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Doo wop group the Pastels formed in 1954. At the time, lead DiFosco "Dee" Erwin, first tenor Richard Travis, second tenor Tony Thomas, and baritone Jimmy Willingham were all stationed at a U.S.…

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Stephen Pastel (The Pastels)

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Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

The eighteenth-century pastel portrait.

François de Jullienne (1722–1754) and Marie Elisabeth de Jullienne (Marie Elisabeth de Séré de Rieux, 1724–1795)

Charles Antoine Coypel

The Head of the Virgin in Three-Quarter View Facing Right

• Leonardo da Vinci

Study of a Boy in a Blue Jacket

Benedetto Luti

Study of a Girl in Red

Gustavus Hamilton (1710–1746), Second Viscount Boyne, in Masquerade Costume

Rosalba Carriera

Préparation for a Portrait of Louis XV (1710-1774)

Maurice Quentin de La Tour

Jean Charles Garnier d'Isle (1697–1755)

Anton Raphael Mengs

Olivier Journu (1724–1783)

Jean-Baptiste Perronneau

Ebenezer Storer II

John Singleton Copley

The Two Sisters

Jean Claude Richard, Abbé de Saint-Non

Portrait of a woman, her head turned to the right, wearing an earring

Joseph Wright (Wright of Derby)

A Shipwreck in a Storm

Jean Pillement

William Man Godschall (1720–1802)

John Russell

Mrs. William Man Godschall (Sarah Godschall, 1730–1795)

Mrs. Robert Shurlock (Henrietta Ann Jane Russell, 1775–1849) and Her Daughter Ann

Francesca Whitlum-Cooper Department of European Paintings, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

September 2010

Pastel differs from natural chalks of different colors which have long been used in drawing ( 51.90 ). It is made by mixing powdered pigments with a binder (usually gum arabic), shaping this mixture into sticks, and leaving it to dry. These crayons or sticks of pigment are very crumbly and their colored powder adheres only loosely to paper, which was often roughened in advance to create a surface for the material to cling to. Works in pastel are thus fragile, as movement can loosen the powder.

Although the earliest works of art to make use of pastel were produced in Renaissance Italy , pastel painting proper dates from the seventeenth century. In the Renaissance, pastel was used sparingly, adding highlight or color to drawings usually executed in natural chalks. Over the course of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, pastel was more widely used; no longer restricted to finishing touches, it was employed more liberally by French artists such as Robert Nanteuil (1623–1678) and over larger areas. By the eighteenth century, color, not line, became dominant as pastels moved aesthetically closer to painting. The status of pastel had long been debated: in 1684, Roger de Piles (1635–1709) described it as a type of painting, though one lacking the vitality of paintings in oil; in 1690, André Félibien (1619–1695) described pastel as a mode of drawing that had the same effect as painting, but which could not be classed as painting. The eighteenth century, however, proved a turning point for pastel, as Joseph Vivien (1657–1734) became the first artist to be received in the French Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture in 1701 as a “painter in pastel.”

Yet for all the monumental scale of Vivien’s lifesize pastel portraits, pastel was still associated with preparatory work. The earliest finished pastels in Italy were made by Benedetto Luti (1666–1724), who painted study heads and portraits in the medium ( 2007.360 ; 2007.361 ). His highly colored works were much admired by and given as gifts to his patrons, though it was predominantly as a dealer and as a painter of oils and frescoes that Luti found his fame. The first artist to be truly internationally renowned for and defined by her pastels was Rosalba Carriera (1673–1757), a Venetian portraitist who, although she corresponded with Luti, was largely self-taught. Her pastels are noted for their radiant palettes, lustrous velvety tones, and miniaturist’s detail ( 2002.22 ); she had begun her career painting portrait miniatures, then considered an appropriate genre for women. Her later portraits were painted solely in pastel, never in oil. They were commissioned and collected by princes and courts across Europe, and particularly by Grand Tourists visiting Venice from Germany, France, and England. Carriera’s pastels, which are larger than Luti’s, were explicitly intended for hung display in close proximity to, and in competition with, conventional oil portraits.

