paragraph D 9. Paragraph E 10. Paragraph G

Example: Paragraph F Answer ii

Ready to conquer Matching Headings questions? Click here to learn essential tips and techniques for matching headings accurately to paragraphs or sections in the IELTS Reading section.

Questions 11-13

Answer the questions below using NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS for each answer.

11. The space travellers can find water in ________ apart from Earth. 12. The legs become ___________ while in space travel. 13. Telemedicine treating astronauts _________ in remote areas.

Enhance your sentence completion skills in the IELTS Reading section. Click here to access our comprehensive guide and learn effective strategies for filling in missing words or phrases in sentences.

Space travel and health Reading answers

Solution for 1: YesSolution for 2: Not given Solution for 3: No Solution for 4: Not given Solution for 5: No Solution for 6: x Solution for 7: ix Solution for 8: vii Solution for 9: i Solution for 10: vi Solution for 11: Mars Solution for 12: They become thinner Solution for 13: Communication with patients

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Space travel And Health IELTS Reading Answers

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Updated on 13 April, 2023

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The IELTS examinations are again coming close. Students who wish to enroll in international universities must score well on this test. The IELTS test assesses a student's comprehension skills and language proficiency. For a better understanding of the question pattern and type, students must practice regularly using sample papers. The Space Travel and Health Reading sample is designed to support preparations so students can ace the test.

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A. Space biomedicine is a relatively new area of research both in the USA and Europe. Its main objectives are to study the effects of space travel on the human body, identify the most critical medical problems, and find solutions to those problems. Space biomedicine centers are receiving increasing direct support from NASA and/or the European Space Agency (ESA).

B. This involvement of NASA and the ESA reflects growing concern that the feasibility of travel to other planets and beyond is no longer limited by engineering constraints but by what the human body can withstand. The discovery of ice on Mars, for instance, means that there is now no necessity to design and develop a large and powerful spacecraft to transport the vast amounts of water needed to sustain the crew throughout journeys that may last many years. Without the necessary protection and medical treatment, however, their bodies would be devastated by the unremittingly hostile environment of space.

C. The most apparent physical changes undergone by people in zero gravity are harmless; in some cases, they are even amusing. The blood and other fluids are no longer dragged down towards the feet by the gravity of Earth, so they accumulate higher up in the body, creating what is sometimes called 'fat face`, together with the opposite 'chicken legs' syndrome as the lower limbs become thinner.

D. More serious are the unseen consequences after months or years in space. With no gravity, there is less need for a sturdy skeleton to support the body, resulting in the bones weakening and releasing calcium into the bloodstream. This extra calcium can overload the kidneys, leading ultimately to renal failure. Muscles, too, lose strength through lack of use. The heart becomes smaller, losing the power to pump oxygenated blood to all body parts, while the lungs lose the capacity to breathe fully. The digestive system becomes less efficient, a weakened immune system is increasingly unable to prevent diseases, and high levels of solar and cosmic radiation can cause various forms of cancer.

E. To make matters worse, a wide range of medical difficulties can arise in the case of an accident or severe illness when the patient is millions of kilometers from Earth. There is not enough room inside a space vehicle to include all the equipment from a hospital's casualty unit, some of which would not work correctly in space. Even basic things such as a drip depend on gravity to function, while standard resuscitation techniques become ineffective if sufficient weight cannot be applied. The only solution seems to be to create extremely small medical tools and 'smart` devices that can, for example, diagnose and treat internal injuries using ultrasound. The cost of designing and producing this kind of equipment is bound to be astronomical.

F. Such considerations have led some to question the ethics of investing vast sums of money to help a handful of people who, after all, are willingly risking their health in outer space, when so much needs to be done a lot closer to home. However, it is clear that every problem of space travel has a parallel problem on Earth that will benefit from the knowledge gained and the skills developed from space biomedical research. For instance, the difficulty of treating astronauts in space has led to rapid progress in telemedicine, which has brought about developments that enable surgeons to communicate with patients in inaccessible parts of the world. To take another example, systems invented to sterilize wastewater onboard spacecraft could be used by emergency teams to filter contaminated water at the scene of natural disasters such as floods and earthquakes. In the same way, miniature monitoring equipment, developed to save weight in space capsules, will eventually become tiny monitors that patients on Earth can wear without discomfort wherever they go.

G. Nevertheless, there is still one major obstacle to studying the effects of space travel: how to do so without going to the enormous expense of working in space. One tried and tested method to simulate conditions in zero gravity is to work underwater, but the space biomedicine centers are also looking at other ideas. In one experiment, researchers studied the weakening of bones that results from prolonged inactivity. This would involve volunteers staying in bed for three months, but the center concerned is confident there should be no great difficulty in finding people willing to spend twelve weeks lying down. AII in the name of science, of course.

Questions 1-5

Reading passage 1 has seven paragraphs A-G. Choose the correct heading for paragraphs B-E and G from the list of titles below. Write the valid number (i-x) in boxes 1-5 on your answer sheet.

List of Headings

The problem of dealing with emergencies in space.
How space biomedicine can help patients on Earth
Why are accidents so common in outer space
What is space biomedicine?
The psychological problems of astronauts
Conducting space biomedical research on Earth
The internal damage caused to the human body by space travel
How space biomedicine first began
The visible effects of space travel on the human body
Why space biomedicine is now necessary

Answer (1) – x (Why space biomedicine is now necessary)

Explanation:

In the second paragraph or Paragraph B of the Space Travel and Health Reading Answers , the author says that returning to space is no longer a problem due to engineering limitations. The primary issue is human health in outer space. Towards the end also, the author says that if proper medical equipment and teams are unavailable, the same can have irrecoverable health consequences given how hostile the outer space environment is. This shows how necessary space for biomedical research is.

Answer (2) – ix (The visible effects of space travel on the human body)

Explanation: According to Paragraph C of the Space Travel and Health Reading sample, the author talks about visible changes that outer space travel cause on the human body. From the get-go, mention is made of the first visible change, which is rather amusing. The blood accumulating towards the face due to zero gravity is the first change – the fat face situation. Then comes chicken legs syndrome since the lower half of the limbs become leaner. So, this paragraph is all about visible physiological changes.

Answer (3) – vii (The internal damage caused to the human body by space travel)

Explanation: Paragraph D of the Space Travel and Health Reading sample starts by mentioning that the visible physiological changes are trivial compared to the other dangerous changes happening within the body over months and years of staying in space. Then the author mentions what those changes can be – calcium accumulating in the kidneys, bones weakening significantly, renal failure, heart becoming smaller, and decreased muscle strength. So, this paragraph is all about the internal damage of space travel.

Answer (4) – i (The problem of dealing with emergencies in space)

Explanation: In the fifth paragraph of Paragraph E of the reading passage, the author carefully discusses the complications that health emergencies in space may cause. Many such examples are also mentioned, including drip not functioning due to lack of gravity. Then there is the problem of resuscitation in case the patient's body weight has reduced dramatically. This paragraph focuses heavily on the complications that space health emergencies cause.

Answer (5) – vi (Conducting space biomedical research on Earth)

Explanation: In the final paragraph or Paragraph G of the Space Travel and Health Reading sample, the author talks explicitly about how space biomedical research may be conducted on Earth. He mentions two experiments that may work – one is to experiment underwater for zero gravity situations and the other is to have volunteers lie down for 12 weeks straight to help study the weakening of bones due to extended periods of inactivity.

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Questions 6-7

Do the following statements agree with the writer’s views on the Reading Passage? Write –

YES - If the statement agrees with the views of the writer

NO – If the statement contradicts the views of the writer

NOT GIVEN – If there is no information about this in the passage

8. The obstacles to going far into space are medical, not technological.

Answer – YES

Explanation: The answer to this question may be found in Paragraph B of the Space Travel and Health Reading Answers . This paragraph begins as a continuation of the previous one, wherein the author says that the greater involvement of ESA and NASA in space biomedicine centers is raising concerns. In Paragraph B, the concerns are revealed – space travel limitations currently do not extend to engineering or technological issues but to medical reasons. This is implied by the sentence talking about the conditions that the human body can endure. Hence, the statement is true.

9. Astronauts cannot survive more than two years in space.

Answer – NOT GIVEN

Explanation: This question's answer may be found in Paragraph D of the Space Travel and Health Reading sample. In the previous paragraphs, the author addressed concerns about space travel. In Paragraph D, questions are raised on the effects of space on the human body after months and years of living there. The author mentions several adverse consequences, such as too much calcium in the bloodstream, weakened muscles, a smaller heart, and an inefficient digestive system. However, no mention is made of whether or not humans can survive in space for more than two years.

10. Spending so much money on space biomedicine is morally wrong.

Answer – NO

Explanation: Paragraph F of the Space Health and Travel Reading Answers answers this question. In the previous paragraph, the writer talks about the enormous sum space travel-related medical research would cost. In the paragraph in question, the author reveals that some people consider space travel-related biomedical research unethical investments. However, he further states that such research has value for medical science on Earth. Instances include advancements in telemedicine. Therefore, the statement contradicts what is given in the passage.

11. Some kinds of surgery are more successful when performed in space.

Answer – NOT GIVEN

Explanation: A clue to this question's answer can be found in Paragraph F of the Reading passage. As the paragraph proceeds, the author says that investing in biomedicine research for space travel is helpful because it helps medical research on Earth. He gives the example of telemedicine. We also get to know that the way this has helped is it has enabled surgeons to communicate with patients in every part of the world. However, nowhere is mention of certain surgeries being more successful in space.

12. Space biomedical research can only be done in space.

Answer – NO

Explanation: The answer to this question is available in Paragraph G of the Space Travel and Health Reading Answers sample. In this paragraph, the author mentions that it is possible to carry out biomedicine research for space travel on Earth itself. However, the same will involve huge expenses and out-of-the-ordinary experiments. An example is also given in the form of having volunteers lay in bed for three months straight to test the weakening of bones. Though the experiment seems impractical, at least the statement is true because space-related biomedicine research is possible on Earth.

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Questions 13-14

Complete the table below. Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer

Answer for Question 13 – Communicate with patients

Explanation: The answer to this question may be found in Paragraph F of the Space Travel and Health Reading Answers . In this paragraph, the author continues the debate on whether investing money in space-related biomedicine research is ethical. Then, the author justifies the spending, saying that this research has benefitted the Earth in several ways, one of which is the advancement of telemedicine. And the reason is that surgeons can now speak to people in previously inaccessible parts of the world.

Answer for Question 14 – Filter contaminated water

Explanation: The answer to this question can again be found in Paragraph F of the Space Travel and Health Reading sample. In this paragraph, the author first mentions advancements in telemedicine as one of the significant benefits of space-related biomedicine research. An example was how surgeons were able to communicate with patients in previously inaccessible parts of the world. Then, he offers another example – systems through which wastewater in the spacecraft was sterilized could also be used to fix contaminated water in sites of natural disasters such as earthquakes and floods.

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Cambridge Official Guide to IELTS; Academic Test 5 Reading passage 3; Science in Space; with best solutions and detailed explanations

This Academic IELTS Reading post focuses on solutions to IELTS Cambridge Official Guide to IELTS Test 5 Reading Passage 3 which is titled ‘ Science in Space’ . This is a targeted post for IELTS candidates who have big problems finding and understanding Reading answers in the Academic module. This post can guide you properly to understand every Reading answer without much trouble. Finding out IELTS Reading answers is a steady process, and this post will assist you in this respect.

Cambridge Official Guide to IELTS Test 5: AC Reading Module

Reading Passage 3: Questions 27-40

The headline of the passage: Science in Space

Questions 27-30: Multiple-choice questions

[This type of question asks you to choose a suitable answer from the options using the knowledge you gained from the passage. This question type generally follows a sequence. So, scanning skill is effective here.]

Question no. 27: What does the writer state about the ISS in the first paragraph?

Keywords for the question: ISS, first paragraph,

In the first paragraph, have a close look at the first six lines, “A premier, world-class laboratory in low Earth orbit. That was how the National Aeronautics and Space Administration agency (NASA) sold the International Space Station (ISS) to the US Congress in 2001. Today no one can doubt the agency’s technological ambition . . . .. .. .”

Here, no one can doubt the agency’s technological ambition = a great example of technological achievement,

So, the answer is: B (It is a great example of technological achievement.)

Question no. 28: What are we told about Satoshi Iwase’s experimental machine?

Keywords for the question: Satoshi Iwase’s experimental machine,

If you look at paragraph no. 2, the writer describes the design of the experimental machine designed by Satoshi Iwase in the final few lines. Here in lines 16-19 the writer mentions, “ . .. . .. .. This is where Iwase comes in. He leads a team designing a centrifuge for humans. In their preliminary design, an astronaut is strapped into the seat of a machine that resembles an exercise bike . . .. . . .. . ..”

Here, designing a centrifuge = designing the experimental machine, resembles an exercise bike = based on conventional exercise equipment,

So, the answer is: A (It is based on conventional exercise equipment.)

Question no. 29: The writer refers to the Hubble Space Telescope in order to –

Keywords for the question: the Hubble Space Telescope,

The answer to this question can be found in paragraph no. 5, in lines 7-15, where the writer mentions the Hubble Space Telescope. Let’s read there, “ .. . .. . . One of CASIS’s roles is to convince public and private investors that science on the station is worth the spend because judged solely by the number of papers published, the ISS certainly seems poor value : research on the station has generated about 3,100 papers since 1998 . The Hubble Space Telescope , meanwhile, has produced more than 11,300 papers in just over 20 years, yet it cost less than one-tenth of the price of the space station .”

Here, the ISS certainly seems poor value = the ISS is not given proper value that it deserves,

research on the station has generated about 3,100 papers since 1998 = the ISS has generated a good number of papers on space research,

These lines suggest that the Hubble Space Telescope is just a telescope and it produced more than 11,300 papers in just over 20 years; whereas the ISS or the International Space Station should be given bigger priority as it has already produced about 3100 papers.

So, the answer is: B (highlight the need to promote the ISS in a positive way.)

Question no. 30: In the sixth paragraph, we are told that CASIS has –

Keywords for the question: comparison, construction of Homer’s poems, another art form,

In paragraph no. 6, the writer says in lines 5-11, “ . . .. . . . . CASIS has examined more than 100 previous microgravity experiments to identify promising research themes. From this, it has opted to focus on life science and medical research, and recently called for proposals for experiments on muscle wasting, osteoporosis and the immune system . .. . . .. .”

Here, recently called for proposals for experiments on muscle wasting, osteoporosis and the immune system = invited researchers to suggest certain health-based projects,

So, the answer is: D (invited researchers to suggest certain health-based projects.)

Questions 31-35: Matching statements with the correct researchers

[In this type of question, candidates need to relate statements that are given by or link to some researchers in the passage. The rules for finding answers to this sort of question are simple. Just find the name of the researchers and read it carefully. Then, give a quick look to check whether there is another statement or idea provided by the same researchers in the text. If there is, check the reference carefully and decide your answer. Remember, the questions may not follow any sequential order.]

Question no. 31: The ISS should be available for business-related ventures.

Keywords for the question: ISS, should be available for, business-related ventures,

In lines 15-17 of paragraph no. 6, the writer mentions the comment made by Mark Uhran, “ . . . . .. . Investment from outside organisations is vital , says Uhran , and a balance between academic and commercial research will help attract this.”

Here, Investment from outside organisations is vital = the ISS should be encouraged to accept business-related ventures,

So, the answer is: C (Mark Uhran)

Question no. 32: There is general ignorance about what kinds of projects are possible on the ISS.

