space tourism bac eco

The rise of space tourism could affect Earth's climate in unforeseen ways, scientists worry

Are the effects of rocket launches on the atmosphere really negligible?

Scientists worry that growing numbers of rocket flights and the rise of space tourism could harm Earth's atmosphere and contribute to climate change. 

When billionaires Richard Branson and Jeff Bezos soared into space this month aboard their companies' suborbital tourism vehicles, much of the world clapped in awe. 

But for some scientists, these milestones represented something other than just a technical accomplishment. Achieved after years of delays and despite significant setbacks , the flights marked the potential beginning of a long-awaited era that might see rockets fly through the so-far rather pristine upper layers of the atmosphere far more often than they do today. In the case of SpaceShipTwo, the vehicle operated by Branson's Virgin Galactic, these flights are powered by a hybrid engine that burns rubber and leaves behind a cloud of soot.

"Hybrid engines can use different types of fuels, but they always generate a lot of soot," said Filippo Maggi, associate professor of aerospace engineering at Politecnico di Milano, Italy, who researches rocket propulsion technologies and was part of a team that several years ago published an extensive analysis of hybrid rocket engine emissions. "These engines work like a candle, and their burning process creates conditions that are favorable for soot generation."

Related: Air pollution from reentering megaconstellation satellites could cause ozone hole 2.0

According to Dallas Kasaboski, principal analyst at the space consultancy Northern Sky Research, a single Virgin Galactic suborbital space tourism flight, lasting about an hour and a half, can generate as much pollution as a 10-hour trans-Atlantic flight. Some scientists consider that disconcerting, in light of Virgin Galactic’s ambitions to fly paying tourists to the edge of space several times a day.

"Even if the suborbital tourism market is launching at a fraction of the number of launches compared to the rest of the [tourism] industry, each of their flights has a much higher contribution, and that could be a problem," Kasaboski told Space.com.

Get the Space.com Newsletter

Breaking space news, the latest updates on rocket launches, skywatching events and more!

Virgin Galactic's rockets are, of course, not the only culprits. All rocket motors burning hydrocarbon fuels generate soot, Maggi said. Solid rocket engines, such as those used in the past in the boosters of NASA's space shuttle , burn metallic compounds and emit aluminum oxide particles together with hydrochloric acid, both of which have a damaging effect on the atmosphere.

The BE-3 engine that powers Blue Origin's New Shepard suborbital vehicle, on the other hand, combines liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen to create thrust. The BE-3 is not a big polluter compared to other rocket engines, emitting mainly water along with some minor combustion products, experts say .

Too little is known

For Karen Rosenlof, senior scientist at the Chemical Sciences Laboratory at the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the biggest problem is that rockets pollute the higher layers of the atmosphere — the stratosphere, which starts at an altitude of about 6.2 miles (10 kilometers), and the mesosphere, which goes upward from 31 miles (50 km). 

"You are emitting pollutants in places where you don't normally emit it," Rosenlof told Space.com. "We really need to understand. If we increase these things, what is the potential damage?"

So far, the impact of rocket launches on the atmosphere has been negligible, according to Martin Ross, an atmospheric scientist at the Aerospace Corporation who often works with Rosenlof. But that's simply because there have not been that many launches. 

"The amount of fuel currently burned by the space industry is less than 1% of the fuel burned by aviation," Ross told Space.com. "So there has not been a lot of research, and that makes sense. But things are changing in a way that suggests that we should learn about this in more detail."

Northern Sky Research predicts that the number of space tourism flights will skyrocket over the next decade, from maybe 10 a year in the near future to 360 a year by 2030, Kasaboski said. This estimate is still far below the growth rate that space tourism companies like Virgin Galactic and Blue Origin envision for themselves. 

"Demand for suborbital tourism is extremely high," Kasaboski said. "These companies virtually have customers waiting in a line, and therefore they want to scale up. Ultimately, they would want to fly multiple times a day, just like short-haul aircraft do."

The rate of rocket launches delivering satellites into orbit is expected to grow as well. But Kasaboski sees bigger potential for growth in space tourism. 

"It's like the difference between a cargo flight and a passenger flight," Kasaboski said. "There's a lot more passengers that are looking to fly."

The problem is, according to Ross, that the scientific community has no idea and not enough data to tell at what point rocket launches will start having a measurable effect on the planet's climate. At the same time, the stratosphere is already changing as the number of rocket launches sneakily grows.

"The impacts of these [rocket-generated] particles are not well understood even to an order of magnitude, the factor of 10," Ross said. "The uncertainty is large, and we need to narrow that down and predict how space might be impacting the atmosphere."

Space shuttle's ozone holes 

So far, the only direct measurements of the effects of rocket launches on chemical processes in the atmosphere come from the space shuttle era. In the 1990s, as the world was coming together to salvage the damaged ozone layer , NASA, NOAA and the U.S. Air Force put together a campaign that looked at the effects of the emissions from the space shuttle's solid fuel boosters on ozone in the stratosphere. 

"In the 1990s, there were significant concerns about chlorine from solid rocket motors," Ross said. "Chlorine is the bad guy to ozone in the stratosphere, and there were some models which suggested that ozone depletion from solid rocket motors would be very significant."

The scientists used NASA's WB 57 high-altitude aircraft to fly through the plumes generated by the space shuttle rockets in Florida. Reaching altitudes of up to 60,000 feet (19 km), they were able to measure the chemical reactions in the lower stratosphere just after the rockets' passage. 

"One of the fundamental questions was how much chlorine is being made in these solid rocket motors and in what form," David Fahey, the director of the Chemical Sciences Laboratory at NOAA, who led the study, told Space.com. "We measured it several times and then analyzed the results. At that time, there were not enough space shuttle launches to make a difference globally, but locally one could deplete the ozone layer due to this diffuse plume [left behind by the rocket]."

The space shuttle retired 10 years ago, but rockets generating ozone-damaging substances continue launching humans and satellites to space today. 

In fact, in 2018, in its latest Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion , which comes out every four years, the World Meteorological Organization included rockets as a potential future concern. The organization called for more research to be done as the number of launches is expected to increase.  

Worse than geoengineering 

Rosenlof's team studies the broader effects of human-made substances in the higher layers of the atmosphere using powerful NOAA supercomputers. The work is akin to predicting the proverbial butterfly effect, the influence of minuscule changes in the chemistry of the air tens of miles above Earth on climate and weather patterns on the ground. For her, black carbon, or soot, emitted by rockets burning hydrocarbon fuels, is of particular concern.

"The problem with soot is that it absorbs ultraviolet light, and that means that it could heat the stratosphere," Rosenlof said. "When you start heating the stratosphere, the layer above the troposphere [closest to the ground], you start changing the motion in the stratosphere. You are changing the energy transfer, and that could actually affect what is happening on the ground."

Rosenlof points out that many of the particles generated by some rockets have been of interest to scientists due to the possible effects they could have on the global climate in a different context — that of geoengineering , the deliberate tampering with the atmosphere with the aim of stopping or mitigating global warming. 

Rosenlof recently co-authored a paper that used the same powerful NOAA supercomputers to model what the scientists call a climate intervention. The team was interested in the climate effects of dispersing sulfur dioxide particles, which are known to reflect light away from Earth, in combination with soot (which is also part of rocket emissions) in the lower stratosphere. Soot absorbs energy from sunlight and pushes the sulfur dioxide aerosol particles to a higher altitude by warming up the surrounding air. At that higher altitude, the sulfur dioxide can start its climate-cooling work. The experiment modeled what would happen when 1.1 million tons of sunlight-reflecting sulfur dioxide mixed with 11,000 tons of black carbon were released in the upper troposphere by aircraft over a 10-day period. 

The study didn't find any significant negative effects on weather on Earth. Yet, those results do not dispel Rosenlof's concerns about the possible risks associated with the growing number of rocket launches. 

Altering the jet stream

"Black carbon in the geoengineering experiment that we did isn't as high as the stuff from these rockets," she said. "The problem is that the higher you go, the longer something lasts. Neither of them is ideal, because either of them would produce heating in places where we don't have heating right now."

According to Maggi, the soot particles generated by hybrid rocket engines are extremely small and light-weight. In fact, when he and his colleagues tried to measure the soot output of hybrid rocket engines in a laboratory, they couldn't reliably do it with precision because of the particles' minuscule size. 

"We were able to measure the particle output from solid rocket motors," Maggi said. "These are about a micron in size, and there [are] a lot of them. But because they are large, they fall to the ground more quickly. In hybrid rocket engines, we were not able to collect the soot from the plume because it's extremely fine, a few nanometres in size."

Maggi fears these particles could, in fact, stay in the stratosphere forever.

"They have the same size as the carbon emitted by aircrafts," Maggi said. "And we know that there is a layer of carbon in the atmosphere at the flight level of aircrafts which is staying there. It's very likely that particles coming from rocket motors will do the same."

The accumulation of these particles over years and decades is what worries the scientists. Just as the current climate crisis started relatively slowly as the amount of carbon released into the atmosphere grew, the pollution in the stratosphere may only start causing harm some years down the road.

Rosenlof added that in the long term, injecting pollutants into the stratosphere could alter the polar jet stream, change winter storm patterns or affect average rainfall. 

"You might go from 25 inches [64 centimeters] a year to 20 inches [51 cm] a year in some places, which maybe doesn't sound like that big of a deal unless you are a farmer trying to grow your wheat right there," Rosenlof said. "Then a subtle change in rainfall can impact your crop yields."

Work to be done 

For this reason, Fahey says, it is critical that scientific work starts now to evaluate the future risks. 

"There is this fundamental gap where we just don't have the numbers, and that means that the science is limited because we have this lack of information," he said. "We feel it is part of our responsibility [at NOAA] to assess the impact of human activity on the stratosphere. Rockets are a principal and unique source [of stratospheric pollution], the launch frequencies are increasing and the effects are accumulating."

Fahey envisions a wider research program that would analyze the emissions and impacts of individual types of rocket engines and fuels on the stratosphere. The data could be used in Rosenlof's models to better predict the effects in accordance with the expected growth of the number of launches. Fahey, however, says that a political decision would have to come first to provide NOAA and its partners with funding that would enable them to take the high-altitude aircraft to the sky again and gather the data. The good news is, he added, that the U.S. Congress seems to be aware of the problem and things might soon start to move. 

"We would like to see a national program run by NOAA or the Air Force that would develop a database with basic emission characteristics of modern propulsion systems based on observations," he said. "We could gather some data in ground tests but also in the same way that we did with the space shuttle — by flying through the plumes just after launch."

Follow Tereza Pultarova on Twitter @TerezaPultarova. Follow us on Twitter @Spacedotcom and on Facebook . 

Join our Space Forums to keep talking space on the latest missions, night sky and more! And if you have a news tip, correction or comment, let us know at: [email protected].

Tereza is a London-based science and technology journalist, aspiring fiction writer and amateur gymnast. Originally from Prague, the Czech Republic, she spent the first seven years of her career working as a reporter, script-writer and presenter for various TV programmes of the Czech Public Service Television. She later took a career break to pursue further education and added a Master's in Science from the International Space University, France, to her Bachelor's in Journalism and Master's in Cultural Anthropology from Prague's Charles University. She worked as a reporter at the Engineering and Technology magazine, freelanced for a range of publications including Live Science, Space.com, Professional Engineering, Via Satellite and Space News and served as a maternity cover science editor at the European Space Agency.

SpaceX launching Falcon 9 rocket on record-tying 20th mission today

Boeing's Starliner spacecraft is 'go' for May 6 astronaut launch

Astronomers just discovered a comet that could be brighter than most stars when we see it next year. Or will it?