Pastels have always been praised for the freshness of their colors, at once both brilliant and subtle ( 2005.231 ). Although we now recognize their fragility, in the eighteenth century pastels were often thought more durable than oils, as these vibrant colors were less susceptible to damage by light (oils often faded or yellowed with age). Pastel, too, afforded the artist a richer interplay between medium and support than oils did. Pastel paintings were commonly executed on blue paper mounted on canvas, not only because this was the thickest paper available in the eighteenth century, but also because of the chromatic advantages it offered as the pigments of the pastel picked up and interacted with the blue background. Lively pastel studies for finished portraits ( 2005.66 ) were almost unique to Maurice Quentin de La Tour (1704–1788), perhaps the eighteenth century’s most feted pastelist, but they offer an invaluable insight into how such tonal complexity was worked up. Unlike oils, which can be mixed on a palette from nine or ten basic pigments, each tone requires a different stick of pastel, with artists making use of hundreds of crayons.

However, La Tour’s portraits cannot be discussed without acknowledging the oeuvre of Jean-Baptiste Perronneau (1715–1783). It is really these two exceptional figures at mid-century who mark the golden age of pastel portraiture in France, arguably in Europe. La Tour was fortunate to see Carriera’s work during her time in the French capital between 1720 and 1721, and, exclusively a pastellist, is seen as the direct inheritor of her tradition. Perronneau, by contrast, trained in Paris as a portraitist in oil before executing portraits in pastel and, with the older La Tour dominant in court and Salon circles , spent much of his life producing portraits in the provinces. The rivalry between these two masters is often summed up in the challenge La Tour gave Perronneau in 1750: that each should paint a pastel portrait of the other to show at the Salon. While Perronneau really did paint a portrait of La Tour, La Tour produced a self-portrait, making a mockery of his fellow artist. La Tour was unrivalled in painting the textures of fabrics and faces, making much use of his favorite blue ( 2002.439 ); Perronneau was acknowledged a superior colorist, achieving in his pastels the most extraordinary harmonies of color ( 2003.26 ). The highlights visible in the work of both artists mark a formal trend in pastel portraiture that dates from around 1753, when both La Tour and Perronneau began to leave certain colors unblended. These portraits were, it was said, intended to be seen at a distance, so that they looked most lifelike from across a room. The praise awarded to La Tour by Pierre Jean Mariette (1694–1774) in 1745 seems to stand for both artists: their work marks “the triumph of painting in pastel.”

Almost 2,500 artists and amateurs were said to be working in pastel in mid-century Paris; the Abbé de Saint-Non, an amateur who moved in artistic circles, was just one of them ( 1977.383 ). However, this unprecedented craze for pastel portraiture was not restricted to the continent: in England, too, “crayon painting” had captured the public imagination. John Russell (1745–1806) was the most prolific pastelist in eighteenth-century Britain. Having studied under the pastelist Francis Cotes (1726–1770), Russell produced a treatise, Elements of Painting with Crayons , in 1772 and was appointed “Crayon Painter to the Prince of Wales” in 1785. He too was greatly influenced by Carriera’s pastels and owned several works by her. Unlike the visible highlights of La Tour and Perronneau, Russell derived from Carriera a sfumato technique of “sweetening” or stumping his colors: using either his finger or a stump (a rolled-up piece of paper or cloth), he blended his pastels together to obtain a wide range of hues and tones. Amazingly, he appears to have made use of only fourteen pigments, which he blended on steel blue paper prepared with an even deeper blue ground. Although graced with royal patronage and able to command prices as steep as those of Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723–1792), the majority of Russell’s portraits were executed for the wealthy middle classes, often in commemoration of marriage or children ( 61.182.1 ; 61.182.2 ; 67.132 ).

A survey of the greatest eighteenth-century pastelists risks ignoring those artists for whom pastel was not a primary medium, as well as those who put it to less conventional use. In England, Joseph Wright of Derby (1734–1797) is one such example ( 2007.40 ); in France, there is Jean Pillement (1728–1808), highly unusual in producing decorative paintings and landscapes in pastel ( 56.7 ). Such a survey must also acknowledge those practitioners on the extreme periphery of the European art world. John Singleton Copley (1738–1815) was raised in Boston with no artistic training beyond that gleaned from study prints, instruction manuals, and his engraver stepfather. His first pastels were produced never having seen another work in the medium; they attest to the far-flung celebrity and particular appeal of pastel painting in the eighteenth century.

Whitlum-Cooper, Francesca. “The Eighteenth-Century Pastel Portrait.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/papo/hd_papo.htm (September 2010)

Further Reading

Burns, Thea. The Invention of Pastel Painting . London: Archetype, 2007.