Keywords for the question: general ignorance, what kinds of projects are possible, ISS,

In paragraph no. 7, the writer of the text says, “ . . … .. . The station needs to attract cutting-edge research, yet many scientists seem to have little idea what goes on aboard it. Jeanne DiFrancesco at ProOrbis conducted more than 200 interviews with people from organisations with potential interests in low gravity studies. Some were aware of the ISS but they didn’t know what’s going on up there, she says . ‘ Others know there’s science, but they don’t know what kind .”

Here, Others know there’s science, but they don’t know what kind = general ignorance about the kinds of projects that are possible on the ISS,

So, the answer is: D (Jeanne DiFrancesco)

Question no. 33: The process of getting accepted projects onto the ISS should be speeded up.

Keywords for the question: process, getting accepted projects, onto the ISS, should be speeded up,

The answer to this question is found in paragraph no. 4. Here, the writer says in lines 5-14, “ . . .. . . . Lengthy delays like this are one of the key challenges for NASA, according to an April 2011 report from the US National Academy of Sciences . Its authors said they were ‘deeply concerned’ about the state of NASA’s science research, and made a number of recommendations. Besides suggesting that the agency reduces the time between approving experiments and sending them into space , it also recommended setting clearer research priorities..”

Here, Lengthy delays = it takes too much time for the projects to get accepted,

suggesting that the agency reduces the time between approving experiments and sending them into space = the process of getting accepted projects should be speeded up,

So, the answer is: B (Authors of the US National Academy of Sciences report)

Question no. 34: Some achievements of the ISS are underrated.

Keywords for the question: some achievements, ISS, underrated,

Have a look at the first few lines of paragraph no. 6. Here, the writer says, “ . . .. . . . Yet Mark Uhran , assistant associate administrator for the ISS, refutes the criticism that the station hasn’t done any useful research . . .. . . . . . ”

Here, refutes the criticism that the station hasn’t done any useful research = Uhran doesn’t think it is correct to criticize the ISS because he believes that the ISS is doing better research, but it doesn’t get the proper appreciation. This means it’s achievement is underrated.

So, the answer is: C (Mark Uhran)

Question no. 35: To properly assess new space technology, there has to be an absence of gravity.

Keywords for the question: properly assess, new space technology, has to be, absence of gravity,

Paragraph no. 3 gives us the answer to this question. Here, the writer talks about the issue of gravity. Take a look at the final few lines, “ . . . . .. The only way to test this is in weightlessness , and the only time we have to do that is on the space station,’ says Laurence Young , a space medicine expert at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.”

Here, The only way to test this = To properly assess new space technology, weightlessness = absence of gravity,

So, the answer is: A (Laurence Young)

Questions 37-39: Completing summary with a list of words

[In this type of question, candidates are asked to complete a summary with a list of words taken from the passage. Candidates must write the correct letter (not the words) as the answers. Keywords and synonyms are important to find answers correctly. Generally, this type of question maintains a sequence. Find the keywords in the passage and you are most likely to find the answers.]

The headline of the summary: The influence of commercial space flight on the ISS

We find a discussion about commercial space flight on the International Space Station in the final Paragraph. So, all the answers have to be in this paragraph.

Question no. 36: According to Alan Stern, private space companies could affect the future of ISS. He believes they could change its image; firstly because sending food and equipment there would be more ________ if a commercial craft were used, . . … .. .. .

Keywords for the question: Alan Stern, private space companies, could affect the future of ISS, they could change its image, firstly, because, sending food and equipment there, would be more, if, a commercial craft were used,

Let’s take a look at the first few lines of paragraph no. 8. The writer says here, “According to Alan Stern , planetary scientist, the biggest public relations boost for the ISS may come from the privately funded space flight industry . Companies like SpaceX could help NASA and its partners when it comes to resupplying the ISS, as it suggests it can reduce launch costs by two-thirds . .. . . .”

Here, privately funded space flight industry = sending food and equipment there . .. . . . commercial craft,

reduce launch costs by two-thirds = economical,

So, the answer is: H (economical)

Question no. 37: and secondly, because commercial flights might make the whole idea of space exploration seem ________ to ordinary people.

Keywords for the question: secondly, because, commercial flights, might make, whole idea of space exploration, seem, ordinary people,

The answer can be found in lines 9-12 of paragraph 8, where the writer says, “ . . .. . . .They might not come close to the ISS’s orbit, yet Stern believes they will revolutionise the way we, the public , see space. Soon everyone will be dreaming of interplanetary travel again , he predicts. .. .. .. .. .”

Here, the public = ordinary people, Soon everyone will be dreaming of interplanetary travel again = space exploration seem real to ordinary people,

So, the answer is: D (real)

Question no. 38: Another point is that as the demand for space flight increases, there is a chance of them becoming more __________.

Keywords for the question: another point, demand for space flight, increases, chance of them becoming more,

The answer can be found in lines 16-18 of paragraph no. 8, “ .. . .. This demand for low-cost space flight could eventually lead to a service running on a more frequent basis , . . . .. .”

Here, This demand for low-cost space flight = as the demand for space flight increases, could eventually lead to = there is a chance, on a more frequent basis = regular,

So, the answer is: F (regular)

Question no. 39: And by working on a commercial flight first, scientists would be more __________ if an ISS position came up.

Keywords for the question: by working on a commercial flight, first, scientists, would be more, if, an ISS position, came up,

The final lines of paragraph no. 8 says, “ . . … .. . giving researchers the chance to test their ideas before submitting a proposal for experiments on the ISS. Getting flight experience should help them win a slot on the station ,”

Here, researchers = scientists, Getting flight experience should help them win a slot on the station = scientists would be more suitable ,

So, the answer is: G (suitable)

Question no. 40: Multiple choice questions (Identifying the main purpose/aim/title of the passage)

[This type of question asks you to choose a suitable answer from the options that shows the main aim/purpose/title using the knowledge you gained from the passage. Generally, this question is found as the last question so you should not worry much about it. Finding all the answers to previous questions gives you a good idea about the title.]

Question no. 40: The writer’s purpose in writing this article is to –

Keywords for the question: writer’s purpose, writing this article,

Solving all the answers in this passage, we get a clear idea about the suggestions made to make the International Space Station more effective . We get suggestions like investing more money in ISS research projects , attracting cutting-edge researches, starting commercial flights etc.

So, the answer is: B (illustrate how the ISS could become more effective.)

Click here for solutions to Cambridge Official Guide to IELTS Academic Test 5 Reading passage 1

Click here for solutions to Cambridge Official Guide to IELTS Academic Test 5 Reading passage 2

Academic IELTS Reading: Test 2 Passage 1; The Dead Sea Scrolls; with top solutions and best explanations

This Academic IELTS Reading post focuses on solutions to an IELTS Reading Test 2 passage 1 that has a passage titled ‘The Dead Sea Scrolls’. This is a targeted post for Academic IELTS candidates who have major problems locating and understanding Reading Answers in the AC module. This post can guide you the best to understand […]

Academic IELTS Reading: Test 1 Reading passage 3; To catch a king; with best solutions and explanations

This Academic IELTS Reading post focuses on solutions to an IELTS Reading Test 1 Reading Passage 3 titled ‘To catch a king’. This is a targeted post for IELTS candidates who have great problems finding out and understanding Reading Answers in the AC module. This post can guide you the best to understand every Reading answer […]

Space Travel And Health Reading Answers

Space travel is becoming more popular by the day as people are eager to explore the extended and strange universe. But with this unique borderland comes some new health risks, so it is better reading the answers before you go.

This article will answer some of the most common questions about space travel and health. We’ll cover everything from how radiation impacts the body to what occurs when you eat in space! So, if you’re planning on taking a trip to outer space , make sure to read this article first!

What kind of health risks are associated with space travel?

In current years, the potential of outer space travel has become much more of a reality. Commercial companies such as SpaceX and Blue Origin offer tours to near-Earth objects and the moon , and more and more people are beginning to explore the chances that space travel has to offer.

Nevertheless, many health hazards are associated with long-term space travel , varying from muscle atrophy to cosmic radiation. To minimize these risks, scientists have developed various strategies for protecting astronauts during their cosmos tour.

For instance, actions such as muscle conditioning and high-calorie nutritional supplements can help to reduce the effects of muscle loss due to reduced gravity. Further, scientists are researching advanced medical technologies and protocols that can help to protect astronauts from dangerous radiation exposure during long journeys via deep space . Finally, with proper preparation and planning, humans can travel safely to the vast reaches of outer space.

How do astronauts maintain their physical health while in space for extended periods of time?

Astronauts face numerous unique challenges in maintaining their physical health while in space. First and only, they must deal with the effects of microgravity, including muscle and bone loss, differences in vision and balance, and limited organ function.

To manage these problems, astronauts depend on various advanced technologies and techniques, such as training tools that emulate resistance training or gravitational forces on the body and biomechanical analysis systems that monitor their health movements.

In complement to these technical challenges, astronauts must also adapt to living in a bounded space for long periods. This can be extremely difficult for those who take part in extended space tourism missions that often stay several months or longer.

Moreover, returning to Earth’s gravity after a long journey into space can also present its own difficulties, varying from balance issues and disrupted sleep practices to mood upsets and altered sensory perception.

Nevertheless, with good support and preparation from psychologists and medical experts, astronauts can adapt to all of these challenges successfully over time.

What diseases could be spread through space travel?

However, there is a real danger that diseases could spread through space travel. Asthma, for example, could become a serious problem in an enclosed environment like a space station or spacecraft .

The absence of gravity would also make it challenging for the body to fight off infection. Viruses and bacteria could smoothly spread via the close quarters of a spacecraft, and even if astronauts are healthy when they leave Earth, they could bring back unknown diseases.

In short, space trip presents a very genuine risk of disease information. With proper protection, this risk can be minimized.

What psychological effects can space travel have on individuals, and how is this addressed by NASA and other space agencies around the world?

The technical passages needed for Space tourism are tough. Many private companies around the world have also aimed to understand and mitigate any possible psychological effects.

Some of these effects may contain disorientation, confusion, and cramped quarters, which can impact an individual’s mental state as they guide their way via a long-distance journey.

NASA and other space agencies have recognized this challenge and have taken steps to help handle it. These often have extensive training activities designed to prepare travelers for different techniques they may face during a trip and carefully monitor their progress throughout their journey to identify potential issues or concerns quickly.

Space Travel And Health Reading questions Answers

Technological Advances Make Space Travel Safer And Less Taxing On The Human Body?

Many elements of space flight can be extremely challenging for the human body. Space exploration is a test of constancy for even the most suitable individuals, from the intense conditions of zero-gravity environments to the high levels of radiation exposure.

Some experts believe that new technological passages in various fields could help minimize space travel’s physical and mental tolls. For example, artificial intelligence and robotics inventions could make it more comfortable with automating certain operations and methods, leaving more time for astronauts to rest or be ready for their mission.

Besides, improved materials testing methods may help to recognize potential threats before they can cause harm to astronauts or damage equipment. Finally, while there are no promises that these technologies will come to realization anytime soon, they have incredible promise for making outer space more accessible and less taxing on those who undertake into its unknown depths.

The impact of space travel on human health both now and in the future

As we continue to explore our deep universe , it is important to study the effect of space travel on human health, both now and in the future. There are many potential risks combined with long-term exposure to deep space, including radiation poisoning, loss of bone density, and cognitive decline. While present spacecraft are equipped with shielding to protect astronauts from some of these threats, we still do not fully understand the risks involved in deep space travel .

In addition to protecting the health of current and future astronauts, this research will also have important senses for the health of future generations of Earthlings who may one day decide to leave our planet behind and make a new home among the stars.

Space Travel And Health Reading questions and Answers

As we resume exploring space , it is more essential than ever to study the influence of space travel on human health. This research will help us identify and manage any risks related to long-term space exploration so that astronauts can stay healthy and safe while in rotation or traveling beyond our solar system .

With current technology, some unavoidable health risks are connected with extended space travel. Yet, by continuing to study these risks and find new ways to mitigate them, we can make space travel a securer and more rewarding experience for everyone interested.

But it is important to continue studying the impact of space travel on human health now and in the future as we explore our universe further and deeper than ever before.

Reading Practice: Space Travel and Health

C. The most obvious physical changes undergone by people in zero gravity are essentially harmless; in some cases, they are even amusing. The blood and other fluids are no longer dragged down towards the feet by the gravity of Earth, so they accumulate higher up in the body, creating what is sometimes called ‘fat face’, together with the contrasting ‘chicken legs’ syndrome as the lower limbs become thinner.

F. Such considerations have led some to question the ethics of investing huge sums of money to help a handful of people who, after all, are willingly risking their own health in outer space, when so much needs to be done a lot closer to home. It is now clear, however , that every problem of space travel has a parallel problem on Earth that will benefit from the knowledge gained and the skills developed from space biomedical research. For instance, the very difficulty of treating astronauts in space has led to rapid progress in the field of telemedicine, which in turn has brought about developments that enable surgeons to communicate with patients in inaccessible parts of the world. To take another example, systems invented to sterilize wastewater onboard spacecraft could be used by emergency teams to filter contaminated water at the scene of natural disasters such as floods and earthquakes. In the same way, miniature monitoring equipment, developed to save weight in space capsules, will eventually become tiny monitors that patients on Earth can wear without discomfort wherever they go.

G. Nevertheless , there is still one major obstacle to carrying out studies into the effects of space travel: how to do so without going to the enormous expense of actually working in space. To simulate conditions in zero gravity, one tried and tested method is to work underwater, but the space biomedicine centers are also looking at other ideas. In one experiment, researchers study the weakening of bones that results from prolonged inactivity. This would involve volunteers staying in bed for three months, but the center concerned is confident there should be no great difficulty in finding people willing to spend twelve weeks lying down.AII in the name of science, of course.

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Nội dung chính

Questions 1-5

Reading Passage 1 has seven paragraphs A-G. Choose the correct heading for paragraphs B-E and G from the list of headings below. Write the correct member (i-x) in boxes 1—5 on your answer sheet.

List of Headings

i. The problem of dealing with emergencies in space

ii. How space biomedicine can help patients on Earth

iii. Why accidents are so common in outer space

iv. What is space biomedicine?

v. The psychological problems of astronauts

vi. Conducting space biomedical research on Earth

vii. The internal damage caused to the human body by space travel

viii. How space biomedicine First began

ix. The visible effects of space travel on the human body

x. Why space biomedicine is now necessary

Example Paragraph A Answer iv

Paragraph B Answer ii

1 Paragraph B

2 Paragraph C

3 Paragraph D

4 Paragraph E

5 Paragraph G

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Questions 6-7

Answer the questions below using NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS for each answer.

6. Where, apart from Earth, can space travelers find water? 6 ….

7. What happens to human legs during space travel? 7…

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Questions 8-12

Do the following statements agree with the writer’s views in Reading Passage? Write

YES if the statement agrees with the views of the writer

NO, if the state does not agree with the views of the writer

NOT GIVEN if there is no information about this in the passage

8 The obstacles to going far into space are now medical, not technological.

9 Astronauts cannot survive more than two years in space.

10 It is morally wrong to spend so much money on space biomedicine.

11 Some kinds of surgery are more successful when performed in space.

12 Space biomedical research can only be done in space.

Tham khảo: Reading Practice: Communication in science Reading Practice: Orientation of birds Reading Practice: Mungo Man

Questions 13-14

Complete the table below. Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer

1. x (Đoạn B, “Without the necessary protection and medical treatment, however, their bodies would be devastated by the unremittingly hostile environment of space.”)