Most Popular

• 2 This Week In Space podcast: Episode 108 — Starliner: Better Late Than Never?
• 3 Boeing's Starliner spacecraft will not fly private missions yet, officials say
• 4 SpaceX launching Falcon 9 rocket on record-tying 20th mission today
• 5 Watch 2 gorgeous supernova remnants evolve over 20 years (timelapse video)

The jaw-droppingly high, out-of-this-world carbon footprint of space tourism

Share this idea.

• Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on Reddit (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on Pocket (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on WhatsApp (Opens in new window)

The commercial race to get tourists to space is heating up between Virgin Group founder Sir Richard Branson and former Amazon CEO Jeff Bezos. On July 11, Branson ascended 80 km (49 miles) to reach the edge of space in his piloted Virgin Galactic VSS Unity spaceplane, while Bezos’ autonomous Blue Origin rocket launched today on July 20 , coinciding with the anniversary of the Apollo 11 Moon landing. Although Bezos launched later than Branson, he set out to reach higher altitudes — about 120 km, or 74 miles .

The launch demonstrates a new type of offering to very wealthy tourists: The opportunity to truly reach outer space. Tour packages will provide passengers with a brief 10-minute frolic in zero gravity and glimpses of Earth from space. Not to be outdone, later in 2021, Elon Musk’s SpaceX will provide four to five days of orbital travel with its Crew Dragon capsule.

What are the environmental consequences of a space tourism industry likely to be? Bezos boasts that his Blue Origin rockets are greener than Branson’s VSS Unity. The Blue Engine 3 (BE-3)  launched Bezos, his brother and two guests into space using liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen propellants.

VSS Unity, on the other hand, used a hybrid propellant comprised of a solid carbon-based fuel, hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB), and nitrous oxide (or laughing gas), while the SpaceX Falcon series of reusable rockets will propel the Crew Dragon into orbit using liquid kerosene and liquid oxygen.

Burning these propellants provides the energy needed to launch rockets into space — but it simultaneously generates greenhouse gases and air pollutants. Large quantities of water vapor are also produced by burning the BE-3 propellant, while combustion of both the VSS Unity and Falcon fuels produces CO2, soot and some water vapor. The nitrogen-based oxidant used by VSS Unity also generates nitrogen oxides, compounds that contribute to air pollution closer to Earth. Roughly two-thirds of this propellant exhaust is released into the stratosphere (12 km-50 km) and mesosphere (50 km-85 km), where it can persist for at least two to three years.

The very high temperatures during launch and re-entry (which is when the protective heat shields of the returning crafts burn up) also convert stable nitrogen in the air into reactive nitrogen oxides. These gases and particles have many negative effects on the atmosphere. In the stratosphere, nitrogen oxides and chemicals formed from the breakdown of water vapor convert ozone into oxygen and deplete the ozone layer which guards life on Earth against harmful UV radiation.

Water vapor also produces stratospheric clouds that provide a surface for this reaction to occur at a faster pace than it otherwise would.

Space tourism and climate change

What’s more, CO2 exhaust emissions and soot trap heat in the atmosphere, contributing to global warming. Cooling of the atmosphere can also occur, as clouds formed from the emitted water vapor reflect incoming sunlight back to space. A depleted ozone layer would also absorb less incoming sunlight, and so heat the stratosphere less.

Figuring out the overall effect of rocket launches on the atmosphere will require detailed modeling, in order to account for these complex processes and the persistence of these pollutants in the upper atmosphere. Equally important is a clear understanding of how the space tourism industry will develop.

Virgin Galactic anticipates it will offer 400 spaceflights each year to the privileged few who can afford them. Blue Origin and SpaceX have yet to announce their plans. But globally, rocket launches wouldn’t need to increase by much from the current 100 or so performed each year to induce harmful effects that are competitive with other sources , like ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), and CO2 from aircraft.

During launch, rockets can emit between 4 and 10 times more nitrogen oxides than Drax , the largest thermal power plant in the UK, over the same time period. CO2 emissions for the four or so tourists on a space flight will be between 50 and 100 times more than the one to three tonnes of emissions that are generated per passenger on a long-haul airplane flight.

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article .

What are the origins of spaceflight? It all started with science fiction. Watch the full Talk to learn more: 

About the author

Eloise Marais is an Associate Professor in Physical Geography at UCL. Marais leads a research group that addresses long-standing uncertainties about the chemical composition of the atmosphere and determines the influence of humans on the environment, air quality and climate.

• carbon dioxide
• carbon emissions
• climate change
• society and culture
• space tourism

TED Talk of the Day

How to make radical climate action the new normal

6 ways to give that aren't about money

A smart way to handle anxiety -- courtesy of soccer great Lionel Messi

How do top athletes get into the zone? By getting uncomfortable

6 things people do around the world to slow down

Creating a contract -- yes, a contract! -- could help you get what you want from your relationship

Could your life story use an update? Here’s how to do it 

6 tips to help you be a better human now

How to have better conversations on social media (really!)

Let’s stop calling them “soft skills” -- and call them “real skills” instead

3 strategies for effective leadership, from a former astronaut

There’s a know-it-all at every job — here’s how to deal

The 7 types of people you need in your life to be resilient

These 8 cities around the world are putting their focus on biking and walking -- not cars

Net-zero emissions is a great goal for companies to set -- but really hard to reach. Here's why

What's the carbon footprint of cannabis? Surprisingly high

Most US homes are energy vampires -- here's how we need to rethink housing from the ground up

Search form

• Study break

Space tourism: are we one step closer?

Do you think that people will go on holiday in space in the future? Watch this video to find out how soon that could be!

Instructions

Do the preparation task first. Then watch the video and do the exercises. Remember you can read the transcript at any time.

Preparation

Could these two high-profile journeys to the edge of space by wealthy businessmen Jeff Bezos and Richard Branson mean space travel is one step closer for the rest of us?

Well, to go anytime soon, you would need a lot of money. One seat on board billionaire Jeff Bezos's rocket ship was auctioned for 28 million dollars.

Whilst there was nowhere for passengers of these two flights to stop off, the first-ever space hotel is expected to open in 2027. The Voyager Station hotel will float in low orbit, and guests will be able to see the Earth as they move round the planet.

But large rockets need lots of fuel to propel them, so space travel can have a hefty carbon footprint. Historically, rockets have been powered by kerosene, but some are now launched by using cleaner methods, such as green hydrogen.

Check your understanding: multiple selection

Check your vocabulary: gap fill, worksheets and downloads.

What do you think about space tourism? Would you like to try it?

Sign up to our newsletter for LearnEnglish Teens

We will process your data to send you our newsletter and updates based on your consent. You can unsubscribe at any time by clicking the "unsubscribe" link at the bottom of every email. Read our privacy policy for more information.

Billionaires in space? The pros and cons of space tourism

Would you pay to go to space let us know below.

⭐️HERE’S WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW⭐️

• Jeff Bezos, founder of Amazon, just reached outer space.
• He and 2 other billionaires are on the front lines of space tourism.
• Soon space tourism might be for more than the rich.
• Read on to explore the pros and cons of the new industry. ⬇️ ⬇️ ⬇️

Selfies with Saturn? Postcards from the International Space Station? Hotels on the moon?

Thanks to space tourism, those could all become realities.

On Tuesday, Amazon founder Jeff Bezos became the second billionaire within a week to reach outer space. He travelled aboard his company’s Blue Origin rocket on a spaceflight that lasted 10 minutes.

Joining Bezos was a hand-picked group including his brother, an 18-year-old from the Netherlands and an 82-year-old aviation pioneer from Texas — the youngest and oldest people to ever fly in space.

Jeff Bezos, third from the left, became the second billionaire within a week to reach outer space on July 20. He flew with Oliver Daemen, left, Mark Bezos, second from left, and Wally Funk, right. (Image credit: Joe Skipper/Reuters)

Last week, Virgin Galactic founder Sir Richard Branson was the first billionaire to head up to the skies, reaching 88 km above Earth’s surface and achieving weightlessness for several minutes.

Richard Branson, fourth from left, and his crew flew 88 km above Earth’s surface on July 12. Some experts say he didn’t go far enough. They say space officially begins 100 km above the Earth. (Image credit: Virgin Galactic)

And this fall, billionaire Elon Musk will also enter the space tourism game, as he prepares to send four people to space in one of his SpaceX rockets.

Billionaire Jared Isaacman, left, Hayley Arceneaux, Sian Proctor and Chris Sembroski are set to be SpaceX’s first crew to head to space in September. (Image credit: Inspiration 4/Reuters)

It might be years before most Canadians can afford a ticket to outer space, and even then, ticket costs are likely to be many thousands of dollars.

• 4 astronauts land in ocean, return safely to Earth with SpaceX

But some planetary experts say the upcoming space launches led by billionaires could bring about a new era of space exploration, where you no longer have to be an astronaut to fly.

It’s a pretty exciting idea, but what are the pros and cons of sending tourists to space?

1. It's downright cool

The biggest perk of going to space is, of course, the sightseeing.

In more than 300,000 years of human existence, only around 500 people have been able to glimpse the view from outside our atmosphere.

2. More space research 

This new era of tourism could make space science more accessible, said Marc Boucher, the founder and editor-in-chief of SpaceQ Media Inc., an online Canadian space news company based in London, Ontario.

The research that’s happening in space right now is “really expensive,” Boucher said.

“These flights of opportunities on these new suborbital vehicles will offer a much cheaper cost to do some of this research.”

3. New technologies

More space science could mean more cool, new inventions.

Many of our technologies are based on innovations that started in space, said Sara Mazrouei, a planetary scientist and educational developer at Ryerson University in Toronto.

“The last space race that we had to get to the moon gave us the technology for our running shoes, for our foam mattresses, for our bulletproof vests,” Mazrouei said.

“I'm really hopeful” that once we move beyond this initial set of billionaires getting to space, there will be room for more technological innovation, she said.

4. More space exploration overall  

Back in November 2020, many space experts remarked that SpaceX’s successful launch to the International Space Station marked a new era of space exploration.

• A ‘new era’ in space? SpaceX launches 4 astronauts to ISS

In November 2020, the SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket became the first privately owned spacecraft used by NASA to reach the ISS. (Image credit: Joe Skipper/Reuters)

This included Canadian astronaut David Saint-Jacques.

“This is the dawn of a new era,” he said at the time. “[It] really opens up the door for cheaper, more frequent, more accessible access to Earth’s orbit.”

• An $85 million helicopter just made history flying on Mars

Saint-Jacques said this new level of access to space travel will allow national space agencies to “shift their focus” back to going to the Moon and eventually Mars.

1. It’s expensive

Currently, space tourism is not cheap, meaning very few people can afford to do it.

For example, Oliver Daemen, one of the crew members on Bezos’ flight, was a last-minute replacement for someone who paid $28 million US in an auction for their ticket.

His father bought the ticket for a lower, undisclosed price. 

Virgin Galactic already has more than 600 reservations from would-be space tourists, with tickets initially costing $250,000 US a piece.

Musk's SpaceX plans to take tourists on more than just brief, up-and-down trips. Instead, they will orbit the Earth for days and seats will cost well into the millions.

Although tickets are likely to go down in price as space tourism becomes more common, ticket prices will still be out of reach for most Canadians for the next several years.

2. It may be bad for the environment

Some experts say rocket launches could be damaging our ozone layer.

The ozone layer, which is within Earth’s stratosphere, is important for protecting us from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays.

Experts say that certain chemicals in rocket fumes are getting trapped in the stratosphere and are eating away at our ozone layer.

