voyages of exploration cause and effect

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Causes and Impacts of the European Age of Exploration

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A time when Europe was swept up in the Renaissance and the Reformation, other major changes were taking place in the world.

Introduction

With today’s global positioning satellites, Internet maps, cell phones, and superfast travel, it is hard to imagine exactly how it might have felt to embark on a voyage across an unknown ocean. What lay across the ocean? In the early 1400s in Europe, few people knew. How long would it take to get there? That depended on the wind, the weather, and the distance. Days would have run together, with no sounds but the voices of the captain and the crew, the creaking of the sails, the blowing wind, and the splash of waves against the ship’s hull.

Would you be willing to undertake such a voyage? Only those most adventurous, most daring, and most confident in their abilities to sail in any weather, manage any crew, and meet any circumstance dared do so. They sailed west from England, Spain, and Portugal to North America. They sailed south from Portugal and Spain to South America, to lands where the Incas lived. They traveled to Africa, past the kingdoms of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai. The crew of one Portuguese expedition even sailed completely around the world.

European explorers changed the world in many dramatic ways. Because of them, cultures divided by 3,000 miles or more of water began interacting. European countries claimed large parts of the world. As nations competed for territory, Europe had an enormous impact on people living in distant lands.

The Americas, in turn, made important contributions to Europe and the rest of the world. For example, from the Americas came crops such as corn and potatoes, which grew well in Europe. By increasing Europe’s food supply, these crops helped create population growth.

Another great change during the early modern age was the Scientific Revolution. Between 1500 and 1700, scientists used observation and experiments to make dramatic discoveries. For example, Isaac Newton formulated the laws of gravity. The Scientific Revolution also led to the invention of new tools, such as the microscope and the thermometer.

Advances in science helped pave the way for a period called the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment began in the late 1600s. Enlightenment thinkers used observation and reason to try to solve problems in society. Their work led to new ideas about government, human nature, and human rights.

The Age of Exploration, the Scientific Revolution, and the Enlightenment helped to shape the world we live in today.

The Causes of European Exploration

Why did European exploration begin to flourish in the 1400s? Two main reasons stand out. First, Europeans of this time had several motives for exploring the world. Second, advances in knowledge and technology helped to make the Age of Exploration possible.

Motives for Exploration

For early explorers, one of the main motives for exploration was the desire to find new trade routes to Asia. By the 1400s, merchants and Crusaders had brought many goods to Europe from Africa, the Middle East, and Asia. Demand for these goods increased the desire for trade.

Europeans were especially interested in spices from Asia. They had learned to use spices to help preserve food during winter and to cover up the taste of food that was no longer fresh.

Trade with the East, however, was difficult and very expensive. Muslims and Italians controlled the flow of goods. Muslim traders carried goods to the east coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Italian merchants then brought the goods into Europe. Problems arose when Muslim rulers sometimes closed the trade routes from Asia to Europe. Also, the goods went through many hands, and each trading party raised the price.

European monarchs and merchants wanted to break the hold that Muslims and Italians had on trade. One way to do so was to find a sea route to Asia. Portuguese sailors looked for a route that went around Africa. Christopher Columbus tried to reach Asia by sailing west across the Atlantic.

Other motives also came into play. Many people were excited by the opportunity for new knowledge. Explorers saw the chance to earn fame and glory, as well as wealth. As new lands were discovered, nations wanted to claim the lands’ riches for themselves.

A final motive for exploration was the desire to spread Christianity beyond Europe. Both Protestant and Catholic nations were eager to make new converts. Missionaries of both faiths followed the paths blazed by explorers.

Advances in Knowledge and Technology  

The Age of Exploration began during the Renaissance. The Renaissance was a time of new learning. A number of advances during that time made it easier for explorers to venture into the unknown.

One key advance was in cartography, the art and science of mapmaking. In the early 1400s, an Italian scholar translated an ancient book called Guide to Geography from Greek into Latin. The book was written by the thinker Ptolemy (TOL-eh-mee) in the 2nd century C.E. Printed copies of the book inspired new interest in cartography. European mapmakers used Ptolemy’s work as a basis for drawing more accurate maps.

Discoveries by explorers gave mapmakers new information with which to work. The result was a dramatic change in Europeans’ view of the world. By the 1500s, Europeans made globes, showing Earth as a sphere. In 1507, a German cartographer made the first map that clearly showed North and South America as separate from Asia.

In turn, better maps made navigation easier. The most important Renaissance geographer, Gerardus Mercator (mer-KAY-tur), created maps using improved lines of longitude and latitude. Mercator’s mapmaking technique was a great help to navigators.

An improved ship design also helped explorers. By the 1400s, Portuguese and Spanish shipbuilders were making a new type of ship called a caravel. These ships were small, fast, and easy to maneuver. Their special bottoms made it easier for explorers to travel along coastlines where the water was not deep. Caravels also used lateen sails, a triangular style adapted from Muslim ships. These sails could be positioned to take advantage of the wind no matter which way it blew.

Along with better ships, new navigational tools helped sailors travel more safely on the open seas. By the end of the 1400s, the compass was much improved. Sailors used compasses to find their bearing, or direction of travel. The astrolabe helped sailors determine their distance north or south from the equator.

Finally, improved weapons gave Europeans a huge advantage over the people they met in their explorations. Sailors could fire their cannons at targets near the shore without leaving their ships. On land, the weapons of native peoples often were no match for European guns, armor, and horses.

Portugal Begins the Age of Exploration

The Age of Exploration began in Portugal. This small country is located on the Iberian Peninsula. Its rulers sent explorers first to nearby Africa and then around the world.

Key Portuguese Explorers

The major figure in early Portuguese exploration was Prince Henry, the son of King John I of Portugal. Nicknamed “the Navigator,” Prince Henry was not an explorer himself. Instead, he encouraged exploration and planned and directed many important expeditions.

Beginning in about 1418, Henry sent explorers to sea almost every year. He also started a school of navigation where sailors and mapmakers could learn their trades. His cartographers made new maps based on the information ship captains brought back.

Henry’s early expeditions focused on the west coast of Africa. He wanted to continue the Crusades against the Muslims, find gold, and take part in Asian trade.

Gradually, Portuguese explorers made their way farther and farther south. In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias became the first European to sail around the southern tip of Africa.

In July 1497, Vasco da Gama set sail with four ships to chart a sea route to India. Da Gama’s ships rounded Africa’s southern tip and then sailed up the east coast of the continent. With the help of a sailor who knew the route to India from there, they were able to across the Indian Ocean.

Da Gama arrived in the port of Calicut, India, in May 1498. There he obtained a load of cinnamon and pepper. On the return trip to Portugal, da Gama lost half of his ships. Still, the valuable cargo he brought back paid for the voyage many times over. His trip made the Portuguese even more eager to trade directly with Indian merchants.

In 1500, Pedro Cabral (kah-BRAHL) set sail for India with a fleet of 13 ships. Cabral first sailed southwest to avoid areas where there are no winds to fill sails. But he sailed so far west that he reached the east coast of present-day Brazil. After claiming this land for Portugal, he sailed back to the east and rounded Africa. Arriving in Calicut, he established a trading post and signed trade treaties. He returned to Portugal in June 1501.

The Impact of Portuguese Exploration  

Portugal’s explorers changed Europeans’ understanding of the world in several ways. They explored the coasts of Africa and brought back gold and enslaved Africans. They also found a sea route to India. From India, explorers brought back spices, such as cinnamon and pepper, and other goods, such as porcelain, incense, jewels, and silk.

After Cabral’s voyage, the Portuguese took control of the eastern sea routes to Asia. They seized the seaport of Goa (GOH-uh) in India and built forts there. They attacked towns on the east coast of Africa. They also set their sights on the Moluccas, or Spice Islands, in what is now Indonesia. In 1511, they attacked the main port of the islands and killed the Muslim defenders. The captain of this expedition explained what was at stake. If Portugal could take the spice trade away from Muslim traders, he wrote, then Cairo and Makkah “will be ruined.” As for Italian merchants, “Venice will receive no spices unless her merchants go to buy them in Portugal.”

Portugal’s control of the Indian Ocean broke the hold Muslims and Italians had on Asian trade. With the increased competition, prices of Asian goods—such as spices and fabrics—dropped, and more people in Europe could afford to buy them.

During the 1500s, Portugal also began to establish colonies in Brazil. The native people of Brazil suffered greatly as a result. The Portuguese forced them to work on sugar plantations, or large farms. They also tried to get them to give up their religion and convert to Christianity. Missionaries sometimes tried to protect them from abuse, but countless numbers of native peoples died from overwork and from European diseases. Others fled into the interior of Brazil.

The colonization of Brazil also had a negative impact on Africa. As the native population of Brazil decreased, the Portuguese needed more laborers. Starting in the mid–1500s, they turned to Africa. Over the next 300 years, ships brought millions of enslaved West Africans to Brazil.

Later Spanish Exploration and Conquest

After Columbus’s voyages, Spain was eager to claim even more lands in the New World. To explore and conquer “New Spain,” the Spanish turned to adventurers called conquistadors , or conquerors. The conquistadors were allowed to establish settlements and seize the wealth of natives. In return, the Spanish government claimed some of the treasures they found.

Key Explorers

In 1519, Spanish explorer Hernán Cortés (er–NAHN koor–TEZ), with and a band of fellow conquistadors, set out to explore present-day Mexico. Native people in Mexico told Cortés about the Aztecs. The Aztecs had built a large and wealthy empire in Mexico.

With the help of a native woman named Malinche (mah–LIN–chay), Cortés and his men reached the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlán (tay–nawh–tee–TLAHN). The Aztec ruler, Moctezuma II, welcomed the Spanish with great honors. Determined to break the power of the Aztecs, Cortés took Moctezuma hostage.

Cortés now controlled the Aztec capital. In 1520, he left the city of Tenochtitlán to battle a rival Spanish force. While he was away, a group of conquistadors attacked the Aztecs in the middle of a religious celebration. In response, the Aztecs rose up against the Spanish. The soldiers had to fight their way out of the city. Many of them were killed during the escape.

The following year, Cortés mounted a siege of the city, aided by thousands of native allies who resented Aztec rule. The Aztecs ran out of food and water, yet they fought desperately. After several months, the Spanish captured the Aztec leader, and Aztec resistance collapsed. The city was in ruins. The mighty Aztec Empire was no more.

Four factors contributed to the defeat of the Aztec Empire. First, Aztec legend had predicted the arrival of a white-skinned god. When Cortés appeared, the Aztecs welcomed him because they thought he might be this god, Quetzalcoatl. Second, Cortés was able to make allies of the Aztecs’ enemies. Third, their horses, armor, and superior weapons gave the Spanish an advantage in battle. Fourth, the Spanish carried diseases that caused deadly epidemics among the Aztecs.