2. ix (Đoạn C, “The most obvious physical changes undergone by people in zero gravity…”

3. vii (Đoạn D, “ With no gravity, there is less need for a sturdy skeleton to support the body, with the result that the bones weaken, releasing calcium into the bloodstream.”)

4. i (Đoạn E, “a wide range of medical difficulties can arise in the case of an accident or serious illness when the patient is millions of kilometers from Earth.”)

5. vi (Đoạn G, “To simulate conditions in zero gravity, one tried and tested method is to work underwater, but the space biomedicine centers are also looking at other ideas.)

6. (ON/FROM) MARS (Đoạn B, “The discovery of ice on Mars,…)

7. THEY BECOME THINNER (Đoạn C, “together with the contrasting ‘chicken legs’ syndrome as the lower limbs become thinner.”)

8. YES (Đoạn B, “…there is now no necessity to design and develop a spacecraft large and powerful enough to transport the vast amounts of water …Without the necessary protection and medical treatment, however, their bodies would be devastated by the unremittingly hostile environment of space. → Không còn là vấn đề về kỹ thuật, mà quan trọng là phải có hỗ trợ y tế)

9. NOT GIVEN (Không có thông tin)

11. NOT GIVEN (Không có thông tin)

12. NO (Đoạn G, “To simulate conditions in zero gravity, one tried and tested method is to work underwater ”)

13. COMMUNICATE WITH PATIENTS (Đoạn F, “which in turn has brought about developments that enable surgeons to communicate with patients in inaccessible parts of the world.”)

14. FILTER CONTAMINATED WATER (Đoạn F, “To take another example, …emergency teams to filter contaminated water at the scene of natural disasters such as floods and earthquakes.”)

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A white and gray rocket launches with a cloud of smoke, on a partly cloudy day.

Spending time in space can harm the human body − but scientists are working to mitigate these risks before sending people to Mars

Professor of Applied Physiology & Kinesiology, University of Florida

Disclosure statement

Rachael Seidler receives funding from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Translational Research Institue for Space Health, the National Science Foundation, the National Institutes of Health, and the Office of Naval Research.

University of Florida provides funding as a founding partner of The Conversation US.

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When 17 people were in orbit around the Earth all at the same time on May 30, 2023, it set a record. With NASA and other federal space agencies planning more manned missions and commercial companies bringing people to space, opportunities for human space travel are rapidly expanding.

However, traveling to space poses risks to the human body. Since NASA wants to send a manned mission to Mars in the 2030s, scientists need to find solutions for these hazards sooner rather than later.

As a kinesiologist who works with astronauts, I’ve spent years studying the effects space can have on the body and brain. I’m also involved in a NASA project that aims to mitigate the health hazards that participants of a future mission to Mars might face.

Space radiation

The Earth has a protective shield called a magnetosphere , which is the area of space around a planet that is controlled by its magnetic field . This shield filters out cosmic radiation . However, astronauts traveling farther than the International Space Station will face continuous exposure to this radiation – equivalent to between 150 and 6,000 chest X-rays .

This radiation can harm the nervous and cardiovascular systems including heart and arteries , leading to cardiovascular disease. In addition, it can make the blood-brain barrier leak . This can expose the brain to chemicals and proteins that are harmful to it – compounds that are safe in the blood but toxic to the brain.

NASA is developing technology that can shield travelers on a Mars mission from radiation by building deflecting materials such as Kevlar and polyethylene into space vehicles and spacesuits . Certain diets and supplements such as enterade may also minimize the effects of radiation. Supplements like this, also used in cancer patients on Earth during radiation therapy, can alleviate gastrointestinal side effects of radiation exposure.

Gravitational changes

Astronauts have to exercise in space to minimize the muscle loss they’ll face after a long mission. Missions that go as far as Mars will have to make sure astronauts have supplements such as bisphosphonate , which is used to prevent bone breakdown in osteoporosis. These supplements should keep their muscles and bones in good condition over long periods of time spent without the effects of Earth’s gravity .

Microgravity also affects the nervous and circulatory systems. On Earth, your heart pumps blood upward, and specialized valves in your circulatory system keep bodily fluids from pooling at your feet. In the absence of gravity, fluids shift toward the head.

My work and that of others has shown that this results in an expansion of fluid-filled spaces in the middle of the brain. Having extra fluid in the skull and no gravity to “hold the brain down” causes the brain to sit higher in the skull , compressing the top of the brain against the inside of the skull.

A man wearing a white headset and a suit which has many wires coming out of it and a plastic panel connected to a laptop.

These fluid shifts may contribute to spaceflight associated neuro-ocular syndrome , a condition experienced by many astronauts that affects the structure and function of the eyes . The back of the eye can become flattened, and the nerves that carry visual information from the eye to the brain swell and bend. Astronauts can still see, though visual function may worsen for some. Though it hasn’t been well studied yet, case studies suggest this condition may persist even a few years after returning to Earth.

Scientists may be able to shift the fluids back toward the lower body using specialized “pants ” that pull fluids back down toward the lower body like a vacuum. These pants could be used to redistribute the body’s fluids in a way that is more similar to what occurs on Earth.

Mental health and isolation

While space travel can damage the body, the isolating nature of space travel can also have profound effects on the mind .

Imagine having to live and work with the same small group of people, without being able to see your family or friends for months on end. To learn to manage extreme environments and maintain communication and leadership dynamics, astronauts first undergo team training on Earth.

They spend weeks in either NASA’s Extreme Environment Mission Operations at the Aquarius Research Station , found underwater off the Florida Keys, or mapping and exploring caves with the European Space Agency’s CAVES program . These programs help astronauts build camaraderie with their teammates and learn how to manage stress and loneliness in a hostile, faraway environment.

Researchers are studying how to best monitor and support behavioral mental health under these extreme and isolating conditions.

While space travel comes with stressors and the potential for loneliness, astronauts describe experiencing an overview effect : a sense of awe and connectedness with all humankind. This often happens when viewing Earth from the International Space Station.

The Earth, half-obscured by shadow, as seen hanging in darkness, from the Moon.

Learning how to support human health and physiology in space also has numerous benefits for life on Earth . For example, products that shield astronauts from space radiation and counter its harmful effects on our body can also treat cancer patients receiving radiation treatments.

Understanding how to protect our bones and muscles in microgravity could improve how doctors treat the frailty that often accompanies aging. And space exploration has led to many technological achievements advancing water purification and satellite systems .

Researchers like me who study ways to preserve astronaut health expect our work will benefit people both in space and here at home.

Magnetosphere
Cardiovascular health
European Space Agency (ESA)
Nervous system
Artemis program
International Space Station

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NASA scientists consider the health risks of space travel

NASA astronauts Tom Marshburn (at left) and Kayla Barron are seen outside of the Quest airlock at the International Space Station during a spacewalk on Thursday, Dec. 2, 2021. Experts are continuing to study how space affects the human body.

Humans aren't built to live in space, and being there can pose serious health risks . For space administrations like NASA, a major goal is to identify these risks to hopefully help lessen them.

That was a major theme during NASA’s Spaceflight for Everybody Virtual Symposium in November, a virtual symposium dedicated to discussing current knowledge and research efforts around the impact of spaceflight on human health. During a panel discussion titled “Human Health Risks in the Development of Future Programs” on Nov. 9, NASA scientists discussed these risks and how they are using existing knowledge to plan future missions.

Each panelist emphasized that the health risks presented by space travel are complex and multifaceted and that all types of risks should be considered closely when planning future missions.

Related: Space travel can seriously change your brain

Five types of risk

When discussing the risks presented by living in space and space travel, there are five main types, the scientists outlined in the presentation.

Two types of risk, radiation and altered gravity, come simply from being in space, they said. Research has shown that both can have major negative effects on the body, and even the brain . Others, like isolation and confinement as well as being in a hostile closed environment, encompass risks posed by the living situations that are necessary in space, including risks to both mental and physical health.

Then, there are the risks presented simply by being a long way from Earth. The farther humans get from the Earth, the riskier living in space becomes in almost every way.

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Everything from fresh food to unexpired medication will be extremely difficult to make accessible with longer journeys farther away. On the International Space Station, astronauts aren’t too far from us, and we can routinely send supplies to the crews in orbit. But a mission to the moon or Mars would pose more problems.

Communication delays would increase, and there would likely be communication blackouts, said Sharmi Watkins, assistant director for exploration in NASA’s Human Health and Performance Directorate who served as a panelist for this discussion. She said it would also take longer to get back to Earth if there was a medical emergency.

"We're not going to measure it in hours, but rather in days, in the case of the moon, and potentially weeks or months, when we start to think about Mars," said Watkins.

Steve Platts, the chief scientist in NASA’s human research program, broke down different levels of risk in space and discussed how NASA uses a "phased approach" when it comes to research on human health. In this approach, initial "phases" include research on the health effects of being in space has also been done in simulated conditions on Earth, from isolation experiments in Antarctica to radiation exposure at Brookhaven National Laboratory in Long Island, New York. Likewise, experiments on the space station will help us to prepare for risk on the moon and Mars — these later phases build on knowledge gained from simulations.

"We do work on Earth, we do work on low earth orbit and then we'll be doing lunar missions, all to help us get to Mars," Platts said.

— Deep-space radiation could cause have big impacts on the brain, mouse experiment shows

— Without gravity, the fluid around an astronaut's brain moves in weird ways

— Long space missions can change astronaut brain structure and function

Still, no matter how much we may prepare on Earth, every space mission comes with risk, so NASA has set health standards to minimize this risk for astronauts.

NASA has over 800 health standards that they’ve developed based on current research. These standards describe everything from how much space astronauts should have in a spacecraft to how much muscle and bone loss an astronaut can experience without being seriously harmed. These standards also include levels of physical fitness and health the astronauts need to meet before going into space. All of NASA’s health standards for astronauts are available online .

A mission can impact astronauts’ health, but it also works the other way — health troubles with astronauts could impact a mission if they aren’t able to perform mission tasks adequately, said Mary Van Baalen, acting director of human system risk management at NASA and the panel’s moderator. She emphasized the complex interplay between these two types of impacts, both of which NASA scientists must keep in mind when planning missions.

"Space travel is an inherently risky endeavor," she said. "And the nature of human risk is complex."

You can watch the full recording of the panel discussion and other talks from the symposium here .

Join our Space Forums to keep talking space on the latest missions, night sky and more! And if you have a news tip, correction or comment, let us know at: [email protected].

Rebecca Sohn is a freelance science writer. She writes about a variety of science, health and environmental topics, and is particularly interested in how science impacts people's lives. She has been an intern at CalMatters and STAT, as well as a science fellow at Mashable. Rebecca, a native of the Boston area, studied English literature and minored in music at Skidmore College in Upstate New York and later studied science journalism at New York University.

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Human Health during Space Travel: State-of-the-Art Review

Chayakrit krittanawong.

1 Department of Medicine and Center for Space Medicine, Section of Cardiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA

2 Translational Research Institute for Space Health, Houston, TX 77030, USA

3 Department of Cardiovascular Diseases, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA

Nitin Kumar Singh

4 Biotechnology and Planetary Protection Group, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91109, USA

Richard A. Scheuring

5 Flight Medicine, NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX 77058, USA

Emmanuel Urquieta

6 Department of Emergency Medicine and Center for Space Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA

Eric M. Bershad

7 Department of Neurology, Center for Space Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA

Timothy R. Macaulay

8 KBR, Houston, TX 77002, USA

Scott Kaplin

9 Department of Dermatology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA

Stephen F. Kry

10 Department of Radiation Physics, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA

Thais Russomano

11 InnovaSpace, London SE28 0LZ, UK

Marc Shepanek

12 Office of the Chief Health and Medical Officer, NASA, Washington, DC 20546, USA

Raymond P. Stowe

13 Microgen Laboratories, La Marque, TX 77568, USA

Andrew W. Kirkpatrick

14 Department of Surgery and Critical Care Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada

Timothy J. Broderick

15 Florida Institute for Human and Machine Cognition, Pensacola, FL 32502, USA

Jean D. Sibonga

16 Division of Biomedical Research and Environmental Sciences, NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX 77058, USA

Andrew G. Lee

17 Department of Ophthalmology, University of Texas Medical Branch School of Medicine, Galveston, TX 77555, USA

18 Department of Ophthalmology, Blanton Eye Institute, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, TX 77030, USA

19 Department of Ophthalmology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA

20 Department of Ophthalmology, Texas A and M College of Medicine, College Station, TX 77807, USA

21 Department of Ophthalmology, University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA

22 Departments of Ophthalmology, Neurology, and Neurosurgery, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA

Brian E. Crucian

23 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Johnson Space Center, Human Health and Performance Directorate, Houston, TX 77058, USA

Associated Data

The field of human space travel is in the midst of a dramatic revolution. Upcoming missions are looking to push the boundaries of space travel, with plans to travel for longer distances and durations than ever before. Both the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and several commercial space companies (e.g., Blue Origin, SpaceX, Virgin Galactic) have already started the process of preparing for long-distance, long-duration space exploration and currently plan to explore inner solar planets (e.g., Mars) by the 2030s. With the emergence of space tourism, space travel has materialized as a potential new, exciting frontier of business, hospitality, medicine, and technology in the coming years. However, current evidence regarding human health in space is very limited, particularly pertaining to short-term and long-term space travel. This review synthesizes developments across the continuum of space health including prior studies and unpublished data from NASA related to each individual organ system, and medical screening prior to space travel. We categorized the extraterrestrial environment into exogenous (e.g., space radiation and microgravity) and endogenous processes (e.g., alteration of humans’ natural circadian rhythm and mental health due to confinement, isolation, immobilization, and lack of social interaction) and their various effects on human health. The aim of this review is to explore the potential health challenges associated with space travel and how they may be overcome in order to enable new paradigms for space health, as well as the use of emerging Artificial Intelligence based (AI) technology to propel future space health research.

1. Introduction

Until now space missions have generally been either of short distance (Low Earth Orbit—LEO) or short duration (Apollo Lunar Missions). However, upcoming missions are looking to push the boundaries of space travel, with plans to travel for longer distances and durations than ever before. Both the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and several commercial space companies (e.g., Blue Origin, SpaceX) have already started the process of preparing for long distance, long-duration space exploration and currently plan to explore inner solar planets (e.g., Mars) by the 2030s [ 1 ].

Within the extraterrestrial environment, a multitude of exogenous and endogenous processes could potentially impact human health in several ways. Examples of exogenous processes include exposure to space radiation and microgravity while in orbit. Space radiation poses a risk to human health via a number of potential mechanisms (e.g., alterations of gut microbiome biosynthesis, accelerated atherosclerosis, bone remodeling, and hematopoietic effects) and prolonged microgravity exposure presents additional potential health risks (e.g., viral reactivation, space motion sickness, muscle/bone atrophy, and orthostatic intolerance) [ 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 ]. Examples of endogenous processes potentially impacted by space travel include alteration of humans’ natural circadian rhythm (e.g., sleep disturbances) and mental health disturbances (e.g., depression, anxiety) due to confinement, isolation, immobilization, and lack of social interaction [ 8 , 9 , 10 ]. Finally, the risk of unknown exposures, such as yet undiscovered pathogens, remain persistent threats to consider. Thus, prior to the emergence of long distance, long duration space travel it is critical to anticipate the impact of these varied environmental factors and identify potential mitigating strategies. Here, we review the available medical literature on human experiments conducted during space travel and summarize our current knowledge on the effects of living in space for both short and long durations of time. We also discuss the potential countermeasures currently employed during interstellar travel, as well as future directions for medical research in space.