• How the pink supermoon and this funky plant are connected

Until now, the problem has flown under the radar, but with rocket launches becoming more frequent, the problem could become a much bigger contributor to climate change.

3. It may contribute to space junk

Any time something goes wrong in space, there is potential for spacecraft, satellites and other technology to be lost and trapped in Earth’s orbit.

Currently, there are millions of microshards of space junk that have accumulated in Earth’s orbit.

This illustration from the European Space Agency represents all the space debris 1 mm in size and larger that is currently orbiting Earth. (IRAS/TU Braunschweig)

Just a few months ago, one of those pieces of debris pierced through Canada’s robotic arm, called Canadarm, which is a fixture on the International Space Station.

There is a risk that more collisions will create more fragments, hence more collisions, in an escalating cascade of accidents.

That would make lower Earth orbit dangerous for the satellites we have come to depend on for global communications.

By sending so many more spacecraft into space through tourism without first solving the problem of space junk, the issue could be made even worse.

4. Things can still go wrong

Although we’ve come a long way since the 1960s in terms of space innovation and technology, there are still occasional examples of things going wrong.

Space is, after all, essentially like stepping into a microwave, with intense levels of pressure, supercharged cosmic rays, solar emissions and other dangers.

Until scientists find a way to perfect the safety of space travel, potential mishaps remain an important concern for the first space tourists of the next several years.

Submissions for our "Would you pay to go to space?" question have now closed. Thank you for submitting. 

With files from Nicole Mortillaro/CBC, Stephanie Dubois/CBC, The Associated Press and Chris Iorfida/CBC

Was this story worth reading?

More stories you might like.

By Roger Highfield on 29 June 2022

How sustainable is space tourism.

Space tourism and commercial experiments on satellites and space stations are increasingly driving what’s known as the low-Earth orbit economy.

However, as the industry gears up for rapid growth, evidence that our cosmic back yard needs to be developed in a more sustainable way has come from a study by researchers from UCL, the University of Cambridge and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

‘This is an important paper that flags a fast-evolving concern with the environmental impacts of space exploration (terrestrial and extra-terrestrial),’ comments Doug Millard, curator of space at the Science Museum. ‘Benefits accrued from an ever-essential space infrastructure (satellites) in low earth orbit do need to be balanced with the uncomfortable fact that space, like Earth, needs also to be developed in a sustainable manner.’

A two stage SpaceX Falcon 9 Block 5 rocket, like many launchers, is driven by the combustion reaction between liquid oxygen and kerosene fuel, hydrocarbons composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms, to form carbon dioxide, water vapour and black carbon particles – soot – in the rocket’s exhaust.

Nitrogen oxides (NO x ), pollutants, also form due to a reaction between nitrogen – which becomes reactive at high temperature – and oxygen molecules. These oxides are also produced when the rocket’s reusable components return to Earth, and by meteorites, due to extreme temperatures produced by friction. This is an issue even for rockets that only burn hydrogen and oxygen to make water vapour.

Rocket launches release pollutants and greenhouse gases into several atmospheric layers. These persist for much longer – years – in the middle and upper atmosphere, compared with when equivalent pollutants are released at or near the Earth’s surface, the troposphere, where they linger for weeks.

Published this month in the journal Earth’s Future ,  Drs Robert Ryan and Eloise Marais from UCL, Chloe Balhatchet of the University of Cambridge and Dr Sebastian Eastham of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology used a 3D model of atmospheric chemistry – the chemical processes in the Earth’s atmosphere – to explore the impact of rocket launches and re-entry, and weigh up the possible impact of space tourism.

Total carbon dioxide emissions from one launch per passenger are around 100 times those from a typical long-haul flight, though the overall impact of launches is tiny compared with global aviation. Co-author Dr Marais said: ‘Rocket launches are routinely compared to greenhouse gas and air pollutant emissions from the aircraft industry, which we demonstrate in our work is erroneous because it misses the different behaviour of soot at high altitudes.’

Currently, an estimated 500 tons of rocket soot is generated annually, less than those from the aircraft industry. However, when released into the middle and upper atmosphere, soot has a warming effect 500 times greater than when released closer to Earth because it persists longer and partly because there are typically no clouds and few to no aerosols competing with soot for the sun’s rays.

‘Soot particles from rocket launches have a much larger climate effect than aircraft and other Earth-bound sources, so there doesn’t need to be as many rocket launches as international flights to have a similar impact,’ she said.

Furthermore, when these particles reach the ozone layer in the upper reaches of the atmosphere, the stratosphere, they convert ozone to oxygen, depleting the fragile stratospheric ozone shield that protects the planet from the sun’s ultraviolet radiation, which has harmful effects linked with skin cancer and weakened immune systems in humans, as well as disruptions to agriculture and ecosystems.

For their study, the researchers collected information on the chemicals from all 103 worldwide rocket launches in 2019, as well as data on reusable rocket and space junk re-entry. They also constructed a plausible scenario of how space tourism would develop. This included routine launches by Virgin Galactic, Blue Origin and SpaceX.

These data were incorporated into their 3D atmospheric chemistry model to explore the impact on climate and the ozone layer.

The team showed that warming due to soot is 3.9 milliwatts of power per square metre over a decade, which is dominated by emissions from kerosene-fuelled rockets. However, this more than doubles (7.9 milliwatts per square metre) after just three years of additional emissions from space tourism launches, due to the use of kerosene by SpaceX and hybrid synthetic rubber fuels by Virgin Galactic.

Under a scenario of daily or weekly space tourism rocket launches, the team found that the impact on the stratospheric ozone layer threatens to undermine the recovery experienced after the successful introduction of the Montreal Protocol.

Adopted in 1987, the Protocol global ban on substances such as CFCs, chlorofluorocarbons, that deplete the ozone layer is considered one of the most successful international environmental policy interventions. Co-author Dr Ryan said: ‘The only part of the atmosphere showing strong ozone recovery post-Montreal Protocol is the upper stratosphere, and that is exactly where the impact of rocket emissions will hit hardest. We weren’t expecting to see ozone changes of this magnitude, threatening the progress of ozone recovery.’

There are still many unknowns that have to be understood in more detail, from more accurately projecting the growth of the industry to the impact of burning other carbon containing rocket fuels like liquid methane and bio-derived fuels on climate and ozone. Soot and other pollutants generated by satellites burning up when they fall out of orbit is also a growing, poorly understood source of emissions.

‘We are developing this work further by seeing if we can detect air pollution and returning space junk with Earth observing satellites,’ said Dr Marais.

The team calls for urgent research to assess the consequences of commercial space activities for the planet down below.

• Share full article

Advertisement

Supported by

The Future of Space Tourism Is Now. Well, Not Quite.

From zero-pressure balloon trips to astronaut boot camps, reservations for getting off the planet — or pretending to — are skyrocketing. The prices, however, are still out of this world.

By Debra Kamin

Ilida Alvarez has dreamed of traveling to space since she was a child. But Ms. Alvarez, a legal-mediation firm owner, is afraid of flying, and she isn’t a billionaire — two facts that she was sure, until just a few weeks ago, would keep her fantasy as out of reach as the stars. She was wrong.

Ms. Alvarez, 46, and her husband, Rafael Landestoy, recently booked a flight on a 10-person pressurized capsule that — attached to a massive helium-filled balloon — will gently float to 100,000 feet while passengers sip champagne and recline in ergonomic chairs. The reservation required a $500 deposit; the flight itself will cost $50,000 and last six to 12 hours.

“I feel like it was tailor-made for the chickens like me who don’t want to get on a rocket,” said Ms. Alvarez, whose flight, organized by a company called World View , is scheduled to depart from the Grand Canyon in 2024.

Less than a year after Jeff Bezos and Richard Branson kicked off a commercial space race by blasting into the upper atmosphere within weeks of each other last summer, the global space tourism market is skyrocketing, with dozens of companies now offering reservations for everything from zero-pressure balloon trips to astronaut boot camps and simulated zero-gravity flights. But don’t don your spacesuit just yet. While the financial services company UBS estimates the space travel market will be worth $3 billion by 2030, the Federal Aviation Administration has yet to approve most out-of-this-world trips, and construction has not started on the first space hotel. And while access and options — not to mention launchpads — are burgeoning, space tourism remains astronomically expensive for most.

First, what counts as space travel?

Sixty miles (about 100 kilometers) above our heads lies the Kármán line, the widely accepted aeronautical boundary of the earth’s atmosphere. It’s the boundary used by the Féderátion Aéronautique Internationale, which certifies and controls global astronautical records. But many organizations in the United States, including the F.A.A. and NASA, define everything above 50 miles to be space.

Much of the attention has been focused on a trio of billionaire-led rocket companies: Mr. Bezos’ Blue Origin , whose passengers have included William Shatner; Mr. Branson’s Virgin Galactic , where tickets for a suborbital spaceflight start at $450,000; and Elon Musk’s SpaceX , which in September launched an all-civilian spaceflight, with no trained astronauts on board. Mr. Branson’s inaugural Virgin Galactic flight in 2021 reached about 53 miles, while Blue Origin flies above the 62-mile mark. Both are eclipsed by SpaceX, whose rockets charge far deeper in to the cosmos, reaching more than 120 miles above Earth.

Balloons, like those operated by World View, don’t go nearly as high. But even at their maximum altitude of 18 or 19 miles, operators say they float high enough to show travelers the curvature of the planet, and give them a chance to experience the overview effect — an intense perspective shift that many astronauts say kicks in when you view Earth from above.

Now, how to get there …

Blue Origin and Virgin Galactic, which are both licensed for passenger space travel by the F.A.A., are open for ticket sales. (Blue Origin remains mum on pricing.) Both companies currently have hundreds or even thousands of earthlings on their wait lists for a whirl to the edge of space. SpaceX charges tens of millions of dollars for its further-reaching flights and is building a new facility in Texas that is currently under F.A.A. review.

Craig Curran is a major space enthusiast — he’s held a reserved seat on a Virgin Galactic flight since 2011 — and the owner of Deprez Travel in Rochester, N.Y. The travel agency has a special space travel arm, Galactic Experiences by Deprez , through which Mr. Curran sells everything from rocket launch tickets to astronaut training.

Sales in the space tourism space, Mr. Curran acknowledges, “are reasonably difficult to make,” and mostly come from peer-to-peer networking. “You can imagine that people who spend $450,000 to go to space probably operate in circles that are not the same as yours and mine,” he said.

Some of Mr. Curran’s most popular offerings include flights where you can experience the same stomach-dropping feeling of zero gravity that astronauts feel in space, which he arranges for clients via chartered, specialized Boeing 727s that are flown in parabolic arcs to mimic being in space. Operators including Zero G also offer the service; the cost is around $8,200.

You can almost count the number of completed space tourist launches on one hand — Blue Origin has had four; SpaceX, two. Virgin Galactic, meanwhile, on Thursday announced the launch of its commercial passenger service, previously scheduled for late 2022, was delayed until early 2023. Many of those on waiting lists are biding their time before blastoff by signing up for training. Axiom Space, which contracts with SpaceX, currently offers NASA-partnered training at Houston’s Johnson Space Center. Virgin Galactic, which already offers a “customized Future Astronaut Readiness program” at its Spaceport America facility in New Mexico, is also partnering with NASA to build a training program for private astronauts.

Would-be space tourists should not expect the rigor that NASA astronauts face. Training for Virgin Galactic’s three-hour trips is included in the cost of a ticket and lasts a handful of days; it includes pilot briefings and being “fitted for your bespoke Under Armour spacesuit and boots,” according to its website.

Not ready for a rocket? Balloon rides offer a less hair-raising celestial experience.