Aztec riches inspired Spanish conquistadors to continue their search for gold. In the 1520s, Francisco Pizarro received permission from Spain to conquer the Inca Empire in South America. The Incas ruled an empire that extended throughout most of the Andes Mountains. By the time Pizarro arrived, however, a civil war had weakened that empire.

In April 1532, the Incan emperor, Atahualpa (ah–tuh–WAHL–puh), greeted the Spanish as guests. Following Cortés’s example, Pizarro launched a surprise attack and kidnapped the emperor. Although the Incas paid a roomful of gold and silver in ransom, the Spanish killed Atahualpa. Without their leader, the Inca Empire quickly fell apart.

The Impact of Later Spanish Exploration and Conquest  

The explorations and conquests of the conquistadors transformed Spain. The Spanish rapidly expanded foreign trade and overseas colonization. For a time, wealth from the Americas made Spain one of the world’s richest and most powerful countries.

Besides gold and silver, ships from the Americas brought corn and potatoes to Spain. These crops grew well in Europe. The increased food supply helped spur a population boom. Conquistadors also introduced Europeans to new luxury items, such as chocolate.

In the long run, however, gold and silver from the Americas hurt Spain’s economy. Inflation, or an increase in the supply of money, led to a loss of its value. It now cost people a great deal more to buy goods with the devalued money. Additionally, monarchs and the wealthy spent their riches on luxuries, instead of building Spain’s industries.

The Spanish conquests had a major impact on the New World. The Spanish introduced new animals to the Americas, such as horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs. But they destroyed two advanced civilizations. The Aztecs and Incas lost much of their culture along with their wealth. Many became laborers for the Spanish. Millions died from disease. In Mexico, for example, there were about twenty-five million native people in 1519. By 1605, this number had dwindled to one million.

Other European Explorations

Spain and Portugal dominated the early years of exploration. But rulers in rival nations wanted their own share of trade and new lands in the Americas. Soon England, France, and the Netherlands all sent expeditions to North America.

Key Explorers  

Explorers often sailed for any country that would pay for their voyages. The Italian sailor John Cabot made England’s first voyage of discovery. Cabot believed he could reach the Indies by sailing northwest across the Atlantic. In 1497, he landed in what is now Canada. Believing he had reached the northeast coast of Asia, he claimed the region for England.

Another Italian, Giovanni da Verrazano, sailed under the French flag. In 1524, Verrazano explored the Atlantic coast from present-day North Carolina to Canada. His voyage gave France its first claims in the Americas. Unfortunately, on a later trip to the West Indies, he was killed by native people.

Sailing on behalf of the Netherlands, English explorer Henry Hudson journeyed to North America in 1609. Hudson wanted to find a northwest passage through North America to the Pacific Ocean. Such a water route would allow ships to sail from Europe to Asia without entering waters controlled by Spain.

Hudson did not find a northwest passage, but he did explore what is now called the Hudson River in present-day New York State. His explorations were the basis of the Dutch claim to the area. Dutch settlers established the colony of New Amsterdam on Manhattan in 1625.

In 1610, Hudson tried again, this time under the flag of his native England. Searching farther north, he sailed into a large bay in Canada that is now called Hudson Bay. He spent three months looking for an outlet to the Pacific, but there was none.

After a hard winter in the icy bay, some of Hudson’s crew rebelled. They set him, his son, and seven loyal followers adrift in a small boat. Hudson and the other castaways were never seen again. Hudson’s voyage, however, laid the basis for later English claims in Canada.

The Impact of European Exploration of North America  

Unlike the conquistadors in the south, northern explorers did not find gold and other treasure. As a result, there was less interest, at first, in starting colonies in that region.

Canada’s shores did offer rich resources of cod and other fish. Within a few years of Cabot’s trip, fishing boats regularly visited the region. Europeans were also interested in trading with Native Americans for whale oil and otter, beaver, and fox furs. By the early 1600s, Europeans had set up a number of trading posts in North America.

English exploration also contributed to a war between England and Spain. As English ships roamed the seas, some captains, nicknamed “sea dogs,” began raiding Spanish ports and ships to take their gold. Between 1577 and 1580, sea dog Francis Drake sailed around the world. He also claimed part of what is now California for England, ignoring Spain’s claims to the area.

The English raids added to other tensions between England and Spain. In 1588, King Philip II of Spain sent an armada, or fleet of ships, to invade England. With 130 heavily armed vessels and about thirty thousand men, the Spanish Armada seemed an unbeatable force. But the smaller English fleet was fast and well armed. Their guns had a longer range, so they could attack from a safe distance. After several battles, a number of the armada’s ships had been sunk or driven ashore. The rest turned around but faced terrible storms on the way home. Fewer than half of the ships made it back to Spain.

The defeat of the Spanish Armada marked the start of a shift in power in Europe. By 1630, Spain no longer dominated the continent. With Spain’s decline, other countries—particularly England and the Netherlands—took a more active role in trade and colonization around the world.

Bartolomé de Las Casas: From Conquistador to Protector of the Indians

Bartolomé de las Casas experienced a remarkable change of heart during his lifetime. At first, he participated in Spain’s conquest and settlement of the Americas. Later in life, he criticized and condemned it. For more than fifty years, he fought for the rights of the defeated and enslaved peoples of Latin America. How did this conquistador become known as “the Protector of the Indians?”

Bartolomé de las Casas (bahr–taw–law–MEY day las KAH-sahs) ran through the streets of Seville, Spain, on March 31, 1493. He was just nine years old and on his way to see Christopher Columbus, who had just returned from his first voyage to the Americas. Bartolomé wanted to see him and the “Indians,” as they were called, as they paraded to the church.

Bartolomé’s father and uncles were looking forward to seeing Columbus, as well. Like many other people in Europe during the late 1400s, they saw the Americas as a place of opportunity. They signed up to join Columbus on his second voyage. Two years after that, Bartolomé followed in his father’s footsteps and voyaged to the Americas himself. He sailed to the island of Hispaniola, the present-day nations of Haiti and the Dominican Republic.

Las Casas as Conquistador and Priest

One historian wrote that when Las Casas first arrived in the Americas, he was “not much better than the rest of the gentlemen-adventurers who rushed to the New World, bent on speedily acquiring fortunes.” He supported the Spanish conquest of the Americas and was a loyal servant of Spain’s king and queen, Ferdinand and Isabella. Once in Hispaniola, Las Casas helped to manage his father’s farms and businesses. Enslaved Indians worked in the family’s fields and mines.

Spanish conquistadors wanted to gain wealth and glory in the Americas. They had another goal, as well—to convert Indians to Christianity. Las Casas shared this goal. So, the young conquistador went back to Europe to become a priest. He returned to Hispaniola sometime in 1509 or 1510. There he began to teach and baptize the Indians. At the same time, he continued to manage Indian slaves.

On a Path to Change

History often seems to be made up of moments when someone has a change of heart. The path that he or she has been traveling takes a dramatic turn. It often appears to others that this change is sudden. In reality, a series of events usually causes a person to make the decision to change. One such event happened to Las Casas in 1511.

Roman Catholics in Hispaniola witnessed horrible acts of cruelty and injustice against the native peoples of the West Indies at the hands of the Spanish conquistadors. One of the priests there, Father Antonio de Montesinos, spoke out against the harsh treatment of the Indians in a sermon delivered to a Spanish congregation in Hispaniola in 1511. De Montesinos said:

You are in mortal sin . . . for the cruelty and tyranny you use in dealing with these innocent people . . . by what right or justice do you keep these Indians in such a cruel and horrible servitude? . . . Why do you keep them so oppressed? . . . Are not these people also human beings?

One historian called this sermon “the first cry for justice in America” on behalf of the Indians. Las Casas recorded the sermon in one of his books, History of the Indies . No one is sure if he was present at the sermon or heard about it later. But one thing seems certain; even though he must have seen some of the same injustices described by de Montesinos, Las Casas continued to support the Spanish conquest and the goals of conquering new lands, earning wealth, and converting Indians to Christianity.

However, in 1513, something happened that changed Las Casas’s life. He took part in the conquest of Cuba. As a reward, he received more Indian slaves and an encomienda , or land grant. But he also witnessed a massacre. The Spanish killed thousands of innocent Indians, including women and children, who had welcomed the Spanish into their town. In his book The Devastation of the Indies: A Brief Account , he wrote, “I saw here cruelty on a scale no living being has ever seen or expects to see.”

A Turning Point

The Cuban massacre in 1513 and other scenes of violence against Indians Las Casas witnessed finally pushed him to a turning point. He could no longer believe that the Spanish conquest was right. Before, he had thought that only some individuals acted cruelly and inhumanely. Now he saw that the whole Spanish system of conquest brought only death and suffering to the people of the West Indies.

On August 15, 1514, when he was about thirty years old, Las Casas gave a startling sermon. He asked his congregation to free their enslaved Indians. He also said that they had to return or pay for everything they had taken away from the Indians. He refused to forgive the colonists’ sins in confession if they used Indians as forced labor. Then he announced that he would give up his ownership of Indians and the business he had inherited from his father.

Protector of the Indians

For the rest of his life, Las Casas fought for the rights of the Indians in the Americas. He traveled back and forth to Europe working on their behalf. He talked with popes and kings, debated enemies, and wrote letters and books on the subject.

Las Casas influenced both a pope and a king. In 1537, Pope Paul III wrote that Indians were free human beings, not slaves, and that anyone who enslaved them could be thrown out of the Catholic Church. In 1542, Holy Roman emperor Charles V, who ruled Spain, issued the New Laws, banning slavery in Spanish America.

In 1550 and 1551, Las Casas also took part in a famous debate against Juan Ginés Sepúlveda in Spain. Sepúlveda tried to prove that Indians were “natural slaves.” Many Spanish, especially those hungry for wealth and glory, shared this belief. Las Casas passionately argued against Sepúlveda with the same message he would deliver over and over throughout his life. Las Casas argued that:

• Indians, like all human beings, have rights to life and liberty. • The Spanish stole Indian land through bloody and unjust wars. • There is no such thing as a good encomienda. • Indians have the right to make war against the Spanish.

Las Casas died in 1566. The voices and the deeds of the conquistadors slowly eroded the memory of his words. But in other European countries, people began to read The Devastation of the Indies: A Brief Account . As time passed, more of Las Casas’s works were published. In the centuries to follow, fighters for justice took up his name as a symbol for their own struggles for human rights.