1.1. Medical Screening and Certification Prior to Space Travel

When considering preflight medical screening and certification, the requirements and recommendations vary based on the duration of space travel. Suborbital spaceflight, part of the new era of space travel, has participants launching to the edge of space (defined as the Karman line, 100 Km above mean sea level) for brief 3–5 min microgravity exposures. Orbital spaceflight, defined as microgravity exposure for up to 30 days, involves healthy individuals with preflight medical screening. In addition to a physical examination and metabolic screening, preflight medical screening assessing aerobic capacity (VO 2max ), and muscle strength and function may be sufficient to ensure proper conditioning prior to mission launch [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ]. Age-appropriate health screening tests (e.g., colonoscopy, serum prostate specific antigen in men, and mammography in women) are generally recommended for astronauts in the same fashion as their counterparts on Earth. In individuals with cardiovascular risk factors or with specific medical conditions, additional screening may be required [ 15 ]. The goal of these preflight screening measures is to ensure that medical conditions that may result in sudden incapacitation are identified and either disqualified or treated before the mission begins. In addition to the medical screening described above, short-duration space travelers are also required to undergo acceleration training, hypobaric and hypoxia exposure training, and hypercapnia awareness procedures as part of the preflight training phase.

In preparation for long-duration space travel, astronauts generally undergo a general physical examination, as well as imaging and laboratory studies at the time of initial selection. These screening tests would then be repeated annually, as well as upon assignment to an International Space Station (ISS) mission. ISS crew members are medically certified for long-duration spaceflight missions through individual agency medical boards (e.g., NASA Aerospace Medical Board) and international medical review boards (e.g., Multilateral Space Medicine Board) [ 16 , 17 ]. In order for an individual to become certified for long-duration space travel, an individual must be at the lowest possible risk for the occurrence of medical events during the preflight, infight, and postflight periods. Following spaceflight, it is recommended that returning astronauts undergo occupational surveillance for the remainder of their lifetime for the detection of health issues related to space travel (e.g., NASA’s Lifetime Surveillance of Astronaut Health program) [ 18 ]. Table 1 summarizes the preflight, inflight, and postflight screening recommendations for each organ system. Further research utilizing data from either long-term space missions or simulated environments is required in order to develop an adequate preflight scoring system capable of predicting inflight and postflight health outcomes in space travelers based on various risk factors.

Summarizes the pre-flight, in-flight and post-flight screening in each system.

Below we discuss potential Space Hazards for each organ system along with possible countermeasures ( Table 2 ). Table 3 lists prospective opportunities for artificial intelligence (AI) implementation.

Summary of Space Hazards to each organ system and potential countermeasures.

Potential AI applications in space health.

1.2. Effects on the Cardiovascular System

During short-duration spaceflight, microgravity alters cardiovascular physiology by reducing circulatory blood volume, diastolic blood pressure, left ventricular mass, and cardiac contractility [ 42 , 123 ]. Several studies have demonstrated that peak exercise performance is reduced both inflight and immediately after short-duration spaceflight due primarily to a reduction in maximal cardiac output and O 2 delivery [ 124 , 125 ]. Prolonged exposure to microgravity does cause unloading of the cardiovascular system (e.g., removal of expected loading effects from Earth’s gravity when upright during the day), resulting in cardiac atrophy. These changes may be an example of adaptive physiologic changes (“physiologic atrophy”) that returns to baseline after returning from spaceflight. This process may be similar to the adaptive physiologic changes to the cardiovascular system seen during athletic training (“physiologic hypertrophy”). Thus far, there is no evidence that the observed short-term cardiac atrophy could permanently impair systolic function. However, this physiologic adaptation to microgravity in space could lead to orthostatic hypotension/intolerance upon returning to Earth’s gravity due to changes in the comparative position of peripheral resistance and sympathetic nerve activity [ 41 , 126 , 127 ]. Figure 1 demonstrates potential effects of the space environment on each organ system.

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Object name is cells-12-00040-g001.jpg

Potential effects of the space environment on each organ system.

Another potential effect of microgravity exposure is that an alteration of hydrostatic forces in the vertical gravitational (Gz) axis could lead to the formation of internal jugular vein thromboses [ 28 , 29 ]. Anticoagulation would not be an ideal choice for prevention as astronauts have an increased risk of suffering traumatic injury during spaceflight, thus potentially inflating the risk of developing an intracerebral hemorrhage or subdural hematoma. In addition, if a traumatic accident were to occur during spaceflight, the previously discussed cardiovascular adaptations could impair the body’s ability to tolerate blood loss and shock [ 45 , 46 , 47 ].

During long-duration spaceflight, one recent study demonstrated that astronauts did not experience orthostatic hypotension/intolerance during routine activities or after landing following 6 months in space [ 128 ]. It is worth noting that all of these astronauts performed aggressive exercise countermeasures while in flight [ 128 ]. Another study of healthy astronauts after 6 months of space travel showed that the space environment caused transient changes in left atrial structure/electrophysiology, increasing the risk of developing atrial fibrillation (AF) [ 129 ]. However, there was no definitive evidence of increased incidence of supraventricular arrhythmias and no identified episodes of AF [ 129 ]. Evaluation with echocardiography or cardiac MRI may be considered following long-duration spaceflight in certain cases.

Prior human studies with supplemental data obtained from animal studies, have shown that healthy individuals with prolonged exposure to ionizing radiation may be at increased risk for the development of accelerated atherosclerosis secondary to radiation-induced endothelial damage and a subsequent pro-inflammatory response [ 3 , 4 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 123 ]. One study utilizing human 3D micro-vessel models showed that ionizing radiation inhibits angiogenesis via mechanisms dependent on the linear energy transfer (LET) of charged particles [ 130 ], which could eventually lead to cardiac dysfunction [ 131 , 132 ]. In fact, specific characteristics of the radiation encountered in space may be an important factor to understanding its effects. For example, studies of pediatric patients undergoing radiotherapy have shown an increase in cardiac-related morbidity/mortality due to radiation exposure, but not until radiation doses exceeded 10 Gy [ 133 ]. At lower dose levels the risk is less clear: while a study of atomic bomb survivors with more than 50 years of followup demonstrated elevated cardiovascular risks at doses < 2 Gy [ 134 ]. A recent randomized clinical trial with a 20-year follow-up showed no increase in cardiac mortality in irradiated breast cancer patients with a median dose of 3.0 Gy (1.1–8.1 Gy) [ 135 ]. The uncertainty in cardiovascular effects of ionizing radiation, are accentuated in a space environment as the type and quality of radiation likely play an important role as well.

Further research is required to understand the radiation dosage, duration, and quality necessary for cardiovascular effects to manifest, as well as develop preventive strategies for AF and internal jugular vein thrombosis during space travel.

1.3. Effects on the Gastrointestinal System

During short-duration spaceflight, the presence of gastrointestinal symptoms (e.g., diarrhea, vomiting, and inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract) are common due to microgravity exposure [ 35 , 136 , 137 ]. Still unknown however is whether acute, surgical conditions such as cholecystitis and appendicitis occur more frequently due to microgravity-induced stone formation or alterations in human physiology/anatomy, and immunosuppression [ 40 ]. Controlling for traditional risk factors associated with the development of these conditions (e.g., adequate hydration, maintenance of a normal BMI, dietary fat avoidance, etc.) may help mitigate the risk.

During long-duration spaceflight, it is possible that prolonged radiation exposure could lead to radiation-induced gastrointestinal cancer. Gamma radiation exposure is a known risk factor for colorectal cancer via an absence of DNA methylation [ 138 ]. NASA has recently developed a space radiation simulator, named the “GCR Simulator”, which allows for the more accurate radiobiologic research into the development and mitigation of radiation-induced malignancies [ 139 ]. Preflight colorectal cancer screening via colonoscopy or inflight screening via gut microbiome monitoring may be beneficial, but further research is required to demonstrate their clinical utility. Several studies, including the NASA Twins study have shown that microgravity could lead to alterations in an individual’s gut microbial community (i.e., gut dysbiosis) [ 2 , 140 , 141 , 142 ]. While changes to an individual’s gut microbiome can cause inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract [ 143 , 144 ], it remains unclear whether the specific alterations observed during spaceflight pose a risk to astronaut health. In fact, increased gut colonization by certain bacterial species is even associated with a beneficial effect on the gastrointestinal tract [ 2 , 140 ]. ( Table S1 ) Certain limitations of these studies, such as variations in genomic profile, diet, and a lack of adjusted confounders (e.g., the microbial content of samples) should be considered. Another potential consequence of prolonged microgravity exposure is the possibility of increased fatty-acid processing [ 145 ], leading to the development of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and hepatic fibrosis [ 146 , 147 ].

Further research is required to better understand gut microbial dynamics during space travel, as well as spaceflight-associated risk factors for the development of NAFLD, cholecystitis, and appendicitis.

1.4. Effects on the Immune System

During spaceflight, exposure to microgravity could potentially induce modifications in the cellular function of the human immune system. For example, it has been hypothesized that microgravity exposure could lead to an increase in the production of inflammatory cytokines [ 148 ] and stress hormones [ 149 , 150 ], alterations in the function of certain cell lines (NK cells [ 151 , 152 ], B cells [ 153 ], monocytes [ 154 ], neutrophils [ 154 ], T cells [ 5 , 155 ]), and impairments of leukocyte distribution [ 156 ] and proliferation [ 155 , 157 , 158 ]. The resultant immune system dysfunction could lead to the reactivation of latent viruses such as Epstein-Bar Virus (EBV), Varicella-Zoster Virus (VZV), and Cytomegalovirus (CMV) [ 31 , 32 ]. Persistent low-grade pro-inflammatory responses microgravity could lead to space fever. [ 159 ] Studies are currently underway to evaluate countermeasures to improve immune function and reduce reactivation of latent herpesviruses [ 33 , 160 , 161 , 162 ]. Microgravity exposure could also lead to the development of autoantibodies, predisposing astronauts to various autoimmune conditions [ 136 , 163 ]. ( Table S2 ) Most importantly, studies have shown that bacteria encountered within the space environment appear to be more resistant to antibiotics and more harmful in general compared to bacteria encountered on Earth [ 164 , 165 ]. This is in addition to the threat of novel bacteria species (e.g., Methylobacterium ajmalii sp. Nov. [ 76 ]) that we have not yet discovered.

Upon returning from the space environment astronauts remain in an immunocompromised state, which has been particularly problematic in the era of the COVID-19 pandemic. Recently, NASA has recommended postflight quarantine and immune status monitoring (i.e., immune-boosting protocol) to mitigate the risk of infection [ 77 ]. This is similar to the Apollo and NASA Health Stabilization Programs that helped establish the preflight protocol (pre-mission quarantine) currently used for this purpose.

Further research is required to understand the mechanisms of antibiotic resistance and the modifications in inflammatory cytokine dynamics, in order to develop immune boosters and surrogate immune biomarkers.

1.5. Effects on the Hematologic System

During short-duration spaceflight, the plasma volume and total blood volume de-crease within the first hours and remain reduced throughout the inflight period, a finding previously identified as space anemia [ 166 ]. Space anemia during spaceflight is perhaps due to a normal physiologic adaptation of newly released blood cells and iron metabolism to microgravity [ 167 ].

During long-duration spaceflight, microgravity exposure could potentially induce hemoglobin degradation, leading to hemolytic anemia. In a recent study of 14 astronauts who were on 6-month missions onboard the ISS, a 54% increase in hemolysis was ob-served after landing one year later [ 50 ]. In another small study, nearly half of astronauts (48%) landing after long duration missions were anemic and hemoglobin levels were characterized as having a dose–response relationship with microgravity exposure [ 51 ]. An additional study collected whole blood sample from astronauts during and after up to 6 months of orbital spaceflight [ 168 ]. Upon analysis, once the astronauts returned to Earth RBC and hemoglobin levels were significantly elevated. It is worth noting that these studies analyzed blood samples from astronauts collected after spaceflight, which may be influenced by various factors (e.g., the stress of landing and re-adaptation to conditions on Earth). In addition, these studies may be confounded by other extraterrestrial environmental factors such as fluid shifts, dehydration, and alteration of the circadian cycle.

Further research is urgently needed to understand plasma volume physiology dur-ing spaceflight and delineate the etiology and degree of hemolysis with longer space exposure, such as 1-year ISS or Mars exploration missions.

1.6. Oncologic Effects

Even during short-duration spaceflight, the stochastic nature of cancer development makes it possible that space radiation exposure could cause cancer via epigenomic modifications [ 63 ]. Currently, our epidemiological understanding of radiation-induced cancer risk is based primarily on atomic bomb survivors and accidental radiation exposures, which both show a clear association between radiation exposure and cancer risk [ 169 , 170 ]. However, these studies are hard to generalize to spaceflight as the patient populations vary significantly (generally healthy astronauts vs. atomic bomb survivors [NCRP 126]) [ 171 ]. Moreover, the radiation encountered in space is notably different than that associated with atomic bomb exposure. Most terrestrial exposures are based on low LET radiation (e.g., atomic bomb survivors received <1% dose from high LET neutrons) [ 172 ], whereas space radiation is comprised of higher LET ions (solar energetic particles and galactic cosmic rays) [ 173 , 174 ].

During long-duration spaceflight, our current understanding of cancer risk is also largely unknown. Our current epidemiologic understanding of long-duration radiation exposure and cancer risk is primarily based on the study of chronic occupational exposures and medically exposed individuals, supplemented with data obtained from animal studies, which are again based overwhelmingly on low LET radiation [ 169 , 170 , 175 , 176 ]. In animal studies, exposure to ionizing radiation (up to 13.5 months) has been associated with an increased risk of developing a variety of cancers [ 162 , 177 , 178 , 179 , 180 ]. Ionizing radiation exposure may cause DNA methylation patterns similar to the specific patterns observed in human adenocarcinomas and squamous cell carcinomas [ 63 ]; however, this response is not yet certain [ 181 , 182 ].

For the purposes of risk prediction, the elevated biological potency of heavy ions is modeled through concepts such as the radiation weighting factor, with NASA recently releasing unique quality factors ( Q NASA ) focused on high density tracks [ 183 ]. Although these predictive models can only estimate the impact of radiation exposure, extrapolation of current terrestrial-based data suggest that this risk could be at least substantial for astronauts. NASA, for example, has updated crew permissible career exposure limits to 0.6Sv, independent of age and sex. This degree of exposure results in a 2–3% mean increased risk of death from radiation carcinogenesis (NCRP 2021) [ 184 ]. This limit would be reached between 200 and 400 days of space travel (depending on degree of radiation shielding) [ 48 ].

Further research is urgently needed to understand the true risk of space radiation exposure. This is especially important for individuals with certain genotype-phenotype profiles (e.g., BRCA1 or DNA methylation signatures) who may be more sensitive to the effects of radiation exposure. Most importantly, the utilization of genotype-phenotype profiles of astronauts or space travelers is valuable not just for pre-flight screening, but also during in-flight travel, especially for long-duration flights to deeper space. An individual’s genetic makeup will in-variably change during spaceflight due to the shifting epigenetic microenvironment. Future crewed-missions to deep space will have to adapt to these anticipated changes, be-come aware of impending red-flag situations, and determine whether any meaningful shift or change to ones’ genetic makeup is possible. For example, personalized radiation shields could potentially be tailored to an individuals’ genotype-phenotype profile, individualized pulmonary capillary wedge pressure under microgravity may be different due to transient changes in left atrial structure, or preflight analysis of the globin gene for the prediction of space anemia [ 50 , 129 , 185 ]. This research should be designed to identify the radiation type, dose, quality, frequency, and duration of exposure required for cancer development.