“We go to space at 12 miles an hour, which means that it’s very smooth and very gentle. You’re not rocketing away from earth,” said Jane Poynter, a co-founder and co-chief executive of Space Perspective , which is readying its own touristic balloon spaceship, Spaceship Neptune. If all goes according to plan, voyages are scheduled to begin departing from Florida in 2024, at a cost of $125,000 per person. That’s a fraction of the price tag for Blue Origin and Virgin Galactic, but still more than double the average annual salary of an American worker.

Neither Space Perspective nor World View has the required approval yet from the F.A.A. to operate flights.

Unique implications

Whether a capsule or a rocket is your transport, the travel insurance company battleface launched a civilian space insurance plan in late 2021, a direct response, said chief executive Sasha Gainullin, to an increase in space tourism interest and infrastructure. Benefits include accidental death and permanent disablement in space and are valid for spaceflights on operators like SpaceX, Blue Origin and Virgin Galactic, as well as on stratospheric balloon rides. They’ve had many inquiries, Mr. Gainullin said, but no purchases just yet.

“Right now it’s such high-net-worth individuals who are traveling to space, so they probably don’t need insurance,” he said. “But for quote-unquote regular travelers, I think we’ll see some takeups soon.”

And as the industry grows, so perhaps will space travel’s impact on the environment. Not only do rocket launches have immense carbon footprints, even some stratospheric balloon flights have potentially significant implications: World View’s balloons are powered by thousands of cubic meters of helium, which is a limited resource . But Ted Parson, a professor of environmental law at the University of California, Los Angeles, said that space travel’s environmental impact is still dwarfed by civil aviation. And because space travel is ultra-niche, he believes it’s likely to stay that way.

“Despite extensive projections, space tourism is likely to remain a tiny fraction of commercial space exploration,” he said. “It reminds me of tourism on Mt. Everest. It’s the indulgence of very rich people seeking a transcendent, once-in-a-lifetime experience, and the local environmental burden is intense.”

Stay a while?

In the future, space enthusiasts insist, travelers won’t be traveling to space just for the ride. They’ll want to stay a while. Orbital Assembly Corporation, a manufacturing company whose goal is to colonize space, is currently building the world’s first space hotels — two ring-shaped properties that will orbit Earth, called Pioneer Station and Voyager Station. The company, quite optimistically, projects an opening date of 2025 for Pioneer Station, with a capacity of 28 guests. The design for the larger Voyager Station , which they say will open in 2027, promises villas and suites, as well as a gym, restaurant and bar. Both provide the ultimate luxury: simulated gravity. Axiom Space , a space infrastructure company, is currently building the world’s first private space station; plans include Philippe Starck-designed accommodations for travelers to spend the night.

Joshua Bush, chief executive of travel agency Avenue Two Travel , has sold a handful of seats on upcoming Virgin Galactic flights to customers. The market for space travel (and the sky-high prices that come with it), he believes, will evolve much like civilian air travel did.

“In the beginning of the 20th century, only very affluent people could afford to fly,” he said. “Just as we have Spirit and Southwest Airlines today, there will be some sort of equivalent of that in space travel, too. Hopefully within my lifetime.”

52 Places for a Changed World

The 2022 list highlights places around the globe where travelers can be part of the solution.

Follow New York Times Travel on Instagram , Twitter and Facebook . And sign up for our weekly Travel Dispatch newsletter to receive expert tips on traveling smarter and inspiration for your next vacation. Dreaming up a future getaway or just armchair traveling? Check out our 52 Places for a Changed World for 2022.

What’s Up in Space and Astronomy

Keep track of things going on in our solar system and all around the universe..

Never miss an eclipse, a meteor shower, a rocket launch or any other 2024 event  that’s out of this world with  our space and astronomy calendar .

Scientists may have discovered a major flaw in their understanding of dark energy, a mysterious cosmic force . That could be good news for the fate of the universe.

A new set of computer simulations, which take into account the effects of stars moving past our solar system, has effectively made it harder to predict Earth’s future and reconstruct its past.

Dante Lauretta, the planetary scientist who led the OSIRIS-REx mission to retrieve a handful of space dust , discusses his next final frontier.

A nova named T Coronae Borealis lit up the night about 80 years ago. Astronomers say it’s expected to put on another show  in the coming months.

Is Pluto a planet? And what is a planet, anyway? Test your knowledge here .

share this!

July 18, 2021

Environmental concerns grow as space tourism lifts off

by Issam Ahmed

After years of waiting, Richard Branson's journey to space this month on a Virgin Galactic vessel was supposed to be a triumphant homecoming. Instead, the jaunt attracted significant criticism—about its carbon footprint.

With Jeff Bezos set to launch on a Blue Origin rocket on July 20, and Elon Musk's SpaceX planning an all-civilian orbital mission in September, the nascent space tourism industry finds itself facing tough questions about its environmental impact .

Right now, rocket launches as a whole don't happen often enough to pollute significantly.

"The carbon dioxide emissions are totally negligible compared to other human activities or even commercial aviation," NASA's chief climate advisor Gavin Schmidt told AFP.

But some scientists are worried about the potential for longer term harm as the industry is poised for major growth, particularly impacts to the ozone layer in the still poorly understood upper atmosphere.

Virgin Galactic, which came under fire in op-eds on CNN and Forbes, as well as on social media, for sending its billionaire founder to space for a few minutes in a fossil fuel-guzzling spaceship, says its carbon emissions are about equivalent to a business-class ticket from London to New York.

The company "has already taken steps to offset the carbon emissions from its test flights and is examining opportunities to offset the carbon emissions for future customer flights, and reduce our supply chain's carbon footprint ," it said in a statement to AFP.

But while transatlantic flights carry hundreds of people, Virgin's emissions work out to around 4.5 tonnes per passenger in a six passenger flight, according to an analysis published by French astrophysicist Roland Lehoucq and colleagues in The Conversation.

That's roughly equivalent to driving a typical car around the Earth, and more than twice the individual annual carbon budget recommended to meet the objectives of the Paris climate accord.

"The issue here is really one of disproportionate impacts," Darin Toohey, an atmospheric scientist at the University of Colorado, Boulder told AFP.

"I actually grew up on the space program and that got me into science.... but if someone offered me a free ride, I would be very nervous taking it because I would know that my own footprint is way larger than it should be," he said.

Cleaner fuels possible

Virgin Galactic's SpaceShipTwo uses a type of synthetic rubber as fuel and burns it in nitrous oxide, a powerful greenhouse gas.

The fuel pumps black carbon into upper stratosphere, 30-50 kilometers (18 to 30 miles) high.

Once there, these particles can have multiple impacts, from reflecting sunlight and causing a nuclear winter effect, to accelerating chemical reactions that deplete the ozone layer , which is vital to protecting people from harmful radiation.

"We could be at a dangerous point," said Toohey, who wants more scientific investigations into these effects before the launches become more frequent.

Virgin has said it wants to conduct 400 flights a year.

Compared to Virgin Galactic's SpaceShipTwo spaceplanes, Blue Origin's are much cleaner, according to a recent paper by scientist Martin Ross of Aerospace, which Bezos' company plugged on Twitter.

That's because it burns liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, which combusts as water vapor.

Ross' paper found Blue Origin's vertical launch reusable rocket causes a hundred times less ozone loss and 750 times less climate forcing magnitude than Virgin's, according to ballpark calculations.

But that doesn't mean it's totally clean.

"It takes electricity to make liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen," Ross told AFP.

"You could go back and calculate how much electricity was used to make the propellant," he said. "It depends how far back in the supply chain you look."

Space shaming?

The impact of suborbital launches such as those by Virgin and Blue Origin pale in comparison to the impact of rockets that achieve orbit.

When SpaceX puts four private citizens into space in September, it will use its Falcon 9 rocket, which calculations show puts out the equivalent of 395 transatlantic flights-worth of carbon emissions .

"We are living in the era of climate change and starting an activity that increases emissions as part of a tourism activity is not good timing," Annette Toivonen, author of the book "Sustainable Space Tourism," told AFP.

The world is far more aware of the climate crisis now than when these companies were founded in the early 2000s and that could encourage businesses to look at ways to minimize pollution through cleaner technologies to get ahead of the problem.

"Who would want to be a space tourist if you can't tell people you were a space tourist?" argued Toivonen, who lectures at Finland's Haaga-Helia University of Applied Sciences.

Explore further

Feedback to editors

Human activities have an intense impact on Earth's deep subsurface fluid flow

12 hours ago

DNA study of Avar cemetery remains reveals network of large pedigrees and social practices

15 hours ago

Global study shows a third more insects come out after dark

Apr 27, 2024

Cicada-palooza! Billions of bugs to blanket America

Getting dynamic information from static snapshots

Ancient Maya blessed their ballcourts: Researchers find evidence of ceremonial offerings in Mexico

Optical barcodes expand range of high-resolution sensor

Apr 26, 2024

Ridesourcing platforms thrive on socio-economic inequality, say researchers

Did Vesuvius bury the home of the first Roman emperor?

Florida dolphin found with highly pathogenic avian flu: Report

Relevant physicsforums posts, unlocking the secrets of prof. verschure's rosetta stones.

Apr 25, 2024

Large eruption at Ruang volcano, Indonesia

Apr 23, 2024

Tidal friction and global warming

Apr 20, 2024

Iceland warming up again - quakes swarming

Apr 18, 2024

M 4.8 - Whitehouse Station, New Jersey, US

Apr 6, 2024

Major Earthquakes - 7.4 (7.2) Mag and 6.4 Mag near Hualien, Taiwan

Apr 5, 2024

More from Earth Sciences

Related Stories

Branson mum on when he'll launch to space on Virgin Galactic

Jun 30, 2021

Bezos' Blue Origin gets OK to send him, 3 others to space

Jul 13, 2021

After Branson flight, Virgin Galactic slumps on stock sale

Jul 12, 2021

Richard Branson announces trip to space, ahead of Jeff Bezos

Jul 2, 2021

Virgin Galactic gets FAA's OK to launch customers to space

Jun 25, 2021

Virgin Galactic, Blue Origin face off in space tourism market

Jul 9, 2021

Recommended for you

Energy trades could help resolve Nile conflict

How to clean up New Delhi's smoggy air

Scientists say voluntary corporate emissions targets not enough to create real climate action

Cocaine is an emerging contaminant of concern in the Bay of Santos (Brazil), says researcher

Managing meandering waterways in a changing world

Let us know if there is a problem with our content.

Use this form if you have come across a typo, inaccuracy or would like to send an edit request for the content on this page. For general inquiries, please use our contact form . For general feedback, use the public comments section below (please adhere to guidelines ).

Please select the most appropriate category to facilitate processing of your request

Thank you for taking time to provide your feedback to the editors.

Your feedback is important to us. However, we do not guarantee individual replies due to the high volume of messages.

E-mail the story

Your email address is used only to let the recipient know who sent the email. Neither your address nor the recipient's address will be used for any other purpose. The information you enter will appear in your e-mail message and is not retained by Phys.org in any form.

Newsletter sign up

Get weekly and/or daily updates delivered to your inbox. You can unsubscribe at any time and we'll never share your details to third parties.

More information Privacy policy

Donate and enjoy an ad-free experience

We keep our content available to everyone. Consider supporting Science X's mission by getting a premium account.

E-mail newsletter

Space tourism explained: What, why and where

Disclaimer: Some posts on Tourism Teacher may contain affiliate links. If you appreciate this content, you can show your support by making a purchase through these links or by buying me a coffee . Thank you for your support!