The Legacy of Las Casas

Today, historians remember Las Casas as the first person to actively oppose the oppression of Indians and to call for an end to Indian slavery. Later, in the 19th century, Las Casas inspired both Father Hidalgo, the father of Mexican independence, and Simón Bolívar, the liberator of South America.

In the 1960s, Mexican American César Chávez learned about injustice at an early age. His family worked as migrants, moving from place to place to pick crops. With barely an eighth-grade education, Chávez organized workers, formed a union, and won better pay and better working and living conditions. Speaking for the powerless, he rallied people to his side with his cry, “Sí, Se Puede!” (“Yes, We Can!”) Just as the name “Chávez” will always be connected to the struggles of the farm workers, the name “Las Casas” will forever be connected to any fight for human rights and dignity for the native people of the Americas.

The Impact of Exploration on Europe

The voyages of explorers had a dramatic impact on European commerce and economies. As a result of exploration, more goods, raw materials, and precious metals entered Europe. Mapmakers carefully charted trade routes and the locations of newly discovered lands. By the 1700s, European ships traveled trade routes that spanned the globe. New centers of commerce developed in the port cities of the Netherlands and England.

Exploration and trade contributed to the growth of capitalism. This economic system is based on investing money for profit. Merchants gained great wealth by trading and selling goods from around the world. Many of them used their profits to finance still more voyages and to start trading companies. Other people began investing money in these companies and shared in the profits. Soon, this type of shared ownership was applied to other kinds of businesses.

Another aspect of the capitalist economy concerned the way people exchanged goods and services. Money became more important as precious metals flowed into Europe. Instead of having a fixed price, items were sold for prices that were set by the open market. This meant that the price of an item depended on how much of the item was available and how many people wanted to buy it. Sellers could charge high prices for scarce items that many people wanted. If the supply of an item was large and few people wanted it, sellers lowered the price. This kind of system, based on supply and demand, is called a market economy.

Labor, too, was given a money value. Increasingly, people began working for hire instead of directly providing for their own needs. Merchants hired people to work from their own cottages, turning raw materials from overseas into finished products. This growing cottage industry was especially important in the manufacture of textiles. Often, entire families worked at home, spinning wool into thread or weaving thread into cloth. Cottage industry was a step toward the system of factories operated by capitalists in later centuries.

A final result of exploration was a new economic policy called mercantilism. European rulers believed that building up wealth was the best way to increase a nation’s power. For this reason, they tried to reduce the products they bought from other countries and to increase the items they sold.

Having colonies was a key part of this policy. Nations looked to their colonies to supply raw materials for their industries at home. These industries turned the raw materials into finished goods that they could sell back to their colonies, as well as to other countries. To protect this valuable trade with their colonies, rulers often forbade colonists from trading with other nations.

Originally published by Flores World History , free and open access, republished for educational, non-commercial purposes.

A Brief History of the Age of Exploration

The age of exploration brought about discoveries and advances

Hulton Archive/Getty Images 

• Key Figures & Milestones
• Physical Geography
• Political Geography
• Country Information
• Urban Geography

The Birth of the Age of Exploration

The discovery of the new world, opening the americas, the end of the era, contributions to science, long-term impact.

• M.A., Geography, California State University - East Bay
• B.A., English and Geography, California State University - Sacramento

The era known as the Age of Exploration, sometimes called the Age of Discovery, officially began in the early 15th century and lasted through the 17th century. The period is characterized as a time when Europeans began exploring the world by sea in search of new trading routes, wealth, and knowledge. The impact of the Age of Exploration would permanently alter the world and transform geography into the modern science it is today.

Impact of the Age of Exploration

• Explorers learned more about areas such as Africa and the Americas and brought that knowledge back to Europe.
• Massive wealth accrued to European colonizers due to trade in goods, spices, and precious metals.
• Methods of navigation and mapping improved, switching from traditional portolan charts to the world's first nautical maps.
• New food, plants, and animals were exchanged between the colonies and Europe.
• Indigenous people were decimated by Europeans, from a combined impact of disease, overwork, and massacres.
• The workforce needed to support the massive plantations in the New World, led to the trade of enslaved people , which lasted for 300 years and had an enormous impact on Africa.
• The impact persists to this day , with many of the world's former colonies still considered the "developing" world, while colonizers are the First World countries, holding a majority of the world's wealth and annual income.

Many nations were looking for goods such as silver and gold, but one of the biggest reasons for exploration was the desire to find a new route for the spice and silk trades.

When the Ottoman Empire took control of Constantinople in 1453, it blocked European access to the area, severely limiting trade. In addition, it also blocked access to North Africa and the Red Sea, two very important trade routes to the Far East.

The first of the journeys associated with the Age of Discovery were conducted by the Portuguese. Although the Portuguese, Spanish, Italians, and others had been plying the Mediterranean for generations, most sailors kept well within sight of land or traveled known routes between ports.  Prince Henry the Navigator  changed that, encouraging explorers to sail beyond the mapped routes and discover new trade routes to West Africa.

Portuguese explorers discovered the Madeira Islands in 1419 and the Azores in 1427. Over the coming decades, they would push farther south along the African coast, reaching the coast of present-day Senegal by the 1440s and the Cape of Good Hope by 1490. Less than a decade later, in 1498, Vasco da Gama would follow this route all the way to India.

While the Portuguese were opening new sea routes along Africa, the Spanish also dreamed of finding new trade routes to the Far East. Christopher Columbus , an Italian working for the Spanish monarchy, made his first journey in 1492. Instead of reaching India, Columbus found the island of San Salvador in what is known today as the Bahamas. He also explored the island of Hispaniola, home of modern-day Haiti and the Dominican Republic.

Columbus would lead three more voyages to the Caribbean, exploring parts of Cuba and the Central American coast. The Portuguese also reached the New World when explorer Pedro Alvares Cabral explored Brazil, setting off a conflict between Spain and Portugal over the newly claimed lands. As a result, the  Treaty of Tordesillas  officially divided the world in half in 1494.

Columbus' journeys opened the door for the Spanish conquest of the Americas. During the next century, men such as Hernan Cortes and Francisco Pizarro would decimate the Aztecs of Mexico, the Incas of Peru, and other indigenous peoples of the Americas. By the end of the Age of Exploration, Spain would rule from the Southwestern United States to the southernmost reaches of Chile and Argentina.

Great Britain and France also began seeking new trade routes and lands across the ocean. In 1497, John Cabot, an Italian explorer working for the English, reached what is believed to be the coast of Newfoundland. A number of French and English explorers followed, including Giovanni da Verrazano, who discovered the entrance to the Hudson River in 1524, and Henry Hudson, who mapped the island of Manhattan first in 1609.

Over the next decades, the French, Dutch, and British would all vie for dominance. England established the first permanent colony in North America at Jamestown, Va., in 1607. Samuel du Champlain founded Quebec City in 1608, and Holland established a trading outpost in present-day New York City in 1624.

Other important voyages of exploration during this era included Ferdinand Magellan's attempted circumnavigation of the globe, the search for a trade route to Asia through the Northwest Passage , and Captain James Cook's voyages that allowed him to map various areas and travel as far as Alaska.

The Age of Exploration ended in the early 17th century after technological advancements and increased knowledge of the world allowed Europeans to travel easily across the globe by sea. The creation of permanent settlements and colonies created a network of communication and trade, therefore ending the need to search for new routes.

It is important to note that exploration did not cease entirely at this time. Eastern Australia was not officially claimed for Britain by Capt. James Cook until 1770, while much of the Arctic and Antarctic were not explored until the 20th century. Much of Africa also was unexplored by Westerners until the late 19th century and early 20th century.

The Age of Exploration had a significant impact on geography. By traveling to different regions around the globe, explorers were able to learn more about areas such as Africa and the Americas and bring that knowledge back to Europe.

Methods of navigation and mapping improved as a result of the travels of people such as Prince Henry the Navigator. Prior to his expeditions, navigators had used traditional portolan charts, which were based on coastlines and ports of call, keeping sailors close to shore.

The Spanish and Portuguese explorers who journeyed into the unknown created the world's first nautical maps, delineating not just the geography of the lands they found but also the seaward routes and ocean currents that led them there. As technology advanced and known territory expanded, maps and mapmaking became more and more sophisticated.

These explorations also introduced a whole new world of flora and fauna to Europeans. Corn, now a staple of much of the world's diet, was unknown to Westerners until the time of the Spanish conquest, as were sweet potatoes and peanuts. Likewise, Europeans had never seen turkeys, llamas, or squirrels before setting foot in the Americas.

The Age of Exploration served as a stepping stone for geographic knowledge. It allowed more people to see and study various areas around the world, which increased geographic study, giving us the basis for much of the knowledge we have today.

The effects of colonization still persist as well, with many of the world's former colonies still considered the "developing" world and the colonizers the First World countries, holding a majority of the world's wealth and receiving a majority of its annual income.

• Profile of Prince Henry the Navigator
• A Timeline of North American Exploration: 1492–1585
• The History of Cartography
• Biography of Ferdinand Magellan, Explorer Circumnavigated the Earth
• The Portuguese Empire
• Explorers and Discoverers
• The Truth About Christopher Columbus
• The European Overseas Empires
• European Exploration of Africa
• Biography and Legacy of Ferdinand Magellan
• Biography of Christopher Columbus, Italian Explorer
• Amerigo Vespucci, Explorer and Navigator
• Biography of Juan Sebastián Elcano, Magellan's Replacement
• Amerigo Vespucci, Italian Explorer and Cartographer
• The Second Voyage of Christopher Columbus
• What Is Imperialism? Definition and Historical Perspective

Find what you need to study

4.2 Exploration: Causes and Events from 1450 to 1750

6 min read • january 8, 2023

Amanda DoAmaral

Mixed AP Review

Endless stimulus-based MCQs for all units

4.2 Required Course Content

Thematic Foci

Governance - A variety of internal and external factors contribute to state formation, expansion, and decline. Governments maintain order through a variety of administrative institutions, policies, and procedures, and governments obtain, retain, and exercise power in different ways and for different purposes.

Economics Systems - As societies develop, they affect and are affected by the ways that they produce, exchange, and consume goods and services.

College Board Learning Objectives

Describe the role of states in the expansion of maritime exploration from 1450 to 1750.

Explain the economic causes and effects of maritime exploration by the various European states.

Historical Developments

KC-4.1.III – New state-supported transoceanic maritime exploration occurred in this period.

KC-4.1.III.A – Portuguese development of maritime technology and navigational skills led to increased travel to and trade with Africa and Asia and resulted in the construction of a global trading-post empire .