Jeffares, Neil. Dictionary of Pastellists before 1800 . London: Unicorn Press, 2006.

Shelley, Marjorie. "Pastelists at Work: Two Portraits at the Metropolitan Museum by Maurice Quentin de La Tour and Jean Baptiste Perronneau." Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 40 (2005), pp. 105–19.

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Artist or Maker

• Carriera, Rosalba
• Copley, John Singleton
• Coypel, Charles Antoine
• La Tour, Maurice Quentin de
• Luti, Benedetto
• Mengs, Anton Raphael
• Perronneau, Jean-Baptiste
• Pillement, Jean
• Reynolds, Joshua
• Richard, Jean Claude
• Russell, John
• Wright, Joseph

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Pastels & pastellists

Neil Jeffares

Dictionary of pastellists before 1800

The Dictionary of pastellists before 1800 by Neil Jeffares is an art reference work on pastels by artists of all schools working during the eighteenth century or before. The print edition was awarded the Besterman/McColvin medal for the outstanding reference book published in the UK in 2006.

Pastels are "luminous and beautiful beyond all other pictures", wrote the English eighteenth century pastellist Francis Cotes, describing the sensual appeal of this special dust rubbed into paper which has enchanted connoisseurs ever since. But the history of pastels is one of compounded mistakes and misattributions: these intimate portraits, whose subjects range from dynasts to servants, have been neglected for the better researched areas of old master drawings and oil painting.

According to the critic La Font de Saint-Yenne (1747), « Le nombre des Peintres en Pastel est infini ». The task of reassembling their work is inevitably incomplete; but the ambition of the Dictionary is to establish a convincing body of knowledge to help identify and attribute works by major artists and obscure petits-maîtres, as well as by numerous amateurs, some noble and even royal, and a large number of female artists for whom the practical advantages of pastel made this the medium of choice. The Dictionary is an essential academic resource for art historians, a vital tool for collectors and dealers, and a treasure-trove for anyone interested in costume or social and political history.

Pastels from the French school account for more than half the Dictionary , representing most of the more important artists such as Vivien, Nattier, La Tour, Perronneau, Labille-Guiard and Vigée Le Brun. But there were other major pastellists, such as Copley, Russell, Mengs, Carriera and Liotard from the American, English, German, Italian and Swiss schools, as well as a host of minor portraitists, many of whom travelled extensively. The extent of the mutual influences between these schools can only be understood with the Dictionary ’s integrated global coverage.

Online edition – Pastels & pastellists

Since 2008 this website has made available an online version of the Dictionary , regularly updated to include the latest available information. In October 2010 the site was renamed Pastels & pastellists (with url unchanged) in recognition of the amount of new material and the way in which it is presented. These additions are detailed below, and include information that would not be appropriate in a dictionary of artists. There is a film on Youtube explaining how to use the main features of the online version. The information contained on this site (which will continue to develop) is intended to constitute a complete prosopography of those involved in the art of pastel.

The core data remains the collection of articles about individual pastellists, with full lists of their known pastels. The structure of this part of the online version reflects as closely as possible that of the print version, using pages with the same layout, and employing the same conventions, abbreviations (designed to be intelligible to users of different languages) and system of attributions. These, and some recent enhancements to the attributional qualifications and symbols, are set out in ABBREVIATIONS .

The Dictionary uses a double-decimal numbering system as a unique digital object identifier for every pastel, taking the form J.123.4567 ; the first component refers to the artist in the alphabetical sequence of articles, the second to the sequence of entries within that article. As decimals, they are sequential but not consecutive; the number of digits is not significant, so that, for example, J.123.46 follows J.123.455 and precedes J.13.101. To locate a specific pastel by its J-number, use the search box on the home page to locate the relevant pdf (a Google search for the J number within quotes will usually also be effective; you can add "site:pastellists.com" if too many results appear); once the artist article pdf is open you can just scroll to the specific entry in decimal sequence, or search for the number within the pdf (see below for how to do this more easily).

The symbol φ following an entry means that a photograph has been seen, while Φ means that the work is reproduced in the 2006 edition of the Dictionary . Please note that the photograph follows the relevant entry, which begins with the J. number ; there are no captions in the work. The resolution in the on-line articles permits some enlargement of images on screen (Ctrl + plus). A number of high resolution images are available by clicking on larger image hyperlinks immediately underneath the low resolution thumbnail in the text (you may be asked to permit a new browser to open to enable the image to be displayed). Some further, much higher resolution images have also been added, viewable in a popup window using the Zoomify image streaming technology: these are also accessed by hyperlinks under the image in the pdf files: for example, Zoomify .