Space tourism is an exciting development in the travel and tourism industry. A futuristic type of tourism , the prospect of being able to spend leisure time in space is a daunting concept for many. But whilst some of us may have expected only have to be able to experience space tourism using virtual reality software, several companies are turning holidays in space into a reality.

What is space tourism?

Space tourism definitions, history of space tourism, rocket launches, space museums, space tourism holidays, virgin galactic, blue origin, is space tourism safe, the cost of space tourism holidays, space tourism: conclusion, further reading.

Space tourism is a type of tourism that involves an interest in space. Whilst most people associate space tourism solely with trips to space, the concept of space tourism is, in fact, broader than this.

Space tourism can include visiting space-focussed museums, watching rocket launches or travelling to destinations popular for stargazing, amongst other space-related activities.

Most recently, there has been a lot of commercial attention centred around the concept of travelling to space as a tourist; this is something that several companies are working to achieve in the near future, including Virgin Galactic and SpaceX.

If you Google the phrase ‘what is space tourism’ you will quickly be informed by Google, Wikipedia and a range of other sources that it is travelling to space for leisure or business purposes.

I, however, contest that space tourism is solely focussed upon the act of travelling to space. There is so much more to space tourism than this! Yes, this is an exciting prospect that has grabbed the attention of the media and the public, but hold on a minute…. what about all the other space-related activities that we can do without boarding a rocket and leaving the solar system?

The people over at The Space Tourism Guide have the right idea. They state that;

‘Space Tourism is not — and should not be — confined to space alone… While we can and should consider all of the activities from space tourism companies like Virgin Galactic, Blue Origin, Zero2Infinity, and others space tourism, we should not discredit the companies and destinations here on earth who meet the needs and desires for all of us who love to travel for space-related activities. These can vary widely, from cities and museums like Space Center Houston to hotels with space-themed rooms.’

Space tourism is so much more than taking a trip to space! In fact, I argue that space tourism should encompass all activities related to space and astrology!

To date, there is little academic research into space tourism. Yes, some people have looked into astrology and the like, but on the whole, there is a dearth of information. Most research that has been conducted has focussed on looking at potential demand and market demographics.

In light of the misleading definitions that you will find when asking your favourite search engine what is meant by the term space tourism, I have provided my own definition below.

‘Space tourism is the act of taking part in activities that involve or are related to space, either for business or leisure purposes.’

So there you have it- a definition of space tourism.

There are a total of 600 people that have been to space. The first man visited space in 1961, but it was actually long before this day that many people developed an interest in space. In fact, people have been star gazing as long as records go back. Heck, even the ancient pyramids of Egypt were built around the stars .

So, the concept of space tourism is not new.

The 1950s, 60s, 70s and 80s saw huge progress in space research. The Soviet Union and The United States were world leaders in this area; undertaking many trips to space, exploring our solar system, nearby planets and moons. Space travel became more affordable and we learnt a lot during this time.

It was only at the turn of the new millennium that commercial space tourism ,whereby a tourist could travel to space, started to become a reality. A handful of wealthy citizens from around the world embarked on their leisure outings to space between 2001-2009. Observing this demand, a number of space tourism operators began to emerge, namely Blue Origin, Virgin Galactic and Rocket Lab. Said companies have since become household names.

In recent years the commercial hype and excitement towards space tourism has died down. The public continue to eagerly await the days that they may be able to exchange their all-inclusive holiday in Benidorm for a week of zero-gravity in space, but for most, this is an unrealistic and unachievable prospect.

For now, it appears that travelling into space will be available only for the super-rich, and we do not yet know when this might be attainable. BUT the space tourism industry in all its other forms (museums, star gazing, rocket launches etc) remains to be obtainable to all.

Types of space tourism

We might not realistically be able to travel into space for our annual leave days just yet, but there are still ways that we can get involved with the space tourism industry. Here are some examples.

Stargazing is a popular space tourism pastime for many. There are many parts of the world that are renowned for their stargazing potential. These are usually remote areas, where the light pollution is reduced, enabling maximum visibility.

Some popular stargazing destinations have capitalised on the tourist market by organising stargazing tours or stargazing-focussed accommodation options, such as bubble hotels. This CNN article shows you some of the best bubble hotel spots around the world. Many people use this opportunity to visit the Northern Lights or the Southern Lights too.

Lots of these destinations are perfect for practicing your astrophotography too!

Whilst a rocket launch may not be an everyday occurrence, it is possible to spectate when they do happen. Once operated only by Governments, there are now a range of private companies that undertake rocket launches.

If you travel to a destination with the sole intention of watching a rocket launch, or if you watch a rocket launch alongside other business or leisure pursuits, you can be classified as a space tourist.

A prominent part of the space tourism industry are space museums.

There are many museums throughout the world that are focussed around the concept of space, although these are most numerous in the United States and Russia. Here are some of the most highly-rated space museums.

• Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum, Washington DC, US
• Canada Aviation and Space Museum, Ottawa, Canada
• Memorial Museum of Cosmonautics, Moscow, Russia
• Pima Air and Space Museum, Arizona , US
• Intrepid Sea, Air and Space Museum, New York City, US
• Le Bourget Air and Space Museum, Paris, France
• Kennedy Space Center, Florida , US
• Cité de l’espace, Toulouse, France

As I mentioned earlier, space tourism holidays are what many people think space tourism is all about. Whilst there are other activities that constitute space tourism, space tourism holidays have gained a lot of media attention in recent years, and rightly so. Who wouldn’t pick up the paper and read an article that tells them that they can swap their two weeks in the sun for two weeks in space?

OK, so it isn’t quite so simple. It will require some adjustment to spending time at zero gravity, you might get a little travel sick and you might not return home with quite the same tan lines, BUT space tourism holidays are set to become a reality.

There are a number of companies who have been developing their space tourism products for a number of years, although exactly when we can go on our next space tourism holiday, is yet to be determined.

Space tourism companies

There are several key players in the space tourism holiday market. See below for a brief summary of each.

Virgin Galactic is perhaps one of the best known space tourism holiday companies. It is part of the wider Virgin Group and therefore has the benefit of an already well-established brand and reputation. It is owned by Richard Branson.

The company plans to send range of tourists to space and already has an extensive waitlist for eager space travellers, including the likes of Brad Pitt, Angelina Jolie, Leonardo DiCaprio, Ashton Kutcher and Justin Bieber.

Virgin Galactic has, however, had some negative publicity in recent times, with multiple delays and the in-flight loss of its VSS Enterprise spaceplane in 2014.

Unlike Virgin Galactic, SpaceX are an experienced rocket launching company that are now extending their operations to the commercial space tourism holiday market.

SpaceX was founded by Elon Musk. Their first holiday was initially scheduled for 2018, but has since been delayed.

Blue Origin plans to offer similar space tourism holidays to that offered by Virgin Galactic. With a traditional, vertical take-off rocket, the company plans to begin operations soon, although there is not firm date set yet.

Blue Origin was founded in 2000 by Mr Bezos.

Orion Span plans to send tourists to space to stay in their ‘space hotel’. The space hotel would accommodate up to six tourists at a time and would be positioned the private commercial space station, Aurora Space Station.

The CEO of Orion Span is Frank Bunger who states that the company’s ‘goal is to make space accessible to all’. They plan to begin operations in 2021.

Better known for their aircraft that do not leave the hemisphere, Boeing have also branched out into the space tourism holiday market.

Boeing’s involvement emerged from their working arrangement with NASA, whereby they have been working on the Commercial Crew Development programme, aimed at increasing involvement from private sector companies in the production of crew vehicles to be launched into orbit.

Boeing have developed a crew capsule, called the Boeing CST-100 Starliner, providing them with the opportunity to sell seats to space tourists.

There have been some concerns over the safety of space tourism, particularly after the negative publicity surrounding the Virgin Galactic loss of aircraft in 2014.

Because it’s so early in development of the space tourism industry and the FAA can’t control how companies design and manufacture their aircraft , it’s hard to say how safe space tourism holidays will be.

There have been many critiques, however, who have suggested that there will be deaths amongst tourists who seek to holiday in space. The number of accidents that have occurred during the testing phases hasn’t done much to people’s minds at ease, either.

Space tourism holidays are for everyday folk, at least not yet anyway, because you need to have a hefty sum of money in your pocket to be able to afford the ticket.

Prices start from US$250,000 and range up to tens of millions of Dollars. Whilst each space tourism holiday company will differ slightly, prices will typically include pre-departure training and equipment. For now, space tourism trips are set to be short in duration, lasting only a few hours. The intention is, however, that trips can be extended in the future to allow for prolonged stays in space.

As you can see, the space tourism industry is a prominent part of the wider tourism industry. Whilst most attention typically goes to the exciting prospect of space tourism holidays, there are also a number of other leisure pursuits that constitute space tourism.

It is likely that we will see many developments in the space tourism industry in the coming years, as research and development continues to be undertaken by a number of commercial operators. Watch this space and maybe you will be the next person to spend your annual leave days in space!

If you want to read up on the space tourism industry a little more then I can recommend the following texts-

• The Market for Space Tourism: Early Indications by Geoffrey Crouch- An overview of the Space Tourism market and its future potential
• Endurance: A Year in Space, A Lifetime of Discovery by Scott Kelly- A diary account of NASA astronaut’s experiences in space.
• Space Tourism by Patrick Stakem- A textbook introducing the concept of space tourism.

Liked this article? Click to share!

Want to be a space tourist? Here are 6 things to consider first

The industry of space tourism could exist in the future. Image:  Unsplash/NASA

.chakra .wef-1c7l3mo{-webkit-transition:all 0.15s ease-out;transition:all 0.15s ease-out;cursor:pointer;-webkit-text-decoration:none;text-decoration:none;outline:none;color:inherit;}.chakra .wef-1c7l3mo:hover,.chakra .wef-1c7l3mo[data-hover]{-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;}.chakra .wef-1c7l3mo:focus,.chakra .wef-1c7l3mo[data-focus]{box-shadow:0 0 0 3px rgba(168,203,251,0.5);} Steven Freeland

.chakra .wef-9dduvl{margin-top:16px;margin-bottom:16px;line-height:1.388;font-size:1.25rem;}@media screen and (min-width:56.5rem){.chakra .wef-9dduvl{font-size:1.125rem;}} Explore and monitor how .chakra .wef-15eoq1r{margin-top:16px;margin-bottom:16px;line-height:1.388;font-size:1.25rem;color:#F7DB5E;}@media screen and (min-width:56.5rem){.chakra .wef-15eoq1r{font-size:1.125rem;}} Space is affecting economies, industries and global issues

.chakra .wef-1nk5u5d{margin-top:16px;margin-bottom:16px;line-height:1.388;color:#2846F8;font-size:1.25rem;}@media screen and (min-width:56.5rem){.chakra .wef-1nk5u5d{font-size:1.125rem;}} Get involved with our crowdsourced digital platform to deliver impact at scale

Stay up to date:.

• In July 2021, entrepreneur Sir Richard Branson and Amazon founder Jeff Bezos went up into space, accompanied by fellow passengers.
• These trips created vast amounts of media coverage and brand recognition for Branson’s Virgin Galactic and Bezos’ Blue Origin.
• This could indicate that a commercial space tourism industry is on the horizon.
• Before space trips become commercially available, important factors such as environmental and safety laws need to be considered.

It’s been a momentous month for space-faring billionaires. On July 11, British entrepreneur Sir Richard Branson’s Unity “rocket-plane” flew him and five fellow passengers about 85 kilometres above Earth. And this week, Amazon founder Jeff Bezos’ New Shepard capsule reached an altitude of 106km , carrying Bezos, his brother, and the oldest and youngest people ever to reach such a height. Passengers on both flights experienced several minutes of weightlessness and took in breathtaking views of our beautiful and fragile Earth.