KC-4.1.III.B – Spanish sponsorship of the voyages of Columbus and subsequent voyages across the Atlantic and Pacific dramatically increased European interest in transoceanic travel and trade.

KC-4.1.III.C Northern Atlantic crossings were undertaken under English, French, and Dutch sponsorship , often with the goal of finding alternative sailing routes to Asia

Motives for Exploration

There were several reasons why Europeans were motivated to explore in the 15th and 16th centuries, including:

💰 The desire for wealth : European powers were seeking new sources of gold, silver, and other valuable resources. They also wanted to establish trade routes and connections with other countries in order to increase their own wealth and the wealth of their sponsoring states.

💪🏽 The pursuit of power : European powers saw exploration as a way to expand their empires and increase their global influence. By establishing colonies and trade routes, they could gain more control over distant regions and gain a strategic advantage over their rivals.

🧠 The quest for knowledge : Many explorers were driven by a desire to learn about the world and to discover new lands, peoples, and cultures. They wanted to explore the unknown and bring back information and artifacts that could help to expand human knowledge.

✝️ The spread of Christianity : Some explorers were motivated by religious beliefs and a desire to spread Christianity to new areas.

🗺 The desire for adventure : Many explorers were drawn to the excitement and challenge of exploration, and they were willing to take risks in order to make important discoveries.

At this time, European powers were competing with each other for colonies, trade routes, and resources, and they saw mercantilism as a way to gain an advantage over their rivals. These policies encouraged and further incentivized exploration around the world, as they were designed to increase the wealth and power of the state.

Some examples of mercantilist policies:

Restricting or banning the import of certain goods: This was meant to protect domestic industries from foreign competition and encourage people to buy locally-produced goods.

Subsidizing exports : Governments would provide financial support to domestic industries that exported their goods, in order to make them more competitive in foreign markets.

Establishing colonies : European powers often established colonies in other parts of the world in order to exploit the natural resources and labor of those regions.

Regulating trade : Governments would often impose tariffs and other restrictions on trade in order to control the flow of goods into and out of the country.

Encouraging the accumulation of gold and silver : Mercantilist thinkers believed that a country's wealth was measured by the number of precious metals it possessed, so they encouraged people to mine and trade gold and silver.

This infographic shows some must-know European explorers who populated the new world as well as their empires of origin.

Achievements in Exploration

The discovery of the sea route to India : In 1497, Vasco de Gama led the first European voyage to sail directly from Europe to India. He completed the journey in 1498, reaching the port of Calicut on the southwest coast of India. This voyage opened up a new trade route between Europe and India and helped to establish Portugal as a major maritime power.

The exploration of the African coast : The Portuguese were the first Europeans to systematically explore the coast of Africa. They established trading posts and colonies along the coast, and they were able to gain control over the trade in gold, ivory, and slaves. This gave them a significant economic and political advantage over their rivals.

Mapping the world : Portuguese explorers contributed significantly to the mapping of the world, including the exploration of the coast of South America and the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa.

The conquest of the Americas : The Spanish were the first Europeans to explore and conquer the Americas, beginning with the voyage of Christopher Columbus in 1492. They established colonies in Central and South America, and they were able to gain significant wealth and power through the exploitation of the natural resources and labor of these regions.

The circumnavigation of the globe : In 1519, the Spanish explorer Ferdinand Magellan set out on a voyage to circumnavigate the globe. He was the first person to lead an expedition that successfully completed a circumnavigation, although he did not survive the journey. The voyage was completed by the Spanish explorer Juan Sebastian Elcano in 1522. This achievement demonstrated the power and reach of the Spanish empire, and it opened up new opportunities for trade and exploration.

The exploration of North America : John Cabot led an expedition to North America, and he was the first European to explore the east coast of Canada. He claimed the region for the British crown, and he established the first British settlement in North America, at Newfoundland. In 1607, the British established the first permanent English settlement in North America, at Jamestown, Virginia . In 1609, the British explorer Henry Hudson led an expedition to North America in search of a northwest passage to Asia.

The exploration of the Pacific : In the late 18th century, the British explorer James Cook led three expeditions to the Pacific, and he made many important discoveries about the geography, climate, and peoples of this region. He explored the east coast of Australia, the islands of the Pacific, and the northwest coast of North America, and he was the first European to make contact with many of the indigenous peoples of these regions.

Exploring and claiming territory in the Philippines: Spanish explorer Ferdinand Magellan led the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe, and Spain established colonies in the Philippines as a result of this journey.

The exploration of North America : The French were among the first Europeans to explore the regions of North America, including present-day Canada, the United States, and the Caribbean. They established colonies and trading posts in these regions, and they were able to gain significant wealth and influence through the trade in furs, timber, and other natural resources.

The exploration of the Arctic : The French were among the first Europeans to explore the Arctic regions. In 1534, the French explorer Jacques Cartier led an expedition to the Arctic. The French were also instrumental in the development of new technologies that improved Arctic exploration, including the use of sledges and iceboats to travel over ice, and the use of heating stoves to keep ships and crews warm in the freezing Arctic climate.

Exploring and claiming territory in Africa: French explorers, such as Henri de Tonti and René-Robert Cavelier , led expeditions to explore and claim territory in Africa.

The exploration of the East Indies: The Dutch were among the first Europeans to explore and trade with the East Indies, and they established colonies and trading posts in present-day Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore. They were able to gain significant wealth and influence through the trade in spices, gold, and other valuable resources.

The exploration of the Arctic : In 1594, the Dutch explorer Willem Barentsz led an expedition to the Arctic in search of a northeast passage to Asia. In the 17th century, the Dutch began to establish whaling stations in the Arctic, where they hunted for whales and processed their oil for use as fuel and lamp oil.

The creators of this guide combined their professional expertise with ChatGPT to create the most comprehensive guide for AP World History students.

Key Terms to Review ( 43 )

Accumulation of Gold and Silver

Christopher Columbus

Circumnavigation of the globe

Conquest of the Americas

Desire for Adventure

Desire for wealth

Dutch sponsorship

English sponsorship

Establishing Colonies

European Explorers

Exploration of Arctic regions

Exploration of North America

Exploration of the African coast

Exploration of the Pacific

Ferdinand Magellan

Ferdinand Magellan (Philippines)

French sponsorship

Global trading-post empire

Henri de Tonti

Henry Hudson

Jacques Cartier

Jamestown, Virginia

Juan Sebastian Elcano

Mapping the World

Mercantilism

Navigational skills

Northern Atlantic crossings

Portuguese development of maritime technology

Pursuit of power

Quest for knowledge

Regulating Trade

René-Robert Cavelier

Restricting Imports

Sea Route to India

Settlement at Newfoundland

Spanish sponsorship of Columbus' voyages

Spread of Christianity

Subsidizing Exports

Vasco de Gama

Willem Barentsz

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World History Project AP®

Course: world history project ap®   >   unit 4.

• BEFORE YOU WATCH: Unit 4 Overview - Transoceanic Interconnections
• WATCH: Unit 4 Overview
• READ: Unit 4 Introduction: Transoceanic Interconnections 1450 to 1750

READ: Origins of Oceanic Connections

• READ: The Cosmopolitan Indian Ocean
• READ: Data Exploration - War and Peace

First read: preview and skimming for gist

Second read: key ideas and understanding content.

• What does the author say was the biggest motivation behind the Europeans’ voyages of exploration?
• Why were the small islands off the coast of West Africa important to European expansion?
• The author argues that the European voyages were based off of ideas and technology gained through trade. What are some examples?
• These voyages were dangerous. Why did explorers, merchants, and rulers accept the risks?
• What advantages did joint stock companies provide?

Third read: evaluating and corroborating

• Using evidence from the article, describe the extent to which this article explains how cross-cultural interactions resulted in the diffusion of technology and facilitated changes in patterns of trade and travel from 1450 to 1750.
• Economic systems both shaped and were shaped by European voyages of exploration. Can you think of one economic cause that led to these voyages? Additionally, what is one effect these voyages had on economic systems?

Origins of Oceanic Connections

Origins of oceanic distortions, an age of exploration, new ships, old tech, risky business, trading shares, not sharing trade, want to join the conversation.

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6: European Exploration and Conquest

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• Page ID 12474

• Christopher Brooks
• Portland Community College

Europe was not a particularly important place, in the context of global empires, economics, or cultural influence during the medieval period. While it invaded the Middle East during the crusades and the European states themselves warred against one another almost constantly, on balance Europe was quite weak and poor compared to other regions farther east. China and India are both outstanding examples of regions that produced far greater wealth, had far larger populations, and were far more militarily powerful than any European kingdom was; in the case of China under the Ming dynasty of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the Chinese Empire was probably more powerful than all of Europe put together. Likewise, China’s cultural influence on its neighbors was profound.

• 6.1: Prelude to European Exploration and Conquest The long expansion of European power from Europe itself to the rest of the world began in the fifteenth century. One of the great world-historical conundrums is why European states expanded so rapidly and aggressively, while other powers like that of China, the Ottoman Empire, or the Indian kingdoms did not. Why was it Europe that took over the Americas (and, much later, much of the rest of the world) rather than Persia, the Ottoman Empire, India, or China?
• 6.2: Africa and India Europeans did, of course, know about North Africa. The Mediterranean had served as the crossroads of the civilized Western World since ancient times, and despite North Africa being ruled by Muslim kingdoms, Europeans regularly traded with Muslim merchants. As noted above, there were many lucrative commodities (like gold and ivory) that Europeans coveted and were only available from North African merchants. Europeans only knew that these commodities originated somewhere across the Sahara desert.
• 6.3: Spain, Columbus, the Great Dying, and the Columbian Exchange The most important voyages of discovery of the early modern period were undertaken by agents of the Spanish monarchy, starting with that of Christopher Columbus in 1492. They were inspired by religious fervor as much as a practical desire for riches – fresh off the successful Reconquest, Queen Isabella agreed with Columbus’s vision of flanking the Muslim forces of the Middle East and recapturing the Holy Land as much as she also wanted new trade routes to Asia.
• 6.4: The Conquistadors The Conquistadors were the military explorers sent by the Spanish crown to the Americas to claim land, convert "heathens," and enrich both themselves and the crown. They were usually poor noblemen with few prospects back in Spain; in the first generation of explorers many were essentially unemployed knights. Some conquistadors simply launched expeditions to the New World without royal authorization, hoping to seize enough plunder to receive retroactive royal approval.
• 6.5: New World Wealth The Spanish discovered huge sources of wealth in South and Central America. The most important source of wealth in all of the Americas for the Spanish crown was discovered in 1545: the mountain of Potosi in present-day Bolivia. Potosi had the most enormous silver deposits in the world at the time, producing thousands of tons of silver for the crown. It also represented a horrible site of slave labor for the native peoples of the entire extended area, in which the Spanish forced them to toil.
• 6.6: Conclusion The Spanish and Portuguese invasions of the Americas were nothing less than a catastrophe for the Native peoples of the Western Hemisphere. Whole cultures were obliterated, empires fell, and the survivors found themselves at the mercy of conquerors whose major priorities were the extraction of mineral wealth and the exploitation of labor. To those ends, the Native peoples were frequently enslaved outright to work on plantations or mines. The use of slave labor only grew over time.