The articles on each artist are in Adobe PDF format (and require Acrobat Reader, which should be enabled to open within your browser). To view each article, go to the list of artists and click on the hyperlink. File sizes vary according to the extent of the artist's œuvre; links to larger files are indicated in bold type. Currently there are approximately 3000 articles (a number of these relate to artists whose work falls outside the narrow definition of pastel adopted in the print edition and who were omitted for reasons of space; see Demographics for a breakdown). These files include (as at May 2023) records of approximately 40,000 pastels, of which roughly half are known at least from photographs. To give an idea of the expansion of the Dictionary , the 2006 print edition included nearly 600 pages of artist articles (including anonymous articles); laid out continuously in the same format, the articles online in 2016 would occupy some 2150 pages. Note that while the length of the worklist is an indicator of the significance of the pastellist, the length of the introductory essay may not be: for example important artists who occasionally worked in pastel may receive brief treatment, with the reader encouraged to explore the bibliography for further information, while some more obscure figures are given exhaustive coverage where original research is presented.

The print edition included the following appendices of which updated versions are online:

Abbreviations , including an explanation of the symbols and numbering system

The bibliography , including full details of some 3000 publications referred to by author and date

The list of exhibitions , referred to by town and date; those before 1800 (approximately 250) are accompanied by extracts from contemporary criticism referring to pastels; bibliographic details of a further 1200 exhibitions since 1800 are also included

The index of sitters , comprising over 14,000 entries

A topographical index of some 1000 museums and other permanent collections

In 2015 three major additions were made to the site. Treatises reprints a large number of sources releating to the techniques of pastel from before 1800. The Florilegium includes a range of less technical literary and general texts relating to pastel. The Prolegomena provide an overall guide to the information on this site.

Pastels & pastellists includes a number of additional reference aids:

The iconographical genealogies (covering over 1400 families), which may be helpful in identitifying subjects as well as in understanding the processes of commissioning and patronage

A biographical index of approximately 1300 collectors which provides useful information about the evolution of taste

An index of some 450 engravers of pastels

An index of suppliers , including approximately 500 inventors, manufacturers, vendors and authors involved with the technical development of pastel, as well as some later copyists of 18th century pastels

An iconographical index of non-portrait subjects which help locate the small minority of pastels with mythological, religious, genre, landscape, or still life themes

An summary table showing the activity of the 300 most prolific pastellists (a Word document, which may be downloaded and sorted by various criteria)

A topographical index of pastellists' activity showing the towns where pastellists in the Dictionary have been recorded, including permanent locations as well as temporary visits

A discussion of the conservation of pastels , with information on their construction and the risks faced in display, storage and transport; practical tips on photography are also offered.

There are unavoidable overlaps between the indexes of collectors, suppliers etc., as many were concerned with pastel in various ways; cross-references are provided where necessary, but the search facility should be used. Short references to pastels owned etc. are not intended to be complete descriptions which will be found only in the main Dictionary entries.

Supplementary material

Conservation considerations mean that it is very difficult to mount loan exhibitions of pastels. However in 2011 the Metropolitan Museum of Art mounted an important exhibition of European pastel portraits with an excellent, fully illustrated catalogue. (To find the exhibits, search "New York 2011" above.) The exhibition was necessarily smaller than the celebrated Exposition de cent pastels which took place in Paris in 1908 or the Exposition de pastels français of 1927. The illustrated livrets provide an opportunity to conduct virtual visits to these older exhibitions:

Exposition de cent pastels (Paris 1908a)

Exposition de pastels français des XVII e et XVIII e siècles (Paris 1927a)

The panorama offers a personal selection of some seventy masterpieces in pastel drawn from public and private collections, set out to illustrate the historical development of the medium across various schools. An informal selection of images of pastels that have recently appeared may be found on the diaporama on the author's Twitter pages.

In relation to these virtual exhibitions and a number of other important pastels, a series of essays are being made available on this site.