Both flights created an avalanche of media coverage and brand recognition for Branson’s Virgin Galactic and Bezos’s Blue Origin. There is renewed anticipation of a lucrative commercial space tourism industry that could eventually see thousands of paying passengers journey into space (or not quite into space, depending on your preferred level of pedantry).

This year marks 60 years since Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human in space. Since then, almost 600 trained astronauts have gone into outer space, but very few people have become space tourists.

The first, US engineer Dennis Tito, paid a reported US$20 million to spend six days orbiting Earth in the Russian section of the International Space Station in April 2001, after three months’ training at Russia’s Star City complex. He was followed by a handful of other very wealthy “orbital tourists”, most recently Cirque de Soleil founder Guy Laliberté in 2009, whose ticket reportedly cost US$35 million.

Unlike their predecessors, Branson’s and Bezos’ flights were suborbital – they didn’t reach the velocity needed to orbit Earth. Bezos’s entire flight lasted just over 10 minutes. Suborbital flights are much less technically complex, and in theory cheaper (although one seat on the New Shepard flight was auctioned for US$28 million ).

While they might quibble over billionaire bragging rights, there’s no denying that suborbital “space” flights have the potential to be less eye-wateringly expensive than going into orbital outer space and beyond.

But before you sign up – assuming you’re lucky enough to afford it – here are a few things to consider.

Where does space start, anyway?

Have you read, how many space launches does it take to have a serious climate impact, from space squid to saliva: what's inside nasa's cargo missions and why, the big space clean-up - and why it matters.

Despite assertions to the contrary , there is no legal definition of “outer space”, and thus no official boundary where airspace ends and outer space begins. In the past, the International Aeronautical Federation has looked to the von Karman line , but this does not coincide with the boundary of any of the atmosphere’s scientifically defined layers, and the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space , which deals with such issues, has not yet resolved the question.

Conveniently for Branson, 80km has been proposed by some experts as an appropriate boundary.

Outer space is undeniably influenced by Earthly geopolitics. Essentially, the larger space-faring countries see no need to legally define a boundary that would clearly demarcate the upper limits of their sovereignty.

Will you be an ‘astronaut’?

The 1967 UN Outer Space Treaty designates astronauts as “envoys of (hu)mankind in outer space”. Certainly, that seemed to be the case as the world watched the historic Apollo 11 Moon landing and prayed for a safe return of the stricken Apollo 13 capsule. However, the 1968 UN Rescue Agreement refers to “personnel of a spacecraft”, which may imply not everyone on board should be considered a fully fledged astronaut.

Of course, these legal niceties won’t deter space tourism companies from awarding “astronaut wings” to their passengers.

What laws apply when things go wrong?

The 1986 Challenger and 2003 Columbia shuttle disasters are stark reminders of the dangers of space travel. Human space travel has always involved determining acceptable levels of risk for trained astronauts. But commercial space tourism is different to state-sponsored space programs, and will need the highest possible safety standards.

Commercial space travel will also require a system of responsibility and liability, for cases in which a space tourist suffers injury, loss or damage.

Space tourists (or their families) can’t claim for compensation under the 1972 UN Liability Convention which, in terms of space, applies only to collisions between space objects such as satellites and space debris. While there may be scope to take legal action under national laws, it is likely space tourists will be asked to sign carefully worded waivers of liability.

The same is probably true of international air law , which applies to “aircraft” — a designation space tourism operators will understandably be keen to avoid.

Ultimately, we may need to develop a system of “aerospace law” to govern these suborbital flights as well as “transorbital” transport such as the keenly envisaged flights that might one day take passengers from Sydney to London in just a few hours.

What activities should be allowed in space?

The advent of space tourism will give rise to some interesting ethical questions. Should there be advertising billboards in space? What about casinos, or brothels? On what legal basis should these things be restricted?

How does tourism fit with the underlying philosophy of space law: that the exploration and use of outer space “shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries”?

Will space tourism harm the environment?

Space tourism will inevitably put pressure on Earth’s environment – there are claims that space vehicles may one day become the world’s biggest source of carbon dioxide emissions. We will need to manage space traffic carefully to avoid disastrous collisions and steer clear of space debris .

If tourists go to the Moon, they may cause pollution or damage the heritage of earlier exploration, such as Neil Armstrong’s footprints .

Will tourism workers have to live in space?

If space tourism does become truly widespread, it will need infrastructure and perhaps even staff. People may end up living permanently in space settlements, perhaps having children who will be born as “space citizens”. What legal rights would someone have if they were born at a Moon base? Would they be subject to terrestrial laws, or some version of current international legal rules for outer space?

The World Economic Forum was the first to draw the world’s attention to the Fourth Industrial Revolution, the current period of unprecedented change driven by rapid technological advances. Policies, norms and regulations have not been able to keep up with the pace of innovation, creating a growing need to fill this gap.

The Forum established the Centre for the Fourth Industrial Revolution Network in 2017 to ensure that new and emerging technologies will help—not harm—humanity in the future. Headquartered in San Francisco, the network launched centres in China, India and Japan in 2018 and is rapidly establishing locally-run Affiliate Centres in many countries around the world.

The global network is working closely with partners from government, business, academia and civil society to co-design and pilot agile frameworks for governing new and emerging technologies, including artificial intelligence (AI) , autonomous vehicles , blockchain , data policy , digital trade , drones , internet of things (IoT) , precision medicine and environmental innovations .

Learn more about the groundbreaking work that the Centre for the Fourth Industrial Revolution Network is doing to prepare us for the future.

Want to help us shape the Fourth Industrial Revolution? Contact us to find out how you can become a member or partner.

These are obviously questions for the future. But given the excitement generated by the brief journeys of a couple of wealthy entrepreneurs, we should start contemplating them now. Outer space is the new frontier, but it is not — and must not — be a lawless one.

Don't miss any update on this topic

Create a free account and access your personalized content collection with our latest publications and analyses.

License and Republishing

World Economic Forum articles may be republished in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International Public License, and in accordance with our Terms of Use.

The views expressed in this article are those of the author alone and not the World Economic Forum.

The Agenda .chakra .wef-n7bacu{margin-top:16px;margin-bottom:16px;line-height:1.388;font-weight:400;} Weekly

A weekly update of the most important issues driving the global agenda

OPINION article

Can space tourism boost sustainable behavior.

• Department of Psychological Sciences, Health and Territory, University of Chieti, Chieti, Italy

Introduction

As the golden age of space tourism is becoming a reality, many are wondering about the usefulness of sending people to space for a few minutes. Given the high cost of a spaceflight, pollution-related problems, and the rigid training that private astronauts undergo, it is fundamental to understand and predict whether people can derive benefits from this type of tourism also from a psychological and behavioral point of view. Here we ask whether participating in a spaceflight may shape human behavior in terms of sustainable behavior (e.g., prosocial skills). The question may be perceived as a non-sense. In fact, spatial industries and rockets are far from being an example of sustainability. However, the definition of sustainable behavior appears to offer a different perspective that may add to the psychological value of space tourism per sé at least from a theoretical point of view.

Sustainable Behavior and Positive Emotions

Sustainable behavior can be defined as a series of voluntary actions that result in benefits for the natural environment and for the whole humanity. Prosocial behaviors are an instance of sustainable actions when referring to helping people and doing something for the conservation of their natural environment (e.g., Eisenberg, 1982 ). Sustainable behaviors are based on the assumption that it is important to understand the complexity of the natural environment and to become aware of the consequences resulting from our behaviors as they impact over Earth's integrity.

One of the main characteristics of sustainable behavior is that sustainability and positive emotions are linked conceptually and empirically. In fact, positive emotions are thought to foster subsequent helping behavior and vice versa. For example, there are studies showing that inducing the idea of love by asking to retrieve memory of a love episode, had a significant positive effect on compliance to a request by a passerby who was asked for help (e.g., Lamy et al., 2008 ). When measured via self-reports of intent to help or experimental records of helping behaviors, individuals that engage in sustainable actions frequently report greater level of satisfaction, self-efficacy and, generally speaking, psychological well-being (e.g., Fredrickson and Joiner, 2018 ).

As theorized by Barbara Fredrickson and her colleagues (e.g., Fredrickson and Joiner, 2018 ), the main idea is that positive emotions are associated with greater feelings of self–other overlap. That is, by broadening cognition, positive emotions produce more inclusive social categorization and subsequently produce feelings of oneness, helping behavior toward people and their natural environment.

In this regard, one can wonder whether space tourism may offer a contribution.

For instance, Jeff Bezos' first words after returning to Earth “ I felt unbelievably good …this is the only good planet in the solar system, and we have to take care of it. When you go to space and see how fragile it is you want to take care of it even mor e” seem to testify how positive emotions fuel people's desire to experience conditions of helping behavior and engaging in conservation practices.

However, one can argue that the association between positive emotions and sustainable behavior is not always straightforward and this may be particularly true when referring to an extreme environment such as space. In fact, a space mission is characterized by many physical and psychological stressors such as microgravity, isolation, confinement, sensory and sleep deprivation (e.g., Messerotti Benvenuti et al., 2011 , 2013 ; Spironelli and Angrilli, 2011 ) that may differentially impact on affective responses and on the subsequent engagement in sustainable actions.

Moreover, a study by Ballantyne et al. (2008) found that a visit to a botanic garden, thought to foster positive emotions (e.g., enjoying being in a nature scene, admiring a garden's scenery with family, etc.) coupled with the importance of preserving plants, did not generate a higher level of interest in and commitment to conservation practices compared with other types of visits (e.g., museum, zoo, etc.). This finding indicates that perceiving vulnerability does not necessarily lead to the subsequent adoption of sustainable behaviors.

The rationale being that sustainable actions do not simply rely on the sole exposure to a certain environment, rather it requires the interaction of multiple processes, such as decision making, emotion, motivation, attention, etc. (to cite only few) that can lead individuals to act in different ways. The same scenario, thus, may occur during a space mission: positive emotions may be associated to space tourism but not necessarily in a way that fosters behavioral changes.

The “Perception of the Earth” Effect

One aspect that may strengthen the link between space tourism and sustainable behavior is the focus on Earth's perception as thought to be strictly connected with the occurrence of positive emotions and with subsequent sustainable behaviors (e.g., Suedfeld et al., 2010 ).

Basically, the global vision of the Earth prompts the occurrence of positive emotions. This phenomenon looks like a mood induction procedure where participants are exposed to a series of positively laden pictures or to a funny movie with the aim of increasing their mood on the positive side. The rationale being that when measuring the degree to which people see the “big picture” or focus on smaller details and its relationship with positive emotions, it was found that compared with those in negative or neutral states, people who experience positive emotions tend to focus on global processing (e.g., Fredrickson and Branigan, 2005 ).

This finding may indirectly indicate that perceiving the Earth may alone trigger positive emotions or, to say it better, that global visual processing and the generation of positive emotions are somehow linked. For example, in his diary, cosmonaut Lebedev wrote that the vision of Earth was restful and positive to him and helped him to cope with his 211-day Salyut 7 mission (e.g., Kanas and Manzey, 2008 ). In addition, the type and the number of Earth pictures taken daily by astronauts during their mission on the International Space Station communicate the need of acting for conservation of Earth's beauty.