1.7. Effects on the Neurologic System

During the initial days of spaceflight, space motion sickness (SMS) is the most commonly encountered neurologic condition. Microgravity exposure during spaceflight commonly leads to alterations in spatial orientation and gaze stabilization (e.g., shape recognition [ 186 ], depth perception and distance [ 187 , 188 ]). Postflight, impairments in object localization during pitch and roll head movements [ 189 , 190 ] and fine motor control (e.g., force modulation [ 191 ], keyed pegboard completion time [ 192 ], and bimanual coordination [ 193 ]) are common. Anecdotally, astronauts also reported alterations in smell and taste sensations during their missions [ 27 , 194 , 195 ]. The observed impairment in olfactory function is perhaps due to elevated intracranial pressure (ICP) with increased cerebrospinal fluid outflow along the cribriform plate pathways [ 196 ]. However, to date, there have been no studies directly measuring ICP during spaceflight.

Upon returning from spaceflight, studies have observed that astronauts experience decrements in postural and locomotor control that can increase fall risk [ 197 ]. These decrements have been observed in both standard sensorimotor testing and functional tasks. While recovery of sensorimotor function occurs rapidly following short-duration spaceflight (within the first several days after return) [ 192 , 198 ], recovery after long-duration spaceflight often takes several weeks. Similar to SMS, post-flight motion sickness (PFMS) is very common and occurs soon after g-transition [ 30 ]. Deficits in dexterity, dual-tasking, and vehicle operation [ 199 ] are also commonly observed immediately after spaceflight. Therefore, short-duration astronauts are recommended to not drive automobiles for several days, and only after a sensorimotor evaluation (similar to a field sobriety test).

Similarly to the effects seen following short-duration spaceflight, those returning from long-duration spaceflight can also experience deficits in dexterity, dual-tasking, and vehicle operation. Long-duration astronauts are recommended to not drive automobiles for several weeks, and also require a sensorimotor evaluation. While central nervous system (CNS) changes [ 53 ] associated with long-duration spaceflight are commonly observed, the resulting effects of these changes both during and immediately after spaceflight remain unclear [ 199 ]. Observed CNS changes include structural and functional alterations (e.g., upward shift of the brain within the skull [ 54 ], disrupted white matter structural connectivity [ 55 ], increased fluid volumes [ 56 ], and increased cerebral vasoconstriction [ 200 ]), as well as modifications to adaptive plasticity [ 53 ]. Adaptive reorganization is primarily observed in the sensory systems. For example, changes in functional connectivity during plantar stimulation have been observed within sensorimotor, visual, somatosensory, and vestibular networks after spaceflight [ 201 ]. In addition, functional responses to vestibular stimulation were altered after spaceflight―reducing the typical deactivation of somatosensory and visual cortices [ 202 ]. These studies provide evidence for sensory reweighting among visual, vestibular, and somatosensory inputs.

Further research is required to fully understand the observed CNS changes. In addition, integrated countermeasures are needed for the acute effects of g-transitions on sensorimotor and vestibular function.

1.7.1. Effects on the Neuro-Ocular System

Prolonged exposure to ionizing radiation is well known to produce secondary cataracts [ 61 , 62 ]. Most importantly, Spaceflight Associated Neuro-Ocular Syndrome (SANS) is a unique constellation of clinical and imaging findings which occur to astronauts both during and after spaceflight, and is characterized by: hyperopic refractive changes (axial hyperopia), optic disc edema, posterior globe flattening, choroidal folds, and cotton wool spots [ 43 ]. Ophthalmologic screening for SANS, including both clinical and imaging assessments is recommended. ( Figure 2 ) Although the precise etiology and mechanism for SANS remain ill-defined, some proposed risk factors for the development of SANS include microgravity related cephalad fluid shifts [ 203 ], rigorous resistive exercise [ 204 ], increased body weight [ 205 ], and disturbances to one carbon metabolic pathways [ 206 ]. Many scientists believe that the cephalad fluid shift secondary to microgravity exposure is the major pathophysiological driver of SANS [ 203 ]. Although inflight lumbar puncture has not been attempted, several mildly elevated ICPs have been recorded in astronauts with SANS manifestations upon returning to Earth [ 43 ]. Moreover, changes to the pressure gradient between the intraocular pressure (IOP) and ICP (the translaminar gradient) have been proposed as a pathogenic mechanism for SANS [ 207 ]. The translaminar gradient may explain the structural changes seen in the posterior globe such as globe flattening and choroidal folds [ 207 ]. Alternatively, the microgravity induced cephalad fluid shift may impair venous or cerebrospinal drainage from the cranial cavity and/or the eye/orbit (e.g., choroid or optic nerve sheath). Impairment of the glymphatic system has also been proposed as a contributing mechanism to SANS, but this remains unproven [ 208 , 209 ]. Although permanent visual loss has not been observed in astronauts with SANS, some structural changes (e.g., posterior globe flattening) may persist and have been documented to remain for up to 7 years of long-term follow-up [ 210 ]. Further research is required to better understand the mechanism of SANS, and to develop effective countermeasures prior to longer duration space missions.

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Ophthalmologic screening for SANS.

1.7.2. Effects on the Neuro-Behavioral System

The combination of mission-associated stressors with the underlying confinement and social isolation of space travel has the potential to lead to cognitive deficits and the development of psychiatric disorders [ 211 ]. Examples of previously identified cognitive deficits associated with spaceflight include impaired concentration, short-term memory loss, and an inability to multi-task. These findings are most evident during G-transitions, and are likely due to interactions between vestibular and cognitive function [ 212 , 213 ]. Sopite syndrome, a neurologic component of motion sickness, may account for some cognitive slowing. The term “space fog”, has been used to describe the generalized lack of focus, altered perception of time, and cognitive impairments associated with spaceflight, which can occur throughout the mission. This may be related to chronic sleep deprivation as deficiencies (including decreased sleep duration and quality of sleep) are prevalent despite the frequent use of sleep medications [ 71 ]. These results highlight the broad impact of space travel on cognitive and behavioral health, and support the need for integrated countermeasures for long-duration explorative missions.

1.8. Effects on the Musculoskeletal System

During short-duration spaceflight, low back pain and disk herniation are common due to the presence of microgravity. While the pathogenesis of space-related low back pain and disk herniation is complex, the etiology is likely multifactorial in nature (e.g., microgravity induced hydration and swelling of the vertebral disk, muscle atrophy of the neck and lower back) [ 19 , 214 , 215 ]. Additionally, various joint injuries (e.g., space-suited shoulder injuries) can also occur in space due to the presence of microgravity [ 16 , 216 , 217 , 218 ]. Interestingly, one study showed that performing specific exercises could potentially promote automatic and tonic activation of lumbar multifidus and transversus abdominis as well as prevent normal lumbopelvic positioning against gravity following bed rest as a simulation of space flight [ 219 ], and the European Space Agency suggested that exercise program could relieve low back pain during spaceflight [ 220 ]. Further longitudinal studies are required to develop specialized exercise protocols during space travel.

During long-duration spaceflight, the presence of microgravity could cause an alteration in collagen fiber orientation within tendons, reduce articular cartilage and meniscal glycosaminoglycan content, and impair the wound healing process [ 22 , 23 , 24 , 221 ]. These findings seen in animal studies suggest that mechanical loading is required in order for these processes to occur in a physiologic manner. It is theorized that there is a mandatory threshold of skeletal loading necessary to direct balanced bone formation and resorption during healthy bone remodeling [ 222 , 223 ]. Despite the current countermeasure programs, the issue of skeletal integrity is still not solved [ 224 , 225 , 226 ].

Space radiation could also impact bone remodeling, though the net effect differs based on the amount of radiation involved [ 6 ]. In summary, high doses of space radiation lead to bone destruction with increased bone resorption and reduced bone formation, while low doses of space radiation actually have a positive impact with increased mineralization and reduced bone resorption. Most importantly, space radiation, particularly solar particle events in the case of a flare, may induce acute radiation effects, leading to hematopoietic syndrome [ 7 ]. This risk is highest for longer duration missions, but can be substantially minimized with current spacecraft shielding options.

Longitudinal studies are required to develop special exercise protocols and further assess the aforementioned risk of space radiation on the development of musculoskeletal malignancies.

1.9. Effects on the Pulmonary System

During short-duration spaceflight, a host of changes to normal, physiologic pulmonary function have been observed [ 73 , 227 ]. Studies during parabolic flight have shown that the diaphragm and abdomen are displaced cranially due to microgravity, which is accompanied by an increase in the diameter of the lower rib cage with outward movement. Due to the observed changes to the shape of the chest wall, diaphragm, and abdomen, alterations to the pressure-volume curve resulted in a net reduction in lung volumes [ 228 ]. In five subjects who underwent 25 s of microgravity exposure during parabolic flight, functional residual capacity (FRC) and vital capacity (VC) were found to be reduced [ 229 ]. During the Spacelab Life Sciences-1 mission, microgravity exposure resulted in 10%, 15%, 10–20%, and 18% reductions in VC, FRC, expiratory reserve volume (ERV), and residual volume (RV), respectively, compared to values seen in Earth’s gravity [ 227 ]. The observed physiologic change in FRC is primarily due to the cranial shift of the diaphragm and abdominal contents described previously, and secondarily to an increase in intra-thoracic blood volume and more uniform alveolar expansion [ 227 ].

One surrogate measure for the inhomogeneity of pulmonary perfusion can be assessed through changes in cardiogenic oscillations of CO 2 (oscillations in exhaled gas composition due to differential flows from different lung regions with differing gas composition). Following exposure to microgravity, the size of cardiogenic oscillations were significantly reduced to 60% in comparison to the preflight standing values [ 230 , 231 ]. Possible causes of the observed inhomogeneity of ventilation include regional differences in lung compliance, airway resistance, and variations in motion of the chest wall and diaphragm. Access to arterial blood gas analysis would allow for enhanced physiologic evaluations, as well as improved management of clinical emergencies (e.g., pulmonary embolism) occurring during space travel. However, there is currently no suitable method for assessing arterial blood in space. The earlobe arterialized blood technique for collecting blood gas has been proposed, but evidence is limited [ 232 ]. Further research is required in this area to establish an effective means for sampling arterial blood during spaceflight.

In comparison to the changes seen during short-duration spaceflight, studies conducted during long-duration spaceflight showed that the heterogeneity of ventilation/perfusion (V/Q) was largely unchanged, with preserved gas exchange, VC, and respiratory muscle strength [ 73 , 233 , 234 ]. This resulted in overall normal lung function. This is supported by long-duration studies (up to 6 months) in microgravity which demonstrated that the function of the normal human lungs is largely unchanged following the removal of gravity [ 233 , 234 ]. It is worth noting that there were some small changes which were observed (e.g., an increase in ERV in the standing posture) following long-duration spaceflight, which can perhaps be attributed to a reduction in circulating blood volume [ 233 , 234 ]. However, while microgravity can causes temporary changes in lung function, these changes were reversible upon return to Earth’s gravity (even after 6 months of exposure to microgravity). Based on the currently available data, the overall effect of acute and sustained exposure to microgravity does not appear to cause any deleterious effects to gas exchange in the lungs. However, the biggest challenge for long-duration spaceflight is perhaps extraterrestrial dust exposure. Further research is required to identify the long term consequences of extraterrestrial dust exposure and develop potential countermeasures (e.g., specialized face masks) [ 73 ].

1.10. Effects on the Dermatologic System

During short-duration space travel, skin conditions such as contact dermatitis, skin sensitivity, biosensor electrolyte paste reactions, and thinning skin are common [ 44 , 235 ]. However, these conditions are generally mild and unlikely to significantly impact astronaut safety or prevent completion of space missions [ 44 ].

The greatest dermatologic concern for long-duration space travelers is the theoretical increased risk of developing skin cancer due to space radiation exposure. This hypothesis is supported by one study which found the rate of basal cell carcinoma, melanoma, and squamous cell carcinoma of the skin to be higher among astronauts compared to a matched cohort [ 236 ]. While the three-fold increase in prevalence was significant, there were a number of confounders (e.g., the duration of prolonged UV exposure on Earth for training or recreation, prior use of sunscreen protection, genetic predisposition, and variations in immune system function) that must also be taken into account. A potential management strategy for dealing with various skin cancers during space travel involves telediagnostic and telesurgical procedures. Further research is needed to improve the telediagnosis and management of dermatological conditions (e.g., adjustment for a lag in communication time) during spaceflight.

1.11. Diagnostic Imaging Modalities in Space

In addition to routine physical examination, various medical imaging modalities may be required to monitor and diagnose medical conditions during long-duration space travel. To date, ultrasound imaging acquired on space stations has proven to be helpful in diagnosing a wide array of medical conditions, including venous thrombosis, renal and biliary stones, and decompression sickness [ 29 , 237 , 238 , 239 , 240 , 241 , 242 ]. Moreover, the Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma (FAST), utilized by physicians to rapidly evaluate trauma patients, may be employed during space missions to rule out life-threatening intra-abdominal, intra-thoracic, or intra-ocular pathology [ 243 ]. Remote telementored ultrasound (aka tele-ultrasound) has been previously investigated during the NASA Extreme Environment Missions Operations (NEEMO) expeditions [ 244 ]. Today, the Butterfly iQ portable ultrasound probe can be linked directly to a smartphone through cloud computing, allowing physicians/specialists to promptly analyze remote ultrasound images [ 245 ].

Currently, alternative imaging modalities such as X-ray, CT, PET and MRI scan are unable to be used in space due to substantial limitations (e.g., limited space for large imaging structures, difficulties in interpretation due to microgravity). However, it is possible that the future development of a photocathode-based X-ray source may one day make this a possibility [ 101 , 246 ]. If X-ray imaging was possible, certain caveats would need to be taken into account for accurate interpretation. For example, pleural effusions, air-fluid levels, and pulmonary cephalization commonly seen on terrestrial imaging, would need to be interpreted in an entirely different way due to the effect of microgravity [ 247 ]. While this adjustment might be challenging, the altered principles of weightless physiology may provide some advantages as well. For example, one study found that intra-abdominal fluid was better able to be detected in space than in the terrestrial environment due to gravitational alterations in fluid dynamics [ 248 ]. Further research is required to identify and optimize inflight imaging modalities for the detection and treatment of various medical conditions.

1.12. Medical and Surgical Procedures in Space

Despite the presence of microgravity, both basic life support and advanced cardiac life support are feasible during space travel with some modifications [ 249 , 250 ]. For example, the recent guidelines for CPR in microgravity recommend specialized techniques for delivering chest compressions [ 251 ]. The use of mechanical ventilators, and moderate sedation or general anesthesia in microgravity are also possible but the evidence is extremely limited [ 252 , 253 ]. In addition, there are several procedures such as endotracheal intubation, percutaneous tracheostomy, diagnostic peritoneal lavage, chest tube insertion, and advanced vascular access which have only been studied through artificial stimulation [ 254 , 255 ].