Thumbnail: Conquistadors exhort their supporters. (Public Domain; Margaret Duncan Coxhead via Wikipedia )

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Christopher Columbus

By: History.com Editors

Updated: August 11, 2023 | Original: November 9, 2009

The explorer Christopher Columbus made four trips across the Atlantic Ocean from Spain: in 1492, 1493, 1498 and 1502. He was determined to find a direct water route west from Europe to Asia, but he never did. Instead, he stumbled upon the Americas. Though he did not “discover” the so-called New World—millions of people already lived there—his journeys marked the beginning of centuries of exploration and colonization of North and South America.

Christopher Columbus and the Age of Discovery

During the 15th and 16th centuries, leaders of several European nations sponsored expeditions abroad in the hope that explorers would find great wealth and vast undiscovered lands. The Portuguese were the earliest participants in this “ Age of Discovery ,” also known as “ Age of Exploration .”

Starting in about 1420, small Portuguese ships known as caravels zipped along the African coast, carrying spices, gold and other goods as well as enslaved people from Asia and Africa to Europe.

Did you know? Christopher Columbus was not the first person to propose that a person could reach Asia by sailing west from Europe. In fact, scholars argue that the idea is almost as old as the idea that the Earth is round. (That is, it dates back to early Rome.)

Other European nations, particularly Spain, were eager to share in the seemingly limitless riches of the “Far East.” By the end of the 15th century, Spain’s “ Reconquista ”—the expulsion of Jews and Muslims out of the kingdom after centuries of war—was complete, and the nation turned its attention to exploration and conquest in other areas of the world.

Early Life and Nationality 

Christopher Columbus, the son of a wool merchant, is believed to have been born in Genoa, Italy, in 1451. When he was still a teenager, he got a job on a merchant ship. He remained at sea until 1476, when pirates attacked his ship as it sailed north along the Portuguese coast.

The boat sank, but the young Columbus floated to shore on a scrap of wood and made his way to Lisbon, where he eventually studied mathematics, astronomy, cartography and navigation. He also began to hatch the plan that would change the world forever.

Christopher Columbus' First Voyage

At the end of the 15th century, it was nearly impossible to reach Asia from Europe by land. The route was long and arduous, and encounters with hostile armies were difficult to avoid. Portuguese explorers solved this problem by taking to the sea: They sailed south along the West African coast and around the Cape of Good Hope.

But Columbus had a different idea: Why not sail west across the Atlantic instead of around the massive African continent? The young navigator’s logic was sound, but his math was faulty. He argued (incorrectly) that the circumference of the Earth was much smaller than his contemporaries believed it was; accordingly, he believed that the journey by boat from Europe to Asia should be not only possible, but comparatively easy via an as-yet undiscovered Northwest Passage . 

He presented his plan to officials in Portugal and England, but it was not until 1492 that he found a sympathetic audience: the Spanish monarchs Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile .

Columbus wanted fame and fortune. Ferdinand and Isabella wanted the same, along with the opportunity to export Catholicism to lands across the globe. (Columbus, a devout Catholic, was equally enthusiastic about this possibility.)

Columbus’ contract with the Spanish rulers promised that he could keep 10 percent of whatever riches he found, along with a noble title and the governorship of any lands he should encounter.

Where Did Columbus' Ships, Niña, Pinta and Santa Maria, Land?

On August 3, 1492, Columbus and his crew set sail from Spain in three ships: the Niña , the Pinta and the Santa Maria . On October 12, the ships made landfall—not in the East Indies, as Columbus assumed, but on one of the Bahamian islands, likely San Salvador.

For months, Columbus sailed from island to island in what we now know as the Caribbean, looking for the “pearls, precious stones, gold, silver, spices, and other objects and merchandise whatsoever” that he had promised to his Spanish patrons, but he did not find much. In January 1493, leaving several dozen men behind in a makeshift settlement on Hispaniola (present-day Haiti and the Dominican Republic), he left for Spain.

He kept a detailed diary during his first voyage. Christopher Columbus’s journal was written between August 3, 1492, and November 6, 1492 and mentions everything from the wildlife he encountered, like dolphins and birds, to the weather to the moods of his crew. More troublingly, it also recorded his initial impressions of the local people and his argument for why they should be enslaved.

“They… brought us parrots and balls of cotton and spears and many other things, which they exchanged for the glass beads and hawks’ bells," he wrote. "They willingly traded everything they owned… They were well-built, with good bodies and handsome features… They do not bear arms, and do not know them, for I showed them a sword, they took it by the edge and cut themselves out of ignorance. They have no iron… They would make fine servants… With fifty men we could subjugate them all and make them do whatever we want.”

Columbus gifted the journal to Isabella upon his return.

Christopher Columbus's Later Voyages

About six months later, in September 1493, Columbus returned to the Americas. He found the Hispaniola settlement destroyed and left his brothers Bartolomeo and Diego Columbus behind to rebuild, along with part of his ships’ crew and hundreds of enslaved indigenous people.

Then he headed west to continue his mostly fruitless search for gold and other goods. His group now included a large number of indigenous people the Europeans had enslaved. In lieu of the material riches he had promised the Spanish monarchs, he sent some 500 enslaved people to Queen Isabella. The queen was horrified—she believed that any people Columbus “discovered” were Spanish subjects who could not be enslaved—and she promptly and sternly returned the explorer’s gift.

In May 1498, Columbus sailed west across the Atlantic for the third time. He visited Trinidad and the South American mainland before returning to the ill-fated Hispaniola settlement, where the colonists had staged a bloody revolt against the Columbus brothers’ mismanagement and brutality. Conditions were so bad that Spanish authorities had to send a new governor to take over.

Meanwhile, the native Taino population, forced to search for gold and to work on plantations, was decimated (within 60 years after Columbus landed, only a few hundred of what may have been 250,000 Taino were left on their island). Christopher Columbus was arrested and returned to Spain in chains.

In 1502, cleared of the most serious charges but stripped of his noble titles, the aging Columbus persuaded the Spanish crown to pay for one last trip across the Atlantic. This time, Columbus made it all the way to Panama—just miles from the Pacific Ocean—where he had to abandon two of his four ships after damage from storms and hostile natives. Empty-handed, the explorer returned to Spain, where he died in 1506.

Legacy of Christopher Columbus

Christopher Columbus did not “discover” the Americas, nor was he even the first European to visit the “New World.” (Viking explorer Leif Erikson had sailed to Greenland and Newfoundland in the 11th century.)

However, his journey kicked off centuries of exploration and exploitation on the American continents. The Columbian Exchange transferred people, animals, food and disease across cultures. Old World wheat became an American food staple. African coffee and Asian sugar cane became cash crops for Latin America, while American foods like corn, tomatoes and potatoes were introduced into European diets. 

Today, Columbus has a controversial legacy —he is remembered as a daring and path-breaking explorer who transformed the New World, yet his actions also unleashed changes that would eventually devastate the native populations he and his fellow explorers encountered.

HISTORY Vault: Columbus the Lost Voyage

Ten years after his 1492 voyage, Columbus, awaiting the gallows on criminal charges in a Caribbean prison, plotted a treacherous final voyage to restore his reputation.

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25+ Ways European Voyages Changed The World

By: Author Valerie Forgeard

Posted on August 22, 2023

Categories History

You’ve probably heard tales of daring European explorers sailing uncharted seas. But have you ever considered how their voyages reshaped the world?

In this article, we’ll delve into the profound impacts of these explorations on trade, culture, knowledge, and more. Buckle up for a journey that’ll reshape your understanding of history’s monumental transformation.

It wasn’t just about discovering new lands—it was about redefining the world as we knew it.

Key Takeaways

• The voyages of European explorers had a profound impact on global trade and economics, as they established new trade routes, caused economic booms in Europe, and redistributed power structures globally.
• These explorers played a significant role in the spread of ideas and knowledge, as they spread Christianity, inspired artistic creativity, and enriched Europe’s intellectual life.
• Cultural exchange and diversification were also influenced by these voyages, leading to religious conversions, cultural assimilation, the exchange of goods and ideas, and the introduction of new foods.
• The voyages marked the beginning of colonization, with European powers establishing colonies and exerting control over conquered territories, which still has ramifications in global geopolitics and cultural dynamics today.

25 Global Impacts of European Explorers

The voyages of European explorers, armed with compasses and curiosities, not only mapped the uncharted but also reshaped the world’s socio-political and cultural landscapes.

Embark on a journey through 25 pivotal moments and discoveries that altered the course of history, forging connections, conflicts, and a tapestry of diverse civilizations.

• Connected advanced civilizations in Europe, Asia and the Americas
• Led to conquest and colonization of new lands across the globe
• Established new trade routes for goods like spices, silver and gold
• Enabled exchange of animals, plants, foods and technologies globally
• Introduced Christianity and spread religion worldwide
• Advanced cartography, navigation, shipbuilding and sailing skills
• Reshaped global power dynamics between nations and empires
• Resulted in exploitation of indigenous populations and slavery
• Exposed Europeans to new cultures, ideas, arts and knowledge systems
• Enabled unprecedented accumulation of wealth and resources
• Started the Columbian Exchange of animals, plants, people and diseases
• Spread disease epidemics that decimated native populations
• Provided opportunities for individual explorers to gain money and fame
• Set foundations for development of trade languages like pidgin
• Unlocked European imaginations about distant lands and possibilities
• Fueled national rivalries for claims over new territories
• Sparked European emigration and settlement across continents
• Launched extensive scientific discovery and documentation of nature
• Led to establishment of colonies, infrastructure and institutions abroad
• Enabled Christian missionaries to spread religion and education globally
• Created global economic systems linking hemispheres
• Forced indigenous assimilation to European culture and language
• Supported exploitation of foreign resources and labor
• Ignited cross-cultural interaction, exchange and hybridization
• Transformed Europe’s view of itself and the wider world

Though resulting in devastating impacts on indigenous peoples, European voyages of exploration massively expanded connections across continents, setting the stage for today’s fully globalized world.