By studying reports of retired astronauts, researchers concluded that being in space is indeed reported as a massive experience with a long-lasting impact on their psychological well-being (e.g., Kanas and Manzey, 2008 ). In particular, their experience has been described with the following categories: perception of the Earth, perception of Space, new possibilities, appreciating life, personal strength, changes in daily life, relating to others, spiritual change (these categories were also adopted by the so-called Positive Effects of Being in Space or PEBS which assesses the positive attitude toward space). In another study positive changes were measured and compared between a sample of 20 retired male Mir and International Space Station cosmonauts and two groups on Earth who had experienced stressful events (e.g., Suedfeld et al., 2010 ). Cosmonauts' scores resulted particularly high in the field of realization of new possibilities and personal strength. Moreover, those who had spent more than a year in space and those who had flown to both Mir and the ISS were more likely to report a positive change in their appreciation of the others and in their willingness to act to preserve our planet. Critical here are gender differences. In fact, the “tend-and-befriend” strategy (e.g., Taylor et al., 2000 ) mostly used by female compared with male astronauts during space mission has been shown to be oriented toward promoting prosocial behavior to a greater extent (e.g., team cohesion and team care). Indeed, while high competitiveness and poor sharing of personal concerns usually characterize all-male expedition teams, women tend to worry about the crewmates well-being and the decrease in crew cohesion more (e.g., Kanas and Manzey, 2008 ).

It is important to notice that the above-mentioned data come from studies where professional astronauts were involved. Indeed, there are differences among professional astronauts and private astronauts, for instance, in terms of long duration training, motivation, skills, education etc. Consequently, the relationship between Earth perception, positive emotions and sustainable behavior should be taken with caution when referring to private space tourism. Due to the lack of data, we can only assume that the association between Earth perception and positive emotions may be similar to the one reported by professional astronauts (e.g., Kanas and Manzey, 2008 ; Alfano et al., 2018 ), for example, in terms of a more positive view of themselves and the others and of a better sense of the unity of humankind (e.g., Kanas and Manzey, 2008 ). Reports from private astronauts seem to support our assumption, but we need future studies to help unraveling this interaction better.

In closing, we emphasize that the findings reported here coming from behavioral studies on Earth and during space missions with professional astronauts seems to support the idea that space tourism too can generate positive emotions and, in turns, facilitate sustainable and approach behaviors. Of course, motivating people to engage in helping behaviors (e.g., interpersonal trust, providing social support, conservation practices) cannot rely on the sole perception of Earth's fragility. However, space tourism may represent a challenging and interesting new avenue for future research in this domain. Nevertheless, we hope that space tourism can offer the benefits of leading to more sustainable actions, capable of responding to the needs of most rather than those of few. In this way, space tourism may offer unexpected opportunities in terms of action for conservation strategies and aid programs also from a psychological point of view.

Author Contributions

NM developed the concept of the manuscript and the drafting.

This study was funded by the Department of Psychological Sciences, Health and Territory, University of Chieti.

Conflict of Interest

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Alfano, C. A., Bower, J. L., Cowie, J., Lau, S., and Simpson, R. J. (2018). Long-duration space exploration and emotional health: recommendations for conceptualizing and evaluating risk. Acta Astronaut . 142, 289–299. doi: 10.1016/j.actaastro.2017.11.009

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ballantyne, R., Packer, J., and Hughes, K. (2008). Environmental awareness, interests and motives of botanic garden visitors: implications for interpretive practice. Tour. Manage . 29, 439–444. doi: 10.1016/j.tourman.2007.05.006

Eisenberg, N. (1982). The Development of Prosocial Behavior. Elsevier, University of Michigan: Academic Press.

Google Scholar

Fredrickson, B. L., and Branigan, C. (2005). Positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought-action repertoires. Cogn Emot . 19, 313–332. doi: 10.1080/02699930441000238

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Fredrickson, B. L., and Joiner, T. (2018). Reflections on positive emotions and upward spirals. Perspect. Psychol. Sci . 13, 194–199 doi: 10.1177/1745691617692106

Kanas, N. A., and Manzey, D. (2008). Space Psychology and Psychiatry , 2nd Edn. Dordrecht: Space Technology Library, Springer.

Lamy, L., Fischer-Lokou, J., and Guéguen, N. (2008). Semantically induced memories of love. and helping behavior. Psychol. Rep. 102, 418–424. doi: 10.2466/pr0.102.2.418-424

Messerotti Benvenuti, S., Bianchin, M., and Angrilli, A. (2011). Effects of simulated microgravity on brain plasticity: a startle reflex habituation study. Physiol. Behav . 104, 503–506. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.05.019

Messerotti Benvenuti, S., Bianchin, M., and Angrilli, A. (2013). Posture affects emotional responses: a head down bed rest and ERP study. Brain Cogn . 82, 313–318. doi: 10.1016/j.bandc.2013.05.006

Spironelli, C., and Angrilli, A. (2011). Influence of body position on cortical pain-related somatosensory processing: an ERP study. PLoS ONE 6:e24932. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0024932

Suedfeld, P., Legkaia, K., and Brcic, J. (2010). Changes in the hierarchy of value references associated with flying in space. J. Pers. 78, 1411–1435. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00656.x

Taylor, S. E., Klein, L. C., Lewis, B. P., Gruenewald, T. L., Gurung, R. A., and Updegraff, J. A. (2000). Biobehavioral responses to stress in females: tend-and-befriend, not fight-or-flight. Psychol. Rev . 107, 411–429. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.107.3.411

Keywords: space science, sustainable behavior, positive emotions, environment, emotion

Citation: Mammarella N (2021) Can Space Tourism Boost Sustainable Behavior? Front. Psychol. 12:771936. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.771936

Received: 15 September 2021; Accepted: 29 October 2021; Published: 19 November 2021.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2021 Mammarella. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Nicola Mammarella, n.mammarella@unich.it orcid.org/0000-0003-1240-702X

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

dalilaltelmidh.net

Mercredi 6 janvier 2021, writing about space tourism 2 | bac essays | bac writing | anglais | english.

Sujets similaires - Similar topics

0 commentaires, enregistrer un commentaire, top topics - popular posts.

• Bahasa Indonesia
• Bahasa Malaysia

Show all news, opinion, videos and press releases matching →

About Eco-Business

Sustainable development goals.

• Press Releases

International Edition

Is space travel compatible with sustainability?

The commercial space race is on with rich entrepreneurs taking to their rockets to reach for the stars. but the jaunts to space have courted plenty of criticism about space tourism and its carbon footprint..

“ A long time ago, in a galaxy far far away… ”

…a small blue planet grew more and more fascinated by what lay beyond its planetary boundaries. Many of us young Skywalkers (and princess Leia’s) have turned our heads to the sky and dreamed about spaceships, aliens, and traveling at the speed of light.

While the race to colonialise the Moon ended with the Cold War, the exploration (and commercialisation) of space is back on the agenda. With entrepreneurs Jeff Bezos and Richard Branson each spending a few minutes (and a couple billions of dollars) in Earth’s orbit, the commercial space race is on.

But are space travel and sustainability compatible? It’s not like we have a shortage of problems on the Earth to fix. But the wheels of space research are already turning and cannot exactly be stopped at this point. 

What does the data tell us?

Space companies are traditionally defence firms posing an interesting question for sustainability investors who typically screen-out weapons-related businesses. The likes of Lockheed Martin, BAE Systems or Northrop Grumman are leaders not just in weapons manufacturing, but also space technology. However, there is a new breed of space companies on the horizon.

Listed in 2019, Virgin Galactic is the first publicly-traded space tourism company. The company’s Environment score (E in the ESG) is at a mere 32/100*, with low 30s* in Emissions, Environmental Solutions or Environmental Stewardship. This comes as no surprise as the Virgin VSS Unity spaceship runs on a combination of highly polluting fuels. Similarly, one SpaceX launch emits as much as 336 metric tonnes of CO2, enough to drive your car around the world 70 times . Bezos’ Blue Origins uses hydrogen fuel which does not emit carbon — though its production often does .

Conversation on the emissions caused by space travel will inevitably increase, and lead us to differentiate between space exploration (research) and space tourism which provides no tangible benefit to society beyond providing entertainment to the ultra-wealthy.

What can we do?

How does one go about allocating a proportion of their sustainable portfolio to “space”? And what’s would be the motivation given that we may never sit in a rocket ourselves?

One must realise that the topic of space goes beyond rockets. In many cases, space-related research has resulted in life-changing discoveries including satellite technology which today serves a vital function in measuring and tracking the climate crisis. The vital role of space research in society is reflected in space-related ETFs such as ARK’s ARKX or HanETF’s YODA, where we find names such as Nvidia, Tencent or partial allocations into a 3D ETF.

All in all, we haven’t come across financial products that look at space from a sustainability driven perspective with much investor focus still on the military application of space research. So, we will leave it for you to decide whether to support the “Light” or “Dark” side of space innovation … to infinity and beyond.

Arabesque is a global group of financial technology companies offering sustainable investment, advisory, and data services through advanced ESG and AI capabilities.   

Did you find this article useful? Join the EB Circle!

Your support helps keep our journalism independent and our content free for everyone to read. Join our community here.

Related to this story

• carbon footprint
• carbon offsetting
• air pollution
• responsible travel
• 12. Consumption

Most popular

News / Waste Management

Petrochemicals lobby ‘spreading misinformation, false solutions’ as plastic treaty talks begin.

News / Policy & Finance

How microloans exacerbate deforestation in cambodia.

Singapore’s polluter-pays scheme faces further delay amid concern over industry stalling tactics

Opinion / Waste Management

Un plastics treaty: what can we learn from other international environmental agreements.

Philippine government split on joining coalition to cut plastic production: UN treaty participants

How can the world use less plastic and reduce pollution?

Featured events, wasted: earth day 2024 screening, frankfurt, germany, 2nd europe green packaging innovation summit 2024, accelerating sustainability: beyond epr compliance, 2nd philippine esg investors summit, guangzhou, guangdong, 2024 solar pv & energy storage world expo (formerly pv guangzhou 2024).

Transforming Innovation for Sustainability Join the Ecosystem →

Receive the latest news in sustainability, daily or weekly.

Strategic organisations, let us know what you think stand a chance to win us$50 in amazon gift vouchers when you take our readers survey..

• Bac_Lettres
• ENG_Primary
• Prep_School
• Secondary_School
• Italien (Bac)
• Creative Tunisian Student

Unit one : Holidaying and Art shows (writings / Paragraphs) - Bac

Sirine November 26, 2017 1

You might also like

Popular Posts

• A Guide To The Most...

A Guide to the Most Beautiful Green Spaces in Moscow

Home to more parks than any other city in Russia , Moscow offers a cornucopia of choice when it comes to green spaces. From innovative wild urbanism to 18th-century royal estates, here are the best places to escape from the city buzz in Russia’s capital.

Spread over a territory of almost 300 acres, Gorky Park is Moscow’s most popular green space. Opened in 1928, it was designed as ‘a city inside a city’ with its own telegraph, police unit and a doctor’s office. Some 90 years later, Gorky Park offers everything from segway rides to an open-air movie theatre, through to illuminating lectures and fantastic dining spots.

9 Krimsky Val, Moscow, Russia , +7 495 995 00 20

As the name implies, Muzeon is perfect for art lovers. The park plays host to art fairs, exhibitions, music festivals and video performances. But even if you don’t care for art, Muzeon has a lot to offer: from an elegant boardwalk to hip coffee shops to an in-ground fountain, where you can actually cool off in summer.

2 Krimsky Val, Moscow, Russia , +7 985 382 27 32

Hermitage Garden

Opened in 1894, the Hermitage garden is a lovely compact park, nestled between high rise buildings in Moscow center. Home to theaters New Opera, Hermitage and Sphera, the garden is predictably crowded, with theatre-goers along with office workers from the business centres in Tverskaya – all flock here for a green respite.