Once traditionally “surgical” conditions are appropriately diagnosed, the next step is to determine whether these conditions should be managed medically, percutaneously, or surgically (laparoscopic vs. open procedures) [ 47 , 256 ]. For example, acute appendicitis or cholecystitis that would historically be managed surgically in terrestrial hospitals, could instead be managed with antibiotics rather than surgery. While the use of antibiotics for these conditions is usually effective on Earth, there remain concerns due to space-induced immune alterations, increased pathogenicity and virulence of microorganisms, and limited resources to “rescue” cases of antibiotic failure [ 39 ]. In cases of antibiotic failure, one potential minimally invasive option could be ultrasound-guided percutaneous drainage, which has previously been demonstrated to be possible and effective in microgravity [ 257 ]. Another potential approach is to focus on the early diagnosis and minimally invasive treatment of appropriate conditions, rather than treating late stage disease. In addition to expediting the patient’s post-operative recovery, minimally invasive surgery in space has the added benefit of protecting the cabin environment and the remainder of the crew [ 258 , 259 ].

As in all aspects of healthcare delivery in space, the presence of microgravity can complicate even the most basic of procedures. However, based on collective experience to date, if the patient, operators, and all required equipment are restrained, the flow of surgical procedures remains relatively unchanged compared to the traditional, terrestrial experience [ 260 ]. A recent animal study confirmed that it was possible to perform minor surgical procedures (e.g., vessel and wound closures) in microgravity [ 261 ]. Similar study during parabolic flight has further confirmed that emergent surgery for the purpose of “damage control” in catastrophic scenarios can be conducted in microgravity [ 262 ]. As discussed previously, telesurgery may be feasible if the surgery can be performed with an acceptably brief time lag (<200 ms) and if the patient is within a low Earth orbit [ 263 , 264 ]. However, further research and technological advancements are required for this to come to fruition.

1.13. Lifestyle Management in Space

Based on microgravity simulation studies, NASA has proposed several potential biomedical countermeasures in space [ 33 , 160 , 161 ]. Mandatory exercise protocols in space are crucial and can be used to maintain physical fitness and counteract the effects of microgravity. While these protocols may be beneficial, exercise alone may not be enough to prevent certain effects of microgravity (e.g., an increase in arterial thickness/stiffness) [ 20 , 265 , 266 , 267 ]. For example, a recent study found that resistive exercise alone could not suppress the increase in bone resorption that occurs in space [ 20 ]. Hence, a combination of resistance training and an antiresorptive medication (e.g., bisphosphonate) appears to be optimal for promotion of bone health [ 20 , 21 ]. Further research is needed to identify the optimal exercise regimen including recommended exercises, duration, and frequency.

In addition to exercise, dietary modification may be another potential area for optimization. The use of a diet based on caloric restriction (CR) in space remains up for debate. Based on data from terrestrial studies, caloric restriction may be useful for improving vascular health; however, this benefit may be offset by the associated muscle atrophy and osteoporosis [ 268 , 269 ]. Given that NASA encourages astronauts to consume adequate energy to maintain body mass, there has been an attempt to mimic the positive effects of CR on vascular health while providing appropriate nutrition. Further research is needed this area to identify the ideal space diet.

Based on current guidelines, only vitamin D supplementation during space travel is recommended. Supplementation of A, B6, B12, C, E, K, Biotin, folic acid are not generally recommended at this time due to insufficient evidence [ 64 ] ( Table S3 ). The use of traditional prescription medications may not function as intended on Earth. Therefore, alternative methods such as synthetic biologic agents or probiotics may be considered [ 35 , 38 ]. However, evidence in this area is extremely limited, and it is possible that the synthetic agents or probiotics may themselves be altered due to microgravity and radiation exposure. Further research is needed to investigate the relationship between these supplements and potential health benefits in space.

Currently, most countermeasures are directed towards cardiovascular system and musculoskeletal pathologies but there is little data against issues like immune and sleep deprivation, SANS, skin, etc. Artificial Gravity (AG) has been postulated as adequate multi-system countermeasure especially the chronic exposure in a large radius systems. Previously, the main barrier is the huge increase in costs [ 270 , 271 , 272 ]. However, there are various studies that show the opposite and also the recent decrease in launch cost makes the budget issue nearly irrelevant especially when a huge effort is paid to counteract the lack of gravity. The use of AG especially long-radius chronic AG is feasible. Further studies are needed to determine the utilization of AG in long-duration space travel.

1.14. Future Directions for Precision Space Health with AI

In this new era of space travel and exploration, ‘future’ tools and novel applications are needed in order to prepare deep space missions, particularly pertaining to strategies for mitigating extraterrestrial environmental factors, including both exogenous and en-dogenous processes. Such ‘future’ tools could help assist and ensure a safe travel to deep space, and more importantly, help bring space travelers and astronauts back to Earth. These tools and methods may initially be ‘remotely’ controlled, or have its data sent back to Earth for analysis. Primarily efforts should be focused on analyzing data in situ, and on site during the mission itself, both for the purpose of efficiency, and for the progressive purpose of slowly weaning off a dependency on Earth.

AI is an emerging tool in the big data era and AI is considered a critical aspect of ‘fu-ture’ tools within the healthcare and life science fields. A combination of AI and big data can be used for the purposes of decision making, data analysis and outcome prediction. Just recently, there have been encourage in advancements in AI and space technologies. To date, AI has been employed by astronauts for the purpose of space exploration; however, we may just be scratching the surface of AI’s potential. In the area of medical research, AI technology can be leveraged for the enhancement of telehealth delivery, improvement of predictive accuracy and mitigation of health risks, and performance of diagnostic and interventional tasks [ 273 ]. The AI model can then be trained and have its inference leveraged through cloud computing or Edge TPU or NVIDIA Jetson Nano located on space stations. ( Table 3 and Table S4 ) Figure 3 demonstrates potential AI applications in space.

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Potential AI applications in space.

As described previously, the capability to provide telemedicine beyond LEO is primarily limited by the inability to effectively communicate between space and Earth in real-time [ 274 ]. However, AI integration may be able to bridge the gap and advance communication capabilities within the space environment [ 275 , 276 ]. One study demonstrated a potential mechanism for AI incorporation in which an AI-generated predictive algorithm displayed the projected motion of surgical tools to adjust for excess communication lag-time [ 277 ]. This discovery could potentially enable AI-enhanced robotics to complete repetitive, procedural tasks in space without human inputs (e.g., vascular access) [ 278 ]. Today, procedures performed with robotic assistance are not yet fully autonomous (they still require at least one human expert). It is possible with future iterations that an AI integration could be created with the ability to fully replicate the necessary human steps to make terrestrial procedures (e.g., percutaneous coronary intervention, incision and drainage [ 103 ], telecholecystectomy [ 105 , 106 ], etc.) feasible in space [ 275 , 279 ]. The seventh NEEMO mission previously demonstrated that robotic surgery controlled by a remote physician is feasible within the environment of a submarine, but it remains to be seen whether this can be expanded to the space environment [ 280 ].

On space stations, Edge TPU-accelerated AI inference could be used to generate accurate risk prediction models based on data obtained from simulated environments (e.g., NASA AI Risk Prediction Challenge) [ 281 ]. For example, AI could potentially utilize data (e.g., -omics) obtained from research conducted both on Earth and in simulated environments (e.g., NASA GCR Simulator) to predict an astronaut’s risk of developing cancer due to high-LET radiation exposure (cytogenetic damage, mitochondrial dysregulation, epigenetic alterations, etc.) [ 63 , 78 , 79 , 282 , 283 , 284 ].

Another potential area for AI application is through integration with wearable technology to assist in the monitoring and treatment of a variety of medical conditions. For example, within the field of cardiovascular medicine, wearable sensor technology has the capability to detect numerous biosignals including an individual’s cardiac output, blood pressure, and heart rate [ 285 ]. AI-based interpretation of this data can facilitate prompt diagnosis and treatment of congestive heart failure and arrhythmias [ 285 ]. In addition, several wearable devices in various stages of development are being created for the detection and treatment of a wide array of medical conditions (obstructive sleep apnea, deep vein thrombosis, SMS, etc.) [ 285 , 286 , 287 , 288 ].

As discussed previously, the confinement and social isolation associated with prolonged space travel can have a profound impact on an astronaut’s mental health [ 8 , 10 , 67 ]. AI-enhanced facial and voice recognition technology can be implemented to detect the early signs of depression or anxiety better than standardized screening questionnaires (e.g., PHQ-9, GAD-7) [ 68 , 69 ]. Therefore, telepsychology or telepsychiatry can be used pre-emptively for the diagnosis of mental illness [ 68 , 69 , 289 ].

2. Conclusions

Over the next decade, NASA, Russia, Europe, Canada, Japan, China, and a host of commercial space companies will continue to push the boundaries of space travel. Space exploration carries with it a great deal of risk from both known (e.g., ionizing radiation, microgravity) and unknown risk factors. Thus, there is an urgent need for expanded research to determine the true extent of the current limitations of long-term space travel and to develop potential applications and countermeasures for deep space exploration and colonization. Researchers must leverage emerging technology, such as AI, to advance our diagnostic capability and provide high-quality medical care within the space environment.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Tyson Brunstetter, (NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX) for his suggestions and comments on this article as well as providing the update NASA’s SANS Evidence Report, Ajitkumar P Mulavara, (Neurosciences Laboratory, KBRwyle, Houston, TX), Jonathan Clark, (Neurology & Space Medicine, Center for Space Medicine, Houston, TX), Scott M. Smith, (Nutritional Biochemistry, Biomedical Research and Environmental Sciences Division, Human Health and Performance Directorate, NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX) for his suggestions and providing the update NASA’s Nutrition Report, G. Kim Prisk, (Department of Medicine, Division of Physiology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA), Lisa C. Simonsen (NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA), Siddharth Rajput, (Royal Australasian College of Surgeons, Australia and Aerospace Medical Association and Space Surgery Association, USA), David S. Martin, MS, (KBR, Houston, TX), ‪David W. Kaczka, (Department of Anesthesia, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, Iowa), Benjamin D. Levine (Institute for Exercise and Environmental Medicine, Texas Health Presbyterian Hospital, Dallas, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center), Afshin Beheshti (NASA Ames Research Center), Christopher Wilson (NASA Goddard Space Flight Center), Michael Lowry (NASA Ames Research Center), Graham Mackintosh (NASA Advanced Supercomputing Division), and staff from NASA Goddard Space Flight Center for their suggestions. In addition, the authors would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their careful reading of our manuscript, constructive criticism, and insightful comments and suggestions.

Abbreviations

Supplementary materials.

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/cells12010040/s1 , Table S1: title Summary of gut microbial alteration during spaceflight; Table S2: title Summary of immune/cytokine changes during spaceflight; Table S3: title Summary of diet recommendation during spaceflight; Table S4: title Summary of AI technology and potential applications in space.

Funding Statement

This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest

Krittanawong discloses the following relationships-Member of the American College of Cardiology Solution Set Oversight Committee, the American Heart Association Committee of the Council on Genomic and Precision Medicine, the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association (ACC/AHA) Joint Committee on Clinical Data Standards (Joint Committee), and the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association (ACC/AHA) Task Force on Performance Measures, The Lancet Digital Health (Advisory Board), European Heart Journal Digital Health (Editorial board), Journal of the American Heart Association (Editorial board), JACC: Asia (Section Editor), and The Journal of Scientific Innovation in Medicine (Associate Editor). Other authors have no disclosure.

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

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Space Travel: IELTS Speaking Part 1, 2 & 3 Sample Answers

10 min read

Updated On Apr 08, 2024

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Space Travel: IELTS Speaking Part 1, 2 & 3 Sample Answers

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From the marvels of rocketry to the awe-inspiring sights of distant galaxies, space travel has always excited us. However, as we don’t usually talk about it on a daily basis, it is important to be prepared with topics like space travel for the IELTS Speaking exam.

So, let’s venture forth and discover the endless possibilities that await us among the stars through the sample answers for Part 1, 2 & 3 of IELTS Speaking exam.

Outer Space Travel & Stars IELTS Speaking Part 1

Let’s start with some sample responses to Part 1 speaking topic space exploration related questions from the IELTS Speaking test, and we’ll look at some relevant words and phrases that you can use in your answers.

Do you like to travel by air?

Certainly! It’s the quickest and most efficient way. I would choose this over a 12+ hour bus or car ride any day! Furthermore, whenever I set foot on a plane, I tend to feel sleepy and end up drifting off for pretty much the entire flight.

What do you think about travelling to outer space?

I think it’s quite intriguing, as I believe that other life forms may exist. Moreover, it’s fascinating to find out more about the other complex galaxies surrounding us. I believe there is much more to the universe than only Earth.

Do you want to travel in outer space?/Would you like to travel into space?

Yes, of course! I would be really interested to see what else is out there. I’m not sure if this would happen in my lifetime though. However, I’ve heard that one day we may be able to take trips to space. I think it’s a possibility! The future never ceases to amaze me.

What would you do if you had the opportunity?

If I am given the opportunity to space travel, I would be ecstatic to take on such a once-in-a-lifetime experience. Since childhood, I have been curious about space. Therefore, I will gladly take part in any scientific studies or investigations carried out while travelling, and experience weightlessness in the vastness of space.

Are you thinking of going on holiday in space?

While traveling to space sounds like an exciting opportunity, I don’t think I will be able to afford going on holiday in space as of now. Nevertheless, in future, if such a chance comes my way or I am able to earn that money, I would definitely like to go on one such space vacation.

Who would you like to go with?/Whom would you like to go with if you travel to space?

At this point in time, I can just imagine going alone with a specialized person. Down the road I could imagine going with my partner, and perhaps my children as well. I would love for all of us to share this experience together.

What would you prepare on a trip to the outer space?

Definitely appropriate astronautical gear, as I’ve seen in pictures. Furthermore, I would like to bring some kind of camera or video to be able to show my friends on earth what I saw. Lastly, I would like to bring some kind of gift from earth just in case I came across another life form there.

Where would you like to go to?

The moon or mars! I would say the moon because I’m interested to know what it feels like to walk on it. I’m also curious if the myth that it’s made out of cheese is accurate. On the other hand, I’ve heard there is water on Mars, suggesting that there could be life there, so I’d be fascinated to investigate that firsthand.

Do you think it’s necessary to see other planets?

I would say it’s a luxury more than a necessity for average people. However, I think it’s necessary for scientists to investigate other planets so that we have better research and understanding of what is going on around us. Lastly, it’s good for us humans to realize that Earth isn’t the only planet.

Outer Space Travel & Stars Speaking Part 1 Vocabulary

Set foot on

Meaning: enter; step into

Example: My brother dreams of being a part of space exploration and setting foot on Mars.

Meaning: sleep

Example: The driver was drifting off at the end of the journey and I was scared.

Meaning: fails

Example: The night sky never ceases to amaze me.

Down the road

Meaning: in the future

Example: John has a plan of becoming a surgeon down the road.

Came across

Meaning: encountered by accident

Example: Mohona came across his first teacher at the bookstore.

Plunge oneself into something (phrase)

Meaning: to suddenly start doing something with energy and enthusiasm, but sometimes without thinking about it first

Example: After the accident, Ray plunged himself into swimming.

Every now and then (idiom)

Meaning: sometimes

Example: The postmaster calls the boy to work for him every now and then.

Get-together (noun)

Meaning: a small informal meeting or social gathering

Example: Are you invited to the get-together at the club?

IELTS Speaking Part 2 Cue Card – Imagine You are Planning to Take a Space Holiday on Mars

You will receive a task card in IELTS Speaking Part 2 that asks you to explain a situation or a topic. There will then be three to four questions on the topic, such as the one below.