The Age of Discovery: A Brief Overview

You’re about to delve into the Age of Discovery, a pivotal period in history that changed the world as we know it. This era was fueled by various motivations, primarily economic gains and religious implications. The desire for new trade routes led to unprecedented explorations. Yet, they weren’t solely driven by profit motives; religion played a critical role too.

Europe’s dominant Christian powers felt compelled to spread their faith. They saw the newly discovered lands as fertile ground for conversion and viewed this as an opportunity for religious expansionism. Thus, these dual ‘Discovery Motivations’ shaped our globe significantly.

The evidence is clear when you examine how much today’s world map aligns with those early explorers’ paths. It reveals the profound impact of both economic incentives and religious implications on global exploration patterns during this epoch-making era.

Profiles of Prominent European Explorers

You’re about to delve into the profiles of two prominent European explorers: Christopher Columbus and Vasco da Gama.

You’ll examine the tangible and intangible impacts of their voyages, both bearing significant changes in global sociology and economy.

Explorer Christopher Columbus

Columbus’s voyages significantly altered the course of history by paving the way for widespread exploration and eventual conquest of the New World by Europeans. Your understanding of Columbus’s personality and religious motivations is crucial to fully comprehend his actions and their consequences.

Consider these key points:

• Columbus was highly determined, a trait that drove him to undertake perilous journeys across uncharted waters.
• His religious fervor was a guiding force behind his explorations; he sought not just new lands, but also potential converts to Christianity.
• Evidence suggests Columbus believed he was chosen by God for these missions.
• He was known to be ruthless in his pursuits, often leading to violent clashes with indigenous people.
• Despite controversies surrounding him, there’s no denying Columbus’s impact on world history.

Vasco Da Gama’s Journey

In studying Vasco Da Gama’s journey, it’s essential to note that he was the first person to sail directly from Europe to India. This monumental voyage was driven by Gama’s motivations, which were intricately tied with the ambitions of the Portuguese Monarchy. They desired a sea route to India to bypass the treacherous land routes controlled by rival powers.

The success of this expedition led Portugal into a prosperous era, dominating the lucrative spice trade.

Analyzing evidence-based sources, you’ll find that his journey marked a turning point in world commerce and politics. It paved way for an age of global imperialism and colonialism. This direct route opened up new possibilities for trade and cultural exchange but also brought forth devastating consequences for many societies.

The Impact on Global Trade and Economics

European explorers’ voyages dramatically shifted global trade and economics, making Europe a dominant force in these areas. Their expeditions disrupted existing trade monopolies and ushered an influx of exotic commodities into Europe.

Here’s how these changes unfolded:

• Trade routes to the East were established, bypassing traditional overland pathways.
• The commodity influx from new worlds caused economic booms in European countries.
• Explorations led to the establishment of overseas colonies, providing direct access to resources.
• Trade monopolies that previously existed were broken, redistributed power structures globally.
• The introduction of new products stimulated demand and fueled consumerism in Europe.

You’re witnessing the birth of international trade as we know it today. It’s not just about goods crossing borders; it’s about reshaping economic landscapes forever.

Effect on the Spread of Ideas and Knowledge

Moving on from the economic changes brought about by European explorers, let’s delve into how they catalyzed a shift in ideas and knowledge.

You mustn’t overlook their role in religious propagation. Missionaries often accompanied them, spreading Christianity far and wide. This wasn’t merely a spiritual endeavor; it influenced societal norms, laws, and cultural practices of the colonized regions.

Additionally, these voyages served as artistic inspiration for many European artists who were introduced to new landscapes, people, cultures – leading to an explosion of creativity back home. The dissemination of diverse global perspectives enriched Europe’s intellectual life considerably. Evidence of this is found in the unprecedented advancements in science, philosophy, and art during this era.

This spread of ideas and knowledge reshaped the world fundamentally.

Influence on Cultural Exchange and Diversification

You’re about to see how these journeys led to an unprecedented cultural exchange and diversification. The voyages of European explorers brought different cultures into contact, often resulting in religious conversions and cultural assimilation.

Here are some key points:

• Interactions between Europeans and indigenous people often led to religious conversions, with Christianity spreading around the globe.
• Cultural assimilation occurred as native societies tried to adapt European ways.
• Diverse goods, ideas, languages, and art forms were exchanged.
• New foods introduced by explorers diversified global diets.
• The blending of cultures resulted in unique hybrid societies.

Overall, the explorers’ travels significantly impacted global culture and diversity. This is evident today through our shared histories, traditions, and even cuisines that span continents.

The Start of Colonization and Its Ramifications

As we delve into the topic of colonization, you’ll discover its multifaceted causes and effects throughout history.

You’ll examine how the desire for power, resources, and territory drove nations to colonize others, resulting in substantial societal changes and significant impacts on indigenous populations.

This investigation will also shed light on the plight of these native groups who endured displacement, cultural disruption, and often severe exploitation as a direct result of colonization.

Colonization: Causes & Effects

It’s important to note that colonization drastically altered the course of history, leading to significant cultural exchanges and often causing conflict between colonizers and indigenous people. This was primarily driven by exploration motivations and imperialistic ambitions.

• Imperialistic ambitions fueled a desire for territorial expansion.
• Exploration motivations were largely influenced by economic gain, religious conversions, and political influence.
• Trade routes were established, resulting in the exchange of ideas, technology, diseases, and goods.
• Indigenous populations were significantly impacted – through conflicts, disease spread, or cultural erasure.
• New nations emerged as borders were redrawn based on colonial conquests.

Remember these factors when considering how colonization shaped our world today. It’s a complex narrative with lasting implications.

Indigenous Populations’ Plight

Colonization had a significant impact on indigenous populations. It cannot be understated. Many of these communities suffered through conflicts, the spread of diseases, and cultural erasure. However, it is important to recognize that they were not passive victims. They displayed tremendous indigenous resistance against their oppressors. Historical evidence points towards organized rebellions, strategic alliances, and even subtle forms of defiance.

At the same time, spiritual transformations occurred. Native beliefs were often suppressed or modified. Despite this, many indigenous communities adapted Christian elements into their own spiritual systems. This adaptation created unique syncretic religions that served as a form of resilience.

These events lead to the conclusion that colonization had profound impacts on indigenous cultures. It is crucial to remember that amidst widespread adversity, the indomitable spirit of these communities shone through in their resistance and spiritual evolution.

Alterations in Global Political Dynamics

European explorers’ travels significantly shifted global power dynamics, sparking a fierce competition among nations for new territories and resources. The race for colonial expansion led to religious conversions and imperial domination.

Religious Conversions: As nations established colonies, they often forced natives to convert to their religion. This spread Christianity globally.

Imperial Domination: Many European countries exerted control over vast territories, exploiting their resources and native populations.

Shift in Power Dynamics: Previously isolated regions were thrust into the global stage. This rearrangement of power still impacts today’s geopolitics.

Rise of New Economies: Colonial wealth fueled Europe’s industrial revolution, leading to capitalism’s rise.

Cultural Exchanges: Despite issues of domination and suppression, exchanges between Europeans and indigenous peoples led to cultural syncretism.

You’re witnessing how explorations reshaped our world profoundly.

The Role of European Explorers in Cartography

You’re about to delve into an intriguing exploration of the role European explorers played in the field of cartography.

You’ll examine how these pioneers, driven by a thirst for discovery and expansion, charted unknown territories and spurred significant technological advances in map-making.

You’ll also analyze how this evolution in cartography had profound impacts on global navigation, shaping trade routes and geopolitical dynamics that continue to influence our world today.

Mapping Unknown Territories

It’s undeniable that these voyages significantly improved the understanding and mapping of unknown territories. As you delve deeper into this fascinating period, consider how explorers’ diets and ship construction played vital roles in their success.

• Explorers’ diets: They had to adapt to new foods discovered along the way. This not only sustained them but also influenced global cuisine.
• Ship construction: The design and build of ships drastically changed over time, improving speed, durability, and navigational capabilities.
• Mapping techniques: Advanced tools like astrolabes helped explorers chart their courses with unprecedented accuracy.

Cultural exchange: Encountering indigenous peoples enriched European knowledge about diverse cultures and languages.

Resource discovery: New trade routes opened up for spices, silk, precious metals – shaping economic futures.

These factors collectively contributed to a more interconnected world as we know it today.

Technological Advances in Cartography

Technological advancements in cartography significantly upgraded our ability to accurately chart and explore unknown territories. However, these improvements didn’t eliminate cartographic misrepresentation entirely.

It’s crucial to understand that maps are not simply objective representations of space but are influenced by the technology available and the biases of their creators. Technological limitations can lead to inaccuracies in mapping; for instance, early instruments were unable to measure longitude precisely, leading explorers astray.

Despite these challenges, continued improvements in technology have greatly reduced such errors over time. Advanced GPS systems, satellite imagery, and digital mapping tools now allow us to produce highly accurate maps. These technological leaps have fundamentally transformed our understanding of the world around us.

Impact on Global Navigation

Moving on from the advancements in cartography, let’s now delve into how these explorations impacted global navigation.

The introduction of exploration technology during the Age of Discovery revolutionized maritime travel and led to a new era of global interconnectivity.

Thanks to this technology, sailors could traverse unknown seas with newfound accuracy. This played a critical role in shaping modern navigation systems. However, it also necessitated the development of maritime law as disputes over territories and trade routes surged.

Here are some key impacts:

• Improved sea travel due to better navigational tools
• Enhanced understanding of world geography
• Establishment of new trade routes
• Rise in territorial conflicts leading to modern maritime law
• Greater cultural and resource exchange

Environmental Impact of the Exploration Era

There’s no denying that the Exploration Era significantly impacted our environment, with many natural resources being exploited and numerous landscapes altered irrevocably. Exploration induced deforestation, as explorers cleared lands for settlements and agriculture. This massive tree-cutting operation didn’t just change the landscape; it also had a major impact on biodiversity.

Species that once thrived in these forests found their habitats disappearing. Many couldn’t adapt fast enough to these changes and became extinct. Others saw their numbers dwindle to dangerously low levels. At the same time, exploration introduced new species into environments where they had no natural predators, disrupting local ecosystems further.

The Spread of Diseases and Its Consequences

In addition to environmental devastation, it’s important to note that the Exploration Era also prompted the spread of diseases with disastrous consequences. This period saw epidemic origins in new lands where disease resistance was virtually non-existent.

Here are some points to ponder:

• Many native populations didn’t have natural immunity against these foreign pathogens.
• The introduction of smallpox, measles, and the flu led to widespread death.
• Diseases were often used as a weapon, intentionally or unintentionally.
• Disease resistance varied greatly among different populations and regions.
• The impact of these epidemics reshaped societies and cultures.