3 Karetnyy Ryad, Moscow, Russia , +7 495 699 04 32

Sokolniki Park

An open-air cinema, a rope course, amusement park, bike rentals and more – Sokolniki is 1,275 acres of fun. In winter the whole park turns into one of Moscow’s most famous skating rinks. Sokolniki gradually blends into Losiny Ostrov National Park – the world’s third largest forest in a city.

1 Sokol’nicheskiy Val, bld. 1, Moscow, Russia , +7 499 393 92 22

Izmailovsky Park

Moscow’s biggest park, Izmailovsky stretches for almost 3,800 acres. Particularly favored by hikers and cyclists, the forest-like park is a popular family spot, equipped with a ferris wheel, outdoor gyms and all kinds of places to eat.

7 Alleya Bol’shogo Kruga, Moscow, Russia , +7 499 166 61 19

Tsaritsyno Museum-Reserve

Tsaritsyno estate is a perfectly reconstructed specimen of 18th century architecture set amid a lush green forested area. The only park in Moscow that boasts a light and music fountain, Tsaritsyno draws crowds with spectacular night water shows.

1 Dol’skaya Ulitsa, Moscow, Russia , +7 499 725 72 87

Severnoye Tushino Park

Despite a rather remote location, this park is definitely worth a visit. A half-a-century old apple garden, serene views on Khimkinskoye reservoir and a dry-docked submarine housing a Museum of Submarine Navy will definitely make up for the ride from the city centre.

Ulitsa Svobody, Moscow, Russia , +7 495 640 73 55

Kolomenskoye

Kolomenskoye Park is not merely a tranquil green space, but a celebrated museum reserve, where nature and historically significant architecture blend together. Here you can see one of Moscow’s oldest churches Church of the Ascension and a former residence of the Tsar Aleksey Mikhailovich Romanov, the father of Peter the Great. It’s also perfect for romantic walks along the Moskva river.

39 Andropova Ave, Moscow, Russia , +7 499 782 89 17

In this park you’re guaranteed to encounter some ducks, woodpeckers, squirrels, hares and urban wildlife. The park is also famous for its beautiful boardwalk, open-air cinema, ropes course Panda Park, gallery of retro cars and a variety of places to eat.

22/1 Ulitsa Bol’shaya Filevskaya, Moscow, Russia , +7 499 145 45 05

The former estate of the Sheremetev family, Kuskovo is a fascinating piece of 18th-century Russia. Home to 20 unique architectural monuments, it is Moscow’s only historical park with a French formal garden, decorated with green walkways, marble statue and state-of-the art pavilions.

44/2 3-Ya Muzeynaya Ulitsa, Moscow, Russia

Since you are here, we would like to share our vision for the future of travel - and the direction Culture Trip is moving in.

Culture Trip launched in 2011 with a simple yet passionate mission: to inspire people to go beyond their boundaries and experience what makes a place, its people and its culture special and meaningful — and this is still in our DNA today. We are proud that, for more than a decade, millions like you have trusted our award-winning recommendations by people who deeply understand what makes certain places and communities so special.

Increasingly we believe the world needs more meaningful, real-life connections between curious travellers keen to explore the world in a more responsible way. That is why we have intensively curated a collection of premium small-group trips as an invitation to meet and connect with new, like-minded people for once-in-a-lifetime experiences in three categories: Culture Trips, Rail Trips and Private Trips. Our Trips are suitable for both solo travelers, couples and friends who want to explore the world together.

Culture Trips are deeply immersive 5 to 16 days itineraries, that combine authentic local experiences, exciting activities and 4-5* accommodation to look forward to at the end of each day. Our Rail Trips are our most planet-friendly itineraries that invite you to take the scenic route, relax whilst getting under the skin of a destination. Our Private Trips are fully tailored itineraries, curated by our Travel Experts specifically for you, your friends or your family.

We know that many of you worry about the environmental impact of travel and are looking for ways of expanding horizons in ways that do minimal harm - and may even bring benefits. We are committed to go as far as possible in curating our trips with care for the planet. That is why all of our trips are flightless in destination, fully carbon offset - and we have ambitious plans to be net zero in the very near future.

A Guide to Cautionary Russian Proverbs and What They Mean

A Soviet Pilot Went Missing in Afghanistan and Was Found 30 Years Later

Zhenotdel: The Soviet Union's Feminist Movement

The Soviet Union’s Best Heart-Throbs and Pinups

Restaurants

The best halal restaurants in kaliningrad.

Incredible Photos From the Longest Bike Race in the World

See & Do

Russia's most remote holiday destinations.

Unusual Facts About the Soviet Union

Guides & Tips

A 48 hour guide to astrakhan, russia.

Food & Drink

The best halal restaurants in kazan.

Russian Last Names and Their Meanings

The Mystery Behind Russia's Buddhist "Miracle"

Culture trip spring sale, save up to $1,100 on our unique small-group trips limited spots..

• Post ID: 1695896
• Sponsored? No
• View Payload

Mission Moscow : A Conversation with Evgeny Kozlov

Mr. Evgeny Kozlov, Deputy Head Mayor of Moscow Government and Chairman of the Moscow City Tourism Committee, who has come to the city to attain BLTM, the annual prestigious travel event at the Leela Ambience Convention Centre, Delhi spoke with TW Editor Anirban Dasgupta on his vision and goal with the all-new tourism initiatives in Moscow.  

The bond between India and Russia has a long history of culture, literature, love, and of course politics. But recently, there has also been a lot of talk about Gastronomical tourism. Any personal experience with this?

My personal take on the bond between India and Russia stems from my recent experience of trying authentic Indian cuisine in Moscow. I thoroughly enjoyed the spicy flavours of the Curry dish I tried and it left a lasting impression on me. This made me appreciate the cultural exchange between our two countries even more. I believe that Moscow, being a culinary hub, is a great place for people from all over the world, including Indian visitors, to immerse themselves in our rich history and culture. It’s a unique experience that brings people together and showcases the diversity of the gastronomic universe. Moscow has a thriving food scene with various international cuisines to explore, from Chinese to South African and Latin American. This culinary diversity reflects the open-mindedness and curiosity of the Russian people when it comes to trying new types of food. Moscow truly has something for everyone, and I encourage Indian tourists to come and indulge in this gastronomic journey.

  How optimistic are the post-pandemic recovery figures?

After the Covid-19 pandemic, we have witnessed a remarkable recovery in tourism in Moscow. In fact, we have been able to restore 90% of the pre-pandemic tourist flow. In the first half of 2023, almost a million foreign tourists visited Moscow, with over 600,000 of them arriving during the summer season. Among the non-CIS countries, China has led the way in terms of tourist traffic, followed by Iran, the United Arab Emirates, Turkey, and India. Prior to the pandemic, India’s tourist flow was steadily growing at a rate of 12-15% annually. Although we faced challenges during the pandemic, we have now put in place all the necessary conditions for a successful recovery. Moscow is known for hosting numerous international exhibitions, forums, congresses, and conferences, attracting approximately 3.6 million business visitors in the past year alone. Among these visitors, India ranks third in terms of foreign business tourists in Moscow. To further promote tourism, we have initiated the MICE Ambassadors training program in India, which aims to assist Indian businesses in exploring opportunities and selecting relevant events in Moscow.

  Can you please share your vision for future tourism development in Moscow?

Thank you for asking this question. I have a multi-faceted vision for the future tourism development in Moscow.

Firstly, I believe that tourism should provide a personal and authentic experience for each individual. Therefore, customization of experiences is crucial. For business tourists, we aim to offer special infrastructure facilities that cater to their specific needs and requirements. We are closely collaborating with infrastructure providers to ensure seamless experiences for those visiting Moscow for business purposes. On the other hand, when it comes to leisure or family tourists, we recognize the importance of providing a support system and guidelines for those traveling with their families, especially children. We are working with museums, theatres, and restaurants to customize their services and products to cater to tourists of all ages, including children. Furthermore, I envision rearranging tourism in Moscow to encourage visitors to delve into the history and heritage of our country. A significant part of my tourism goal is to motivate and inspire the youth and younger generations to travel to Russia. This involves providing affordable pricing for accommodations, entertainment, museums, and other attractions.

We are already constructing tailor-made infrastructure that specifically targets the young generation in Russia, and by next year, we plan to extend and promote these offerings to international young visitors as well. By rebranding the image of Moscow as a destination for longer stays, relaxation, and enjoying various facilities, we aim to change the perception that it is merely a transit or stop-over city. Lastly, the beautiful weather in Moscow during the summer months provides an opportunity to create delightful memories for tourists. I want every visitor to experience the sunshine, green landscapes, parks, cafes, restaurants, swimming pools, and sports facilities that Moscow has to offer during this time.

In summary, my vision for the future of tourism in Moscow revolves around creating customized travel experiences for every type of traveller.

How do you prioritize sustainability and responsible tourism practices in the development of business tourism?

How easy or difficult is it to get a Visa for an Indian Tourist at present?

Acquiring a Visa for Indian tourists has become easier with the introduction of the e-visa system. Since its launch in August 2023, more than 30,000 tourists have already utilized this system. The e-visa offers several advantages over traditional visas, such as avoiding the need to visit consulates or embassies. The application process only requires a digital photograph and a scan of the passport data page. The e-visa has a validity period of 60 days from the date of issuance, with a maximum stay of 16 days in Russia. This convenient and streamlined process is available to citizens of 55 countries, including India. Indian tourists are currently ranked third in terms of business travellers from outside the CIS countries visiting Moscow.

Author: Anirban

Share article, related news.

BLTM 2023 showcases top destinations for Bleisure and MICE Travel

École Ducasse Abu Dhabi Studio, in partnership with Erth Hospitality, to open this December

No comment be the first one., leave a reply cancel reply.

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

• Bahasa Indonesia
• Slovenščina
• Science & Tech
• Russian Kitchen

Check out Moscow’s NEW electric river trams (PHOTOS)

Water transportation has become another sector for the eco-friendly improvements the Moscow government is implementing. And it means business. On July 15, 2021, on the dock of Moscow’s ‘Zaryadye’ park, mayor Sergey Sobyanin was shown the first model of the upcoming river cruise boat.

The model of the electrical boat with panoramic windows measures 22 meters in length. The river tram - as Muscovites call them - has a passenger capacity of 42, including two disabled seats. The trams will also get cutting edge info panels, USB docking stations, Wi-Fi, spaces for scooters and bicycles, as well as chairs and desks for working on the go. The boats will be available all year round, according to ‘Mosgortrans’, the regional transport agency. 

Passengers will be able to pay with their ‘Troika’ public transport card, credit cards or bank cards. 

The main clientele targeted are people living in Moscow’s river districts - the upcoming trams will shorten their travel time in comparison to buses and other transportation by five times, Mosgortrans stated. 

As the river trams are being rolled out, Moscow docks will also see mini-stations, some of which will also be outfitted with charging docks for speed-charging the boats.  

Moscow is set to announce the start of the tender for construction and supply in September 2021. The first trams are scheduled to launch in June 2022 on two routes - from Kievskaya Station, through Moscow City, into Fili; and from ZIL to Pechatniki. 

“Two full-scale routes will be created in 2022-2023, serviced by 20 river trams and a number of river stations. We’ll continue to develop them further if they prove to be popular with the citizens,” the Moscow mayor said .

If using any of Russia Beyond's content, partly or in full, always provide an active hyperlink to the original material.

to our newsletter!

Get the week's best stories straight to your inbox

• Face it: Moscow Metro to introduce FACIAL payment technology
• What does Moscow smell like?
• Riding Moscow’s train of tomorrow (PHOTOS)

This website uses cookies. Click here to find out more.