Talk about your plan to take a space holiday on Mars.

You should say :

When are you planning to go?
What are the difficulties you are expecting?
How will you prepare for the journey?
And say how you feel about it.

Talk about your plan to take a space holiday on Mars – IELTS Cue Card Sample Answer 1

In the next ten years, I hope to take a space vacation to Mars. I think by then, because of developments in space exploration and the ambitious aspirations of both commercial and government space agencies, Mars travel will become more affordable.

Undoubtedly, going to Mars is definitely going to be difficult and full of problems. I believe there might be psychological and physical difficulties due to the extended travel time, which may extend to several months. In addition, meticulous planning and preparation are required to guarantee safety and well-being due to the harsh circumstances on Mars, which include intense heat, radiation exposure, and a lack of breathable air.

Preparing for a journey to unknown terrain, like Mars, requires thorough training and preparation. To make sure I’m fit for space flight, I would go through a rigorous physical and psychological evaluation. Simulated spaceflight circumstances, emergency drills, and sharpening of skills relevant to living on Mars, such as spacecraft systems operation, scientific research, and maintenance, would all be part of the training.

Taking a space vacation to Mars is an exciting yet intimidating experience. It is very thrilling to think about visiting a different planet, traveling its surface, and taking in the splendor of the Martian environment. Nonetheless, I am also skeptical when I consider the difficulties and dangers that come with space travel. Nevertheless, I feel a great feeling of excitement and purpose coming from the chance to take part in humanity’s trip to Mars and further space exploration.

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Talk about your plan to take a space holiday on Mars – IELTS Cue Card Sample Answer 2

Honestly, I have not thought about space travel to Mars yet. Even while infrastructure and technology for Mars missions are developing quickly, I think it will be some time before the general people can travel to Mars in a commercial capacity. So, maybe it will take possibly a few decades for me to organize a space vacation to Mars.

Although I am not making any plans, I know that there are many obstacles on the way to Mars, one of which is the lengthy space flight, which might take six to nine months. Furthermore, the hostile environment on Mars, which includes a thin atmosphere, high temperatures, and possible health hazards from prolonged exposure to cosmic radiation, might create a lot of challenges. Moreover, the practical difficulties of providing food, water, and shelter for life on Mars also need to be properly considered.

Firstly, I would have to go through a thorough evaluation process to make sure I am mentally and physically prepared for space travel. In addition to practicing emergency protocols and gaining vital skills for Mars life, such as conducting scientific research, managing spacecraft systems, and carrying out maintenance duties, training would involve simulating spaceflight circumstances. Additionally, I would also become knowledgeable about the difficulties and dangers of space travel and take the required safety measures to lessen them.

The thought of taking a space vacation to Mars excites and frightens me in equal measure. I am aware of the hazards and difficulties that come with space travel and planet exploration, but I find these possibilities to be immensely alluring. Nevertheless, I would gladly take advantage of the possibility to travel to Mars and further the research of space if granted.

Outer Space Travel & Stars – IELTS Speaking Part 3

Look at the IELTS Speaking Part 3 questions related to the space travel and exploration cue card and develop your own sample answers.

Do you think humans will live in space in the future?

Absolutely, I think that at some point, whether it be on the Moon, Mars, or in space habitats around the planet, mankind will construct permanent communities in space. Living in space will become an achievable goal in the future thanks to technological advancements and human curiosity and exploring instincts.

How does space exploration impact life on Earth?

There are several advantages to space travel for Earthly existence. Firstly, it stimulates scientific research, accelerates technological advancement, and promotes global collaboration. Secondly, a plethora of innovations and technology that advance society—from satellite communications to medical imaging methods—have been made possible by space exploration. Moreover, finding an alternative planet or universe can prove to be helpful in times of crisis, as shown in sci-fi movies.

What are your thoughts on the search for extraterrestrial life?

Extraterrestrial life has always piqued the interest of humans. I think when there are multiple galaxies, finding life forms different from us is not mere imagination. It is just a matter of time that we will be exploring these alien life forms just like we found out about black holes and new planets.

How should children be taught about space?

Children should be taught about space in an engaging and accessible manner that sparks their curiosity and imagination. Hands-on activities, interactive lessons, and age-appropriate educational resources can help children grasp complex concepts about space, astronomy, and space exploration. Encouraging questions, exploration, and critical thinking fosters a lifelong interest in space and science.

Will space tourism become popular in the future?

Yes, in my opinion, space tourism will also become the talk of the town in a few years. With the emergence of commercial spaceflight companies like SpaceX, Blue Origin, and Virgin Galactic, space tourism is becoming more accessible to private individuals. Therefore, with the rate of technological development, that day is not far when the general public will be able to have vacation on other planets or even the moon.

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Outer Space Travel & Stars IELTS Speaking Vocabulary for Part 2 & 3

Meaning: showing great attention to detail; careful and precise

Example: The meticulous work of the student impressed the teacher.

Meaning: physical features of a tract of land, such as its elevation, slope, and surface characteristics

Example: You should be careful and alert as you are traveling in unfamiliar terrain.

Intimidating

Meaning: causing fear or nervousness due to being large, powerful, or difficult to deal with

Example: The voice with which you speak is very intimidating for others.

Meaning: unfriendly or antagonistic; showing opposition or aggression

Example: The prisoners were kept in hostile conditions.

Cosmic radiation

Meaning: high-energy radiation, such as protons and other atomic nuclei, originating from sources outside the Earth’s atmosphere, including the sun, stars, and other celestial objects

Example: Astronauts traveling or living in space stations are often exposed to cosmic radiation which are very harmful.

Meaning: a vehicle or device designed for travel or operation in outer space

Example: In the future, the billionaire plans to make his own spacecraft.

Meaning: short for science fiction; a genre of speculative fiction that explores imaginative and futuristic concepts, often involving advanced technology, space exploration, and extraterrestrial life

Example: Marco likes to watch sci-fi movies.

Meaning: a region of space-time where gravity is so strong that nothing, not even light, can escape from its gravitational pull

Example: We were taught about black holes in school.

Make Your Speaking Skills Stand Out with IELTSMaterial

Speaking well involves more than just being fluent and confident. You also have to express your ideas concisely, use a variety of language, and proper grammar . Achieving all these on your own through just practicing test papers might be a little challenging.

So, you can connect with our IELTS experts or join the free webinars for tips to take your IELTS Speaking preparation to the next level!

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Kasturika is a professional Content Writer with over three years of experience as an English language teacher. Her understanding of English language requirements, as set by foreign universities, is enriched by her interactions with students and educators. Her work is a fusion of extensive knowledge of SEO practices and up-to-date guidelines. This enables her to produce content that not only informs but also engages IELTS aspirants. Her passion for exploring new horizons has driven her to achieve new heights in her learning journey.

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March 22, 2023

Health Research Is Needed Now before Sending Civilians to Space

Now is the time to protect the health and safety of civilians who will be traveling, living and working in the dangerous environment of space

By Michael Marge

Blue Origin’s New Shepard lifts off from the Launch Site One launch pad carrying Good Morning America co-anchor Michael Strahan, Laura Shepard Churchley, daughter of astronaut Alan Shepard, and four other civilians on December 11, 2021 near Van Horn, Texas. The six are riding aboard mission NS-19, the third human spaceflight for the company which is owned by Amazon founder Jeff Bezos.

Mario Tama/Getty Images

Within decades, hundreds and perhaps thousands of average civilians will travel, live and work in space . Along with their space suits, they will bring with them their illnesses, chronic health problems and disabilities.

That changes the space story because until recently, career astronauts have been the only travelers in space, aside from the infrequent space tourist . But now that new space businesses are launching , the travelers and workers will be mostly civilians.

This civilian move into space has already started. Ticket-buying or privately funded passengers have traveled into suborbital space, 50 to 60 miles above Earth, during the past couple of years, courtesy of “New Space” firms Blue Origin and Virgin Galactic. In September 2021, billionaire Jared Isaacman rented Elon Musk’s Crew Dragon Resilience spaceship to carry him and three other civilians on a three-day journey around the Earth. Even without scientific evidence about health risks of such travel, Isaacman and Musk are willing to push the envelope further: They plan another flight this year called Polaris Dawn that would carry a private crew of four to the highest Earth orbit ever flown; the flight will include a spacewalk, one of space’s most hazardous endeavors. In addition, NASA has awarded incentive grants to three space corporations to build commercial orbital platforms that will start operating by the end of this decade. These space stations will be occupied by civilians as tourists and employees.

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We need to go the extra mile to protect civilians if they are to travel, live and work in space.

NASA’s reports on astronauts before, during and after extended space travel and habitation make this clear : astronauts face chronic motion sickness, neurological disorders, cardiovascular problems, increased risk for blood clotting and vision problems, as well as increased risks of cancer, muscle atrophy and bone loss. That’s despite their excellent health, physical and mental fitness, and years of training. As astronauts, they are fully aware of these risks and willing to take them. As former astronaut and now Senator Mark Kelly once said, “Being an astronaut is a high-risk job.” But average civilians in space should not take such risks, which for them are even more real.

In 2022, the CDC reported that within the U.S. population six in 10 adults have chronic disease , and four in 10 have two or more chronic diseases. Also, one in four have disabilities . These health conditions add a new and challenging dimension to space hazards on the human body. What we have learned from NASA is that the health profiles of astronauts and the health profiles of civilians are notably different.

To get ahead of this problem, a landmark scientific meeting was hosted in 2021 by the Commercial Spaceflight Federation (CSF) with the blessings of the National Space Council. Intended to develop the first ever “Human Research Program for Civilians in the Commercialization of Space,” a workshop of 100 experts, which I co-chaired, identified high-priority human research projects to safeguard civilians in space.

Unfortunately, some of the commercial space companies behind the health research program now appear uninterested. Why the turnaround? We can only speculate, but a host of answers suggest themselves, starting with the space industry hoping to retain a 2004 decision by Congress that imposed a moratorium on new safety regulations on human spaceflight , in the absence of death, serious injury or close call ; this “learning period,” which has been extended several times, gives the industry considerable leeway to experiment with humans. Second, these space companies compete with one another and are in a hurry to realize breakthroughs for their own business without slowing down for safety research. Third, some of the leaders in these companies challenge the cautions about the fragility of civilians in space. They argue that the hazards will have minor or short-term health impact. SpaceX CEO Elon Musk referred to the Inspiration4 spaceflight as “an intense roller coaster ride,” and added that anyone who can tolerate that “should be fine for flying on Dragon,” Musk’s spaceship. Some in the industry prefer to place average civilians in spaceflight, study them during and after flight and then examine ways to protect civilians in future flights. This risk-ridden exploratory approach to discovery should be discouraged. It returns us to the days of the Wright brothers (who had multiple crashes and the first air passenger death ), where discovery occurs by risking calamity.

If there is a catastrophic event where civilians become seriously ill, injured or die, only then will we wake up to the proposition that humans in space should travel without harm. Only then will we realize that the best approach is to conduct an unbiased, objective, large-scale, scientific human research program against all the known risks of space travel.

But given today’s space-race realities, here’s a compromise: While space companies prosper under the moratorium, let them send civilians into space only after each one has undergone a thorough physical, mental and performance examination and preparatory training comparable to what is required of NASA’s career astronauts. Each company should publicize its preflight health and performance testing and training program. In addition, the space industry should publicly support the human research program it originally endorsed. Taking these steps would send civilians into space in the coming months and years in a responsible and safe manner. It would benefit the industry, assure public trust, and help protect civilians in space.

Even without industry support, we need health research now to protect future civilians in space, under the Federal Aviation Administration’s Office of Space Transportation (AST), Federal Aviation Agency. The AST has the experience, the mission, expertise and organizational setup to do an exceptional job.

The time to act is now by asking the Biden administration and Congress to fund a program of human research for civilians in space before it is too late, and we learn once more that “guinea pig” discoveries are rarely happy ones.

This is an opinion and analysis article, and the views expressed by the author or authors are not necessarily those of Scientific American.

Academic Reading Practice Test 56 Space Travel and Health

Academic Reading Test 56 SPACE TRAVEL AND HEALTH, VANISHED, DOGS – A LOVE STORY

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IELTSFever-academic-reading-practice-test-56-pdf

Academic Reading Test 56 Answers

SPACE TRAVEL AND HEALTH

Reading Passage 1 Reading Passage 1 has seven paragraphs A-G. Choose the correct heading for paragraphs B-E and G from the list of headings below. Write the correct member (i-x) in boxes 1—5 on your answer sheet. List of Headings

Example Paragraph A Answer iv 1 . Paragraph B 2 . Paragraph C 3 . Paragraph D 4 . Paragraph E Example Paragraph F Answer ii 5 . Paragraph G

Questions 6 and 7 Answer the questions below using NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS for each answer.

6. Where, apart from Earth, can space travelers find water? …………. 7. What happens to human legs during space travel? ……………..

Questions 8-12

Do the following statements agree with the writer’s views in Reading Passage 1? Write YES if the statement agrees with the views of the writer NO if the statement does not agree with the views of the writer NOT GIVEN if there is no information about this in the passage

8. The obstacles to going far into space are now medical, not technological. 9. Astronauts cannot survive more than two years in space. 10. It is morally wrong to spend so much money on space biomedicine. 11. Some kinds of surgery are more successful when performed in space. 12. Space biomedical research can only be done in space.

Questions 13-14 Complete the table below. Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer

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Why do some people get rashes in space? There's a clue in astronaut blood

Canadian astronaut David Saint-Jacques has his blood sampled on board the International Space Station for an experiment that examines the space-related changes that occur in blood and bone marrow. NASA hide caption

Canadian astronaut David Saint-Jacques has his blood sampled on board the International Space Station for an experiment that examines the space-related changes that occur in blood and bone marrow.

Astronauts are supposed to be in excellent health. It's part of the job description. They quarantine before blasting off to avoid getting sick and derailing a mission. Once aloft, they live and work in a sterile environment.

And yet, when they get to outer space, some have viral flareups or break out in rashes. It's a puzzle that got Odette Laneuville , a molecular biologist at the University of Ottawa, asking herself, "Why is it that they get infections up there?"

In a new study in Frontiers in Immunology , Laneuville and her colleagues suggest it could be due to the reduced activity of one hundred immune-related genes, which help give opportunistic infections a toehold.

40 years ago, Sally Ride became the first American woman in space

Knowing what causes astronauts to be more vulnerable to infections could help make future missions to space safer, experts say — and may improve treatments for those who are immunocompromised back here on Earth.

Normally, Laneuville says our bodies host a multitude of viruses and bacteria at any given moment — even when we feel just fine.

"And because we're healthy, we manage to keep those at check and dormant," she says. "But if we're stressed or if there's a dysregulation of the immune system," then those viruses and bacteria can cause infections. Laneuville thought maybe something in space was triggering a change in the gene activity of of the immune cells in astronaut blood that was allowing these opportunistic infections to surface.

So she and her colleagues enlisted 14 American and Canadian astronauts — all headed to the International Space Station for several months at different times. Laneuville had their blood sampled before and after their missions here on Earth, but also during their time in outer space. The 10-minute procedure on land took 90 minutes in orbit.

"They have to be very careful to pull out all their equipment, the needles, the tubes. And they have to secure everything," Laneuville says. "We don't want any leak. Not a drop of blood. Otherwise, it will float in the air and contaminate everybody."