Understanding this historical context helps you grasp how exploration had impacts extending far beyond mere geographic discovery. It significantly influenced global health trajectories too.

The Transformation of Navigational Techniques

You’ve got to appreciate how the transformation of navigational techniques revolutionized travel and discovery during this era. The compass invention, for one, was a game-changer. It allowed mariners to accurately determine their direction even in dense fog or on starless nights, significantly reducing lost voyage risks.

This shift not only made sea exploration safer but also brought about marine biology evolution. As explorers ventured further into uncharted waters, they discovered new marine species. These findings prompted a deeper understanding of marine ecosystems and biodiversity.

Thus, advancements in navigational technologies didn’t just change the way we navigate; they also fundamentally reshaped our knowledge of the world beneath the waves.

The Influence on Scientific Understanding and Innovation

You’re about to delve into the fascinating intersection of navigation and science during the era of exploration. It’s where you’ll discover how advancements in navigational techniques not only mapped unknown territories but also paved the way for groundbreaking scientific discoveries.

As you examine the evidence, you’ll see that these developments didn’t just change our understanding of the world—they revolutionized it.

Navigational Advancements

They’ve significantly improved global navigation through their discoveries and advancements. Their maritime inventions have shaped our understanding of the world’s oceanic ecosystems, which has led to better preservation efforts and more efficient travel routes.

Consider these key advancements:

• The astrolabe, which allowed sailors to determine latitude by measuring the angle between the horizon and a celestial body.
• The magnetic compass, improving directionality at sea.
• More accurate maps following explorations provided greater detail about coastlines and currents.
• The chronometer enabled precise determination of longitude.
• Ship designs were enhanced for longer voyages, enabling discovery of new lands.

Their findings didn’t just change maps; they altered how you perceive and interact with the world around you. These advancements reaffirm that exploration can drive innovation, benefiting future generations.

New Scientific Discoveries

In the realm of new scientific discoveries, it’s incredible to see how much we’re still learning about our world. The voyages of explorers not only expanded geographical knowledge but also led to significant advancements in fields like nutrition and astronomy.

Consider explorers’ diets, for instance. They discovered new foods that transformed nutritional understanding. Astronomical observations were equally groundbreaking as they used stars for navigation.

These discoveries weren’t just important in their time; they continue to influence modern science. So, while you marvel at today’s scientific progress, remember the pioneering explorers who laid the groundwork centuries ago.

The Effect on Indigenous Societies

It’s important to note that the voyages of European explorers had a profound impact on indigenous societies, often leading to drastic changes in their way of life. Indigenous spirituality was severely disrupted, and language extinction became a rampant issue.

Here are key points to consider:

• Contact with Europeans led to massive depopulation among indigenous communities due to diseases.
• Forced conversions damaged indigenous spirituality as native beliefs were suppressed.
• Language extinction occurred as European languages dominated, erasing rich cultural histories.
• Traditional ways of life were replaced by European farming methods and societal structures.
• Trade shifted local economies, disrupting established systems.

You’ll find that these changes have resonating effects even today, shaping the identity and struggles of many indigenous populations worldwide.

Evaluating the Ethical Implications of the Voyages

You’re now tasked with examining the moral ramifications of these historical events, aren’t you?

Let’s delve into explorer motivations and the ethical dilemmas they presented. The voyages were driven by a thirst for wealth, power, and knowledge. But they also led to exploitation and devastation of indigenous societies. You can see how these actions raise serious ethical questions.

Were explorers justified in their pursuits given the human cost? Some argue that it was an era where might made right; others contend that basic human morality should’ve prevailed. Evidence-based analysis reveals no easy answers, but it’s clear that understanding explorer motivations does not excuse the ethical dilemmas encountered.

Remember to approach this complex issue from multiple perspectives for a more nuanced evaluation.

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5 European Voyages of Exploration: Intro

The european voyages of exploration: introduction.

Beginning in the early fifteenth century, European states began to embark on a series of global explorations that inaugurated a new chapter in world history. Known as the Age of Discovery, or the Age of Exploration, this period spanned the fifteenth through the early seventeenth century, during which time European expansion to places such as the Americas, Africa, and the Far East flourished. This era is defined by figures such as Ferdinand Magellan, whose 1519–1522 expedition was the first to traverse the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean and the first to circumnavigate the globe.

The European Age of Exploration developed alongside the Renaissance. Both periods in Western history acted as transitional moments between the Middle Ages and the early modern period. Competition between burgeoning European empires, such as Spain and England, fueled the evolution and advancement of overseas exploration. Motivated by religion, profit, and power, the size and influence of European empires during this period expanded greatly. The effects of exploration were not only felt abroad but also within the geographic confines of Europe itself. The economic, political, and cultural effects of Europe’s beginning stages of global exploration impacted the longterm development of both European society and the entire world.

Empire and Politics

During the eighth century, the Islamic conquest of North Africa, Spain, France, and parts of the Mediterranean, effectively impeded European travel to the Far East for subsequent centuries. This led many early explorers, such as Vasco de Gama and Christopher Columbus, to search for new trade routes to the East. Previous travel accounts from the early expeditions of figures such as Marco Polo (during the late thirteenth century) encouraged many Europeans to search for new territories and places that would lead to the East. Ocean voyages were extremely treacherous during the beginnings of European exploration. The navigation techniques were primitive, the maps were notoriously unreliable, and the weather was unpredictable. Additionally, explorers worried about running out of supplies, rebellion on the high seas, and hostile indigenous peoples.

The Spanish and Portuguese were some of the first European states to launch overseas voyages of exploration. There were several factors that led to the Iberian place in the forefront of global exploration. The first involved its strategic geographic location, which provided easy access to venturing south toward Africa or west toward the Americas. The other, arguably more important, factor for Spain and Portugal’s leading position in overseas exploration was these countries’ acquisition and application of ancient Arabic knowledge and expertise in math, astronomy, and geography.

The principal political actors throughout the Age of Exploration were Spain, Portugal, The Netherlands, England, and France. Certain European states, primarily Portugal and The Netherlands, were primarily interested in building empires based on global trade and commerce. These states established worldwide trading posts and the necessary components for developing a successful economic infrastructure. Other European powers, Spain and England in particular, decided to conquer and colonize the new territories they discovered. This was particularly evident in North and South America, where these two powers built extensive political, religious, and social infrastructure.

Economic Factors

Before the fifteenth century, European states enjoyed a long history of trade with places in the Far East, such as India and China. This trade introduced luxury goods such as cotton, silk, and spices to the European economy. New technological advancements in maritime navigation and ship construction allowed Europeans to travel farther and explore parts of the globe that were previously unknown. This, in turn, provided Europeans with an opportunity to locate luxury goods, which were in high demand, thereby eliminating Europe’s dependency on Eastern trade. In many ways, the demand for goods such as sugar, cotton, and rum fueled the expansion of European empires and their eventual use of slave labor from Africa. Europe’s demand for luxury goods greatly influenced the course of the transatlantic slave trade.

During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries small groups financed by private businesses carried out the first phase of European exploration. Members of the noble or merchant class typically funded these early expeditions. Over time, as it became clear that global exploration was extremely profitable, European states took on a primary role. The next phase of exploration involved voyages taken in the name of a particular empire and monarch (e.g., France or Spain). The Iberian empires of Spain and Portugal were some of the earliest states to embark on new voyages of exploration. In addition to seeking luxury goods, the Spanish empire was driven by its quest for American silver.

Science and Culture

The period of European exploration introduced the people of Europe to the existence of new cultures worldwide. Before the fifteenth century, Europeans had minimal knowledge of the people and places beyond the boundaries of Europe, particularly Africa and Asia. Before the discovery of the Americas, Europeans did not even know of its existence. Europeans presumed that the world was much smaller than it was in actuality. This led early explorers such as Columbus and Magellan to believe that finding new routes to the Far East would be much easier than it turned out to be.

Profound misconceptions about geography and the cultures of local populations would change very slowly throughout the early centuries of European exploration. By the sixteenth century, European maps started to expand their depictions and representations to include new geographic discoveries. However, due to the intense political rivalries during the period, European states guarded their geographic knowledge and findings from one another.

With the growth of the printing press during the sixteenth century, accounts of overseas travels, such as those of Marco Polo in the late thirteenth century, spread to a wider audience of European readers than had previously been possible. The Age of Exploration also coincided with the development of Humanism and a growing intellectual curiosity about the natural world. The collection and study of exotic materials such as plants and animals led to a new age of scientific exploration and inquiry. These initial surveys and analyses influenced future revolutionary developments in numerous fields of science and natural history in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

Religious Factors

One of the tenets of Catholicism decreed that Christianity ought to be the universal religion and faith among all mankind. The Crusades in the centuries preceding the Age of Exploration exposed Europeans to new places, people, and goods. It also reflected the zealous nature of medieval Christianity and foreshadowed the fervent missionary work that would form a major part of all early global expeditions. The pope played an important and validating role in these voyages by sanctioning and encouraging worldwide exploration. This often included the approbation of enslaving Africans and indigenous peoples. Missionaries were frequently a part of the early expeditions of Spain with the aim of bringing Christianity to the native inhabitants. Europeans typically viewed indigenous populations as barbaric heathens who could only become civilized through the adoption of Christianity.

• The age of European exploration and discovery represented a new period of global interaction and interconnectivity. As a result of technological advancements, Europeans were able to forge into new and previously undiscovered territories. They understood this to be a “New World.”
• European exploration was driven by multiple factors, including economic, political, and religious incentives. The growing desire to fulfill European demand for luxury goods, and the desire to unearth precious materials such as gold and silver, acted as a particularly crucial motivation.
• The period of European global exploration sparked the beginning phases of European empire and colonialism, which would continue to develop and intensify over the course of the next several centuries.
• As European exploration evolved and flourished, it saw the increasing oppression of native populations and the enslavement of Africans. During this period, Europeans increasingly dealt in African slaves and started the transatlantic slave trade.

History of World Civilization II Copyright © by Lumen Learning is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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4.2C: The Economic Causes and Effects of European Maritime Exploration

Learning objective 4c.

Explain the economic causes and effects of maritime exploration by the various European states.

Historical Development 1

Portuguese development of maritime technology and navigational skills led to increased travel to and trade with Africa and Asia and resulted in the construction of a global trading-post empire.

Historical Development 2

Spanish sponsorship of the voyages of Columbus and subsequent voyages across the Atlantic and Pacific dramatically increased European interest in transoceanic travel and trade.

Historical Development 3

Northern Atlantic crossings were undertaken by the English, French, and Dutch, leading to new European-controlled economic activities in North America.

European monarchs sought new trade routes to gain easier access to Asian trade and to enrich their kingdoms.

European maritime explorations led some European states to build empires that took control over native land, resources, and economies to varying degrees. As European economic power increased, the economic power of indigenous peoples declined.

The Economic Causes of European Maritime Exploration

Various economic factors led some European monarchs, royal families, and states to support early maritime explorations financially.

A desire for Asian spices and other Asian goods:  European maritime expansion began with the goal of establishing new trade routes to African and Asian markets to buy ivory, pepper, cotton, and sugar.

A desire to circumvent Islamic control over trade: For centuries, Islamic trading powers had controlled exchange between the east and west. This trend continued as the Ottoman Empire expanded during the 15 th By 1600, nearly all Asian goods had to pass through Ottoman-controlled territories and trade routes on their way to Europe.

A desire to break Italian trade monopolies: To keep the prices of goods high, the Ottomans only traded with a few Italian kingdoms. This Italian trading monopoly meant that if Europeans wanted African and Asian goods, they had to buy them from the Italians. The only way for Italian Europeans to decrease the cost of goods was to find new trade routes and trade directly with Africa and Asia.

A desire for new tax revenue: Competition between European kingdoms was intense, and monarchs wanted to grow their armies. Traditionally, during feudal times, European rulers relied on the wealthy land-owning nobility for soldiers and tax revenue. Increased trade provided additional tax money without relying on the nobility for tax collection, strengthening kings and queens and weakening the nobility.

The Effects of European Maritime Explorations

European maritime exploration resulted in the following significant global impacts:

The Portuguese established a trading post empire that stretched from the coastal regions of modern Brazil across Africa and Asia.

The Spanish conquered Latin America, South America, and the Philippines.

The Dutch, French, and English sought a northern route to Asia markets by exploring North Atlantic waters.

The three impacts above had the following economic similarities: 

Europeans established new trading routes and connections.

Europeans took control of native peoples' economies.

Europeans took control of indigenous peoples' resources.

Europeans created massive systems of forced labor.

The Portuguese established a trading post empire

When the Portuguese arrived in the Indian Ocean and saw free-flowing trade not controlled by a large military power, they began using their armed ships to try and influence the movement of merchants and trading ships in the region. Over the next 100 years, Portugal built a powerful trading empire from Africa across the Indian Ocean to Asia.

Ways that Portugal attempted to control Indian Ocean trade included:

Forcing foreign trade vessels through Portuguese-controlled trading posts, they built in important coastal areas

Stopping merchant’s ships and forcing them to buy passes guaranteeing their safe passage

Forcing local rulers to provide the Portuguese with trading bases and special trading privileges

Significant Portuguese trading posts: Portugal’s goal was not to conquer and colonize large pieces of land but to trade. Portuguese trading posts were the bases of Portuguese operations and functioned as trade and military bases. By the mid-16th century, the Portuguese had over 50 coastal trading posts between West Africa and East Asia.

Kilwa in Swahili: In July of 1505, Portuguese commander Afonso de Albuquerque (1453 – 1550) conquered the Swahili city-state of Kilwa on Africa’s east coast. The Portuguese burned down the city and murdered many inhabitants. They then constructed Fort Gereza, where Kilwa once stood.

Mombasa in Swahili: The Portuguese further expanded into Swahili when they conquered the city-state of Mombasa. There they built Fort Jesus. They set up a customs house (for tax collection) on Pate Island nearby. 

The Indian coast: At the height of their power in the Indian Ocean, the Portuguese had dozens of trading posts in India. Some forts were set up peacefully through partnerships with Indian allies, others taken by force.

• Goa: In 1510, Afonso de Albuquerque fought a series of battles to control Goa on India’s western coast. Unlike Portugal’s other trading cities along the Indian shores, which mainly consisted of military and trading forts, Goa’s capture placed a substantial piece of Indian territory directly under Portuguese control and administration. The Portuguese believed that by controlling Goa, they could use it as a base to defend their vast network of trading cities and factories in the region.

Malacca in Indonesia: In 1511, the Portuguese set sail from India to capture Malacca and gain control over the Strait of Malacca, which would give them control of the primary trading route between the Indian Ocean and China. By late August, Portugal controlled the city of and strait of Malacca. Its former ruler Sultan Mahmud Shah (died 1528), fled, ending the Sultanate of Malacca. The Portuguese controlled Malacca until the Dutch captured it in 1641. 

Partial but short-lived success: While Portugal did become an influential trading power in the Indian Ocean region, it never succeeded in controlling most of the region’s trade. There were too few Portuguese and millions of native Africans and Asians. African and Asian traders successfully maintained their dominant role in the region’s commerce. By 1600 the Portuguese trading post empire was in decline.

Reasons for the decline included:  

Too few Portuguese to dominate native traders

Many Portuguese blended into native societies and lost connection to Portugal

Competition from other European maritime powers

The Spanish colonized the Americas and the Philippines

Following the success of Portuguese expeditions, Spain, with whom Portugal shares the Iberian peninsula, began its own maritime explorations. Because Portugal had already established itself along the African coast and Indian Ocean region, Spain decided to travel west, leading it to rediscover the Americas for the Europeans.

Portugal and Spain divide the world: Between 1494 and 1529, Portugal and Spain signed a series of treaties (the Treaty of Tordesillas being the most famous) that divided the world into two pieces—one line went down the Atlantic Ocean and South America, and the other down East Asia and the Pacific. The agreements gave the Portuguese influence over lands east of the Atlantic line and the Spanish lands west of the line. The people whose land these agreements gave away without consent had no voice in the negotiations.

European expansion was a 500-year process that happened differently in different regions. In some places, like the Americas, the Philippines, and parts of Indonesia, Europe quickly gained nearly total control over the economy. Europe did not gain control over economies in many parts of Africa and Asia until the 18th and 19th centuries.

Portuguese territories 

• The east coast of South America (modern Brazil)

Spanish territories 

• Latin America
• South America
• Portions of western and southern North America
• The Philippines

Spanish conquest of the Aztecs and the Inca: Conquistadors (conquerors) led Spanish conquests in the Americas. These conquistadors conquered the Aztec and Inca societies.

• Hernan Cortes (1485 – 1457) led the expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire and brought large portions of mainland Mexico under Spanish rule in the early 16th century. Cortes served twice as the governor of New Spain between 1521 and 1524.

•  Francisco Pizarro (1478 – 1541) was a Spanish conquistador who led the Spanish conquest of the Inca in 1532. Pizarro was the governor of New Castille in Spanish Peru from 1529 to 1541.

• Ferdinand Magellan (1480 – 1521) was the first European to reach Asia by sailing west. While Magellan was Portuguese, he sailed west under the Spanish flag. Magellan set sail from Spain in 1519. By March 1521, Magellan and his crew had crossed the Pacific and landed on the Philippine Island of Cebu. Magellan claimed the Philippines for Spain. After engaging in conflict with natives on the nearby island of Mactan, a poison arrow hit Magellan, and he died. Following Magellan’s death, the Vittoria, one of his ships, continued west and returned to Spain on September 6, 1522. In 1565, Spain returned to the Philippines and began a campaign of conquest. The Philippine natives put up a fierce resistance but were defeated.

Silver in Spanish America: The discovery of vast quantities of silver in conquered Inca lands in Bolivia turned Spanish America into the world’s largest producer of silver. At peak production, Spain produced 85% of the global supply of silver. Most of the silver came from the Potosi mine. Within decades, Potosi was the biggest city in the Americas. Much of the silver went to Spain, making the Spanish monarchy the richest in Europe. However, vast quantities of silver also went east, where Europeans used it to buy Asian goods. Eventually, most silver ended up in China to meet the increased demand for the metal after the Chinese government in 1570 began requiring its people to pay taxes in silver.   

New types of economic production in the Americas:   Spanish conquest brought cash crop agriculture for commercial profit to the Americas. Across Spanish territory, plantations on large estates produced old-world crops like wheat or raised domesticated animals such as pigs and cattle. While in their Caribbean colonies, the Spanish mass-produced sugar. The new wealth in the Americas created by cash crops went to Spanish landowners, not indigenous peoples.   

Systems of forced labor: Spanish America thrived on forced labor to meet the need for workers in gold and silver mines and on commercial agriculture plantations. Indigenous communities were the first targets of exploitation. However, indigenous peoples could escape the Spanish and were dying in large numbers from newly introduced diseases brought by Europeans. As a result, the Spanish turned to the importation of enslaved Africans transported to the Americans through the brutal transatlantic slave trade.

New trade routes: The flow of silver and agricultural resources out of Spanish America resulted in new maritime trade routes. The most active of these new routes crossed the Atlantic—often called the triangle trade or the Columbian exchange. Trade also began from the Western coast of Spanish America to Asia. The Mexican port of Acapulco was the main point from which silver left the Americas on its way to the Spanish Philippines.

The French and English in North America

European conquest and colonization in North America began later than in the rest of the Americas. As a result, the economic impacts of colonization took longer to develop in the north.

Before 1750, America’s primary exports were

Furs and skins

Grains and cereals

The North American fur trade: The settlement of North America happened during a long period of cold weather called the Little Ice Age. As temperatures decreased, demand for warm furs worn by social elites increased. At the same time, the supply of fur-bearing animals in Europe fell as the European population expanded into animals’ habitats. The English and French looked to their new colonies in North America to meet growing demand.

• Europeans trapped and hunted very few animals themselves. Instead, traders purchased furs and skins from Native Americans in exchange for goods like metal tools, blankets, and liquor.
• By the early 1700s, hundreds of thousands of skins and furs left North America for markets in Europe and Asia each year. As hunting increased, environmental damage also increased. In some regions of the southeastern British colonies, hunters nearly destroyed the native deer population. Demand for beaver pelts to make hats almost caused the extinction of the North American beaver. Years of conservation efforts have since restored many of the lost beaver populations.

Cash crop agriculture: North America’s main cash crops during the 1700s were feed grains (wheat, corn, and flour) and tobacco—cotton did not become a significant cash crop until the late 1700s. Tobacco was most important in the colonies of Maryland and Virginia, and its cultivation led to many changes. 

High European demand for tobacco increased the value of tobacco, which accelerated the economic growth in the American colonies.

Tobacco cultivation as a cash crop shifted America from a subsistence economy to an agricultural economy.

Tobacco production requires a lot of labor. A lack of available workers and the greed of plantation owners for higher profits shifted tobacco production to a slave-based force.