The astronauts spun the blood down and stored it in a super-cold freezer until they returned to Earth, samples in tow. "I was supposed to hire someone to process those," she says. "But then I said, 'No, they're too precious. This blood comes from space.' It was my baby and I had to take care of it."

Ottawa-based researchers Dr. Odette Laneuville (left) and Dr. Guy Trudel (right) were part of a team that studied how the space environment affects astronauts' blood. University of Ottawa hide caption

Ottawa-based researchers Dr. Odette Laneuville (left) and Dr. Guy Trudel (right) were part of a team that studied how the space environment affects astronauts' blood.

All told, across multiple missions to the International Space Station, it took five years to collect all the samples. "One has to be very patient," says Laneuville. "But it's worth waiting. I was gonna wait more if I had to."

Here's what that special blood revealed. Exactly one hundred immune-related genes get dialed down in outer space. It could be due to stress. But Laneuville thinks there's another possibility: "Those genes respond to a decrease in gravitational force."

She says that when an astronaut enters microgravity, their blood shifts from their legs to their torsos and heads. It's uncomfortable and throws things out of whack. Their body resolves the problem by reducing the fluid by up to 15%. But that now means that there are too many immune cells crammed into this smaller amount of blood.

Laneuville thinks the drop in gene activity helps eliminate those extra cells. And this in turn affects the way the immune system responds to pathogens.

"It's as if the body is telling them, 'Don't defend, put your guards down,'" she says.

And this would allow viral and bacterial infections — normally held at bay — to rise up, infecting the astronauts.

But once they step foot on land again, the whole thing reverses as the genes are dialed back up and fluid levels return to normal. This reversal takes no longer than a year, but for many genes it's only a matter of a few weeks.

NASA assigns astronauts to enter lunar orbit for the first time in decades

Down the road, the study may have something to say about those with compromised immune systems right here on Earth, says Brian Crucian, a research immunologist at NASA who wasn't involved in the work.

"Think about a transplant patient," or someone who's elderly or under a large amount of stress. "There are a lot of ties between astronauts and terrestrial medicine."

People who spend long periods of time in Antarctica may also benefit from this research. With these individuals, "you run them through difficult travel to a profoundly extreme environment," says Crucian. "You put them in a base for a year, they experience 24-hour darkness, 24-hour daylight. And so you've got almost everything but microgravity and radiation in the Antarctic."

This study is a good start, says Jeremy Teo , a biomedical engineer at NYU Abu Dhabi who wasn't part of the research.

As we send astronauts farther and father out — to the Moon and even Mars — experts say it will be harder to get them back to Earth for recovery or expedient treatment.

"The feasibility of extraditing compromised astronauts back to Earth is just not there anymore," says Teo. "And hence, we need to develop these new countermeasures to cater to these space travel stresses on the immune system."

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Humans in Space

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Studies on the space station help prepare future crew for trips into deeper space.

NASA will soon send astronauts to the Moon, and will one day send astronauts to Mars. To get mission-ready, NASA seeks to learn all they can about how human physiology and psychology changes while astronauts live and work on the space station. Learn more about how scientists seek to maintain the health and well-being of crew members during and after their missions.

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Simulated space missions conducted on Earth help NASA examine crew health and team dynamics without launching into space. Some simulations happen in closed laboratory settings, others take place in remote regions like Antarctica. Using such missions, scientists can study in detail and in larger populations how humans adapt to challenges astronauts may encounter on missions to the Moon and Mars.

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Frank Rubio, Mark Vande Hei, Scott Kelly, Christina Koch, and Peggy Whitson have spent an extended amount of time in space, helping to pave the way for even longer, future exploration missions. Their missions help researchers better understand how the human body adapts to the extreme environment of space for more distant missions to the Moon, Mars, and beyond.

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space travel health issues ielts listening

Ieltsdata reading passage 68 – space travel and health..

IELTSData Reading Passage 68-space Travel and Health. SPACE TRAVEL AND HEALTH A. Space biomedicine is a relatively new area of research both in the USA and in Europe. Its main objectives are to study the effects of space travel on the human body, identifying the most critical medical problems, and finding solutions to those problems. … Read more

Solar Eclipse 2024

10 Surprising Facts About the 2024 Solar Eclipse

A total solar eclipse will sweep across North America on Monday, April 8, offering a spectacle for tens of millions of people who live in its path and others who will travel to see it.

A solar eclipse occurs during the new moon phase, when the moon passes between Earth and the sun, casting a shadow on Earth and totally or partially blocking our view of the sun. While an average of two solar eclipses happen every year, a particular spot on Earth is only in the path of totality every 375 years on average, Astronomy reported .

“Eclipses themselves aren't rare, it's just eclipses at your house are pretty rare,” John Gianforte, director of the University of New Hampshire Observatory, tells TIME. If you stay in your hometown, you may never spot one, but if you’re willing to travel, you can witness multiple. Gianforte has seen five eclipses and intends to travel to Texas this year, where the weather prospects are better.

One fun part of experiencing an eclipse can be watching the people around you. “They may yell, they scream, they cry, they hug each other, and that’s because it’s such an amazingly beautiful event,” Gianforte, who also serves as an extension associate professor of space science education, notes. “Everyone should see at least one in their life, because they’re just so spectacular. They are emotion-evoking natural events.”

Here are 10 surprising facts about the science behind the phenomenon, what makes 2024’s solar eclipse unique, and what to expect.

The total eclipse starts in the Pacific Ocean and ends in the Atlantic

The darker, inner shadow the moon casts is called the umbra , in which you can see a rarer total eclipse. The outer, lighter second shadow is called the penumbra, under which you will see a partial eclipse visible in more locations.

The total eclipse starts at 12:39 p.m. Eastern Time, a bit more than 620 miles south of the Republic of Kiribati in the Pacific Ocean, according to Astronomy . The umbra remains in contact with Earth’s surface for three hours and 16 minutes until 3:55 p.m. when it ends in the Atlantic Ocean, roughly 340 miles southwest of Ireland.

The umbra enters the U.S. at the Mexican border just south of Eagle Pass, Texas, and leaves just north of Houlton, Maine, with one hour and eight minutes between entry and exit, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) tells TIME in an email.

Mexico will see the longest totality during the eclipse

The longest totality will extend for four minutes and 28 seconds on a 350-mile-long swath near the centerline of the eclipse, including west of Torreón, Mexico, according to NASA.

In the U.S., some areas of Texas will catch nearly equally long total eclipses. For example, in Fredericksburg, totality will last four minutes and 23 seconds—and that gets slightly longer if you travel west, the agency tells TIME. Most places along the centerline will see totality lasting between three and a half minutes and four minutes.

More people currently live in the path of totality compared to the last eclipse

An estimated 31.6 million people live in the path of totality for 2024’s solar eclipse, compared to 12 million during the last solar eclipse that crossed the U.S. in 2017, per NASA .

The path of totality is much wider than in 2017, and this year’s eclipse is also passing over more cities and densely populated areas than last time.

A part of the sun which is typically hidden will reveal itself

Solar eclipses allow for a glimpse of the sun’s corona —the outermost atmosphere of the star that is normally not visible to humans because of the sun’s brightness.

The corona consists of wispy, white streamers of plasma—charged gas—that radiate from the sun. The corona is much hotter than the sun's surface —about 1 million degrees Celsius (1.8 million degrees Fahrenheit) compared to 5,500 degrees Celsius (9,940 degrees Fahrenheit).

The sun will be near its more dramatic solar maximum

During the 2024 eclipse, the sun will be near “solar maximum.” This is the most active phase of a roughly 11-year solar cycle, which might lead to more prominent and evident sun activity, Gianforte tells TIME.

“We're in a very active state of the sun, which makes eclipses more exciting, and [means there is] more to look forward to during the total phase of the eclipse,” he explains.

People should look for an extended, active corona with more spikes and maybe some curls in it, keeping an eye out for prominences , pink explosions of plasma that leap off the sun’s surface and are pulled back by the sun’s magnetic field, and streamers coming off the sun.

Streamers “are a beautiful, beautiful shade of pink, and silhouetted against the black, new moon that's passing across the disk of the sun, it makes them stand out very well. So it's really just a beautiful sight to look up at the totally eclipsed sun,” Gianforte says.

Two planets—and maybe a comet—could also be spotted

Venus will be visible 15 degrees west-southwest of the sun 10 minutes before totality, according to Astronomy. Jupiter will also appear 30 degrees to the east-northeast of the sun during totality, or perhaps a few minutes before. Venus is expected to shine more than five times as bright as Jupiter.

Another celestial object that may be visible is Comet 12P/Pons-Brooks , about six degrees to the right of Jupiter. Gianforte says the comet, with its distinctive circular cloud of gas and a long tail, has been “really putting on a great show in the sky” ahead of the eclipse.

The eclipse can cause a “360-degree sunset”

A solar eclipse can cause a sunset-like glow in every direction—called a “360-degree sunset”—which you might notice during the 2024 eclipse, NASA said . The effect is caused by light from the sun in areas outside of the path of totality and only lasts as long as totality.

The temperature will drop

When the sun is blocked out, the temperature drops noticeably. During the last total solar eclipse in the U.S. in 2017, the National Weather Service recorded that temperature dropped as much as 10 degrees Fahrenheit. In Carbondale, Ill. for example, the temperature dropped from a peak of 90 degrees Fahrenheit just before totality to 84 degrees during totality.

Wildlife may act differently

When the sky suddenly becomes black as though nighttime, confused “animals, dogs, cats, birds do act very differently ,” Gianforte says.

In the 2017 eclipse, scientists tracked that many flying creatures began returning to the ground or other perches up to 50 minutes before totality. Seeking shelter is a natural response to a storm or weather conditions that can prove deadly for small flying creatures, the report said. Then right before totality, a group of flying creatures changed their behavior again—suddenly taking flight before quickly settling back into their perches again.

There will be a long wait for the next total eclipse in the U.S.

The next total eclipse in the U.S. won’t happen until March 30, 2033, when totality will reportedly only cross parts of Alaska . The next eclipse in the 48 contiguous states is expected to occur on Aug. 12, 2044, with parts of Montana and North Dakota experiencing totality.

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Answers for Space Travel and Health
Answer: FILTER CONTAMINATED WATER. Miniaturization. saving weight. wearing small monitors comfortably. Space Travel and Health reading practice test has 14 questions belongs to the Recent Actual Tests subject. In total 14 questions, 5 questions are YES-NO-NOT GIVEN form, 5 questions are Matching Headings form, 2 questions are Sentence ...
Space Travel And Health- IELTS Reading Answers
These lines indicate that the primary aim of studying the effects of space travel on the human body is to identify important medical problems and find appropriate solutions to these problems. Thus, the statement agrees with the information, so, the answer is Yes. 9 Answer: Not Given. Question type: Yes/ No/ Not Given.
Space travel and health Answers and Questions
Space travel and health. A. Both in the United States and Europe, space biomedicine is a relatively new field of study. Its primary goals are to investigate how space travel affects the human body, pinpoint the most pressing medical issues, and come up with solutions for those issues. NASA and/or the European Space Agency are providing more ...
Space travel And Health IELTS Reading Answers
12. Space biomedical research can only be done in space. Answer - NO. Explanation: The answer to this question is available in Paragraph G of the Space Travel and Health Reading Answers sample. In this paragraph, the author mentions that it is possible to carry out biomedicine research for space travel on Earth itself.
Academic Reading Test 56 Answers
Dear students, here are the IELTSFever Academic Reading Test 56 Answers ( Passage 1 Space Travel and Health, Passage 2 Vanished, Passage 3 Dogs - A Love Story). Dear Students, if you need to clear your doubts regarding these Answers, you can ask any question throw our email, or you can mention your query in the comments section. or send your questions on our IELTSfever Facebook page or Tweet ...
Space Travel And Health Reading Answers
Space Travel And Health Reading Answers. Space biomedicine is a relatively new area of research both in the USA and in Europe. Its main objectives are to study the effects of space travel on the human body, identify the most critical medical problems, and find solutions to those problems. Space biomedicine centers are receiving increasing ...
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Academic Reading Test 56 SPACE TRAVEL AND HEALTH, VANISHED, DOGS - A LOVE STORY we prefer you to work offline, download the test paper and blank answer sheet IELTSFever-academic-reading-practice-test-56-pdf Academic Reading Test 56 Answers SPACE TRAVEL AND HEALTH Reading Passage 1 Reading Passage 1 has seven paragraphs A-G. Choose the correct heading for paragraphs B-E and G from the
Cambridge Official Guide to IELTS Test 5: AC Reading Module
This Academic IELTS Reading post focuses on solutions to IELTS Cambridge Official Guide to IELTS Test 5 Reading Passage 3 which is titled 'Science in Space'.This is a targeted post for IELTS candidates who have big problems finding and understanding Reading answers in the Academic module. This post can guide you properly to understand every Reading answer without much trouble.
Space Travel And Health Reading Answers
The impact of space travel on human health both now and in the future. As we continue to explore our deep universe, it is important to study the effect of space travel on human health, both now and in the future. There are many potential risks combined with long-term exposure to deep space, including radiation poisoning, loss of bone density ...
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Answers. 1. x (Đoạn B, "Without the necessary protection and medical treatment, however, their bodies would be devastated by the unremittingly hostile environment of space."). 2. ix (Đoạn C, "The most obvious physical changes undergone by people in zero gravity…". 3. vii (Đoạn D, " With no gravity, there is less need for a sturdy skeleton to support the body, with the ...
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NASA astronauts Tom Marshburn (at left) and Kayla Barron are seen outside of the Quest airlock at the International Space Station during a spacewalk on Thursday, Dec. 2, 2021. Experts are ...
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Questions of SPACE TRAVEL AND HEALTH Reading Passage 1 has seven paragraphs A-G. Choose the correct heading for paragraphs B-E and G from the list of headings below. Write the correct member (i-x) in boxes 1—5 on your answer sheet.
IELTS Essay: Space Travel
IELTS Essay: Space Travel. This is an IELTS writing task 2 sample answer essay on the topic of space travel from the real IELTS exam. Please consider supporting my efforts to creative high quality IELTS materials for students around the world by signing up for my Patreon (and so you won't miss out on any of my exclusive IELTS Ebooks)! Dave.
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Outer Space Travel & Stars IELTS Speaking Vocabulary for Part 2 & 3. Meticulous. Meaning: showing great attention to detail; careful and precise. Example: The meticulous work of the student impressed the teacher. Terrain. Meaning: physical features of a tract of land, such as its elevation, slope, and surface characteristics.
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Within decades, hundreds and perhaps thousands of average civilians will travel, live and work in space.Along with their space suits, they will bring with them their illnesses, chronic health ...
Academic Reading Practice Test 56 Space Travel and Health
Conducting space biomedical research on Earth vii. The internal damage caused to the human body by space travel viii. How space biomedicine First began ix. The visible effects of space travel on the human body x. Why space biomedicine is now necessary. Example Paragraph A Answer iv 1 . Paragraph B 2 . Paragraph C 3 . Paragraph D 4 .
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space travel health issues ielts listening Archives
April 25, 2018 by Manpreet Singh. IELTSData Reading Passage 68-space Travel and Health. SPACE TRAVEL AND HEALTH A. Space biomedicine is a relatively new area of research both in the USA and in Europe. Its main objectives are to study the effects of space travel on the human body, identifying the most critical medical problems, and finding ...
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Space travel And Health IELTS Reading Answers

Updated on 13 April, 2023

Mrinal Mandal

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