Only a small number of pastels were dated by the pastellist. Many artists never signed or dated their work, including prolific pastellists such as La Tour and Hoare, while others, for example Cotes and Russell, signed and dated a high proportion of their pastels. It is possible to infer exact dates for some other pastels (although exhibition dates alone can be misleading). The development of individual artists' styles is often too uncertain to be a reliable basis for organising the main articles in the Dictionary . Chronological tables of specific artists' dated pastels can be found from chronology hyperlinks in the artists' index. Summary lists of dated pastels organised by year across all schools and artists can be particularly helpful in attributing anonymous pastels, as well as being of interest to costume historians. They can be accessed below (large pdf files):

Chronology 1627–1724 1725–49 1750–59 1760–69 1770–79 1780–89 1790–99 1800–20

Full details for each pastel will be found in the main entry for the relevant artist (the sitter's name or date for unidentified subjects suffices to locate each work).

The numerous materials on the site concerning Maurice-Quentin de La Tour are linked in this page , constituting a virtual catalogue raisonné. The 2022 edition of this monograph on La Tour (a compilation of individual fascicles as at August 2022, assembled into a single, 175MB, pdf; published as an online eBook by Anagallis Books (ISBN: 978-1-9163466-0-4)) may be downloaded from this link . Updates will continue to be made to the online fascicles, but the single document may be found more convenient for citation purposes, as page numbers in the 2022 edition will not change: "Neil Jeffares, Maurice-Quentin de La Tour , 2022 ed., published online, p. x ".

Besnard & Wildenstein's 1928 monograph on La Tour remains an important resource. A concordance to their numbers may be accessed under the link B&W Concordance . A concordance to La Tour pastels and related items in Saint-Quentin with LT numbers may be accessed under the link LT Concordance . A concordance to pastels in the Louvre and on external deposit may be accessed under the link Louvre Concordance .

Further pages will be added to the site from time to time.

Search Pastels & pastellists

The whole site, including the online edition of the Dictionary , can now be searched using the box above or by going to the Search page. Structured text searches can be used to locate specific works, e.g. those sold at auction on a particular date or included in an exhibition; they can also be used in place of a concordance for standard catalogues raisonnés, for example, by searching R&L n , L&R n , B&W n etc. J. numbers may also be searched in this way, and should also enable pastels to be located within the Dictionary using standard internet search engines. Note that results occurring in pdf files normally appear in a two-stage process, with snippets allowing the selection of the pdf files, which when opened present a further list of specific occurrences. You can simplify this process using settings on your browser to open the pdf in a new browser tab rather than as a pdf. For example, in Firefox, go to Settings, type "pdf" in the search bar, and select "Open in Firefox" as the associated action (instead of "Use Windows default application" which is likely to have been selected.

Reviews of the print edition

"Perfection and utter comprehensiveness can never be fully realized, but Neil Jeffares has come about as close as humanly possible. His care and diligence shine through this work and do real honor to the artists he memorializes. Any research library should seriously consider acquiring this title; there is no other like it, nor is there likely to be for a very long time." - Jeffrey Weidman, Art Libraries Journal (vol. 32/1, 2007)

"…essential for any scholar interested in pastel painting and ancien régime portraiture of the noble, ecclesiastical, political and cultural elites. It also makes a profoundly important contribution to the history of portraiture as a whole." - Robert Oresko, The Art Newspaper (February 2007)

"…sure to become a standard work." - Antje Matthews, British Journal for Eighteenth Century Studies (vol. 30/1, 2007)

"…will remain the only undertaking of its kind for the foreseeable future…." - Rena Hoisington, The Burlington Magazine (May 2007)

"No one interested in the history of portraiture can afford not to have this comprehensive and admirably indexed production." - Francis Russell, Country Life (8 June 2006)

"…the first truly international survey of the genre…exponentially increases the number of pastel images included in earlier publications…an encyclopedic treatment…. Jeffares has produced a beautiful and functional publication whose value will not diminish over time." - Heidi Strobel, Eighteenth-Century Studies (vol. 40/2, 2007)

"This Dictionary ...is a formidable achievement and constitutes a landmark in the subject. Such a publication was much needed and fortunately, in so far as the sustained and dedicated scholarship demonstrated by the author is matched by the highest standards of book production brought to the project by Unicorn Press, the result is a triumph in more ways than one." - Christopher Lloyd, Historic House (Winter 2006)

« …un événement de toute première importance…. Il constitue une base documentaire irremplaçable.  » - Lugar do Olhar Feliz

"…monumental, beautifully produced and illustrated…an indispensable research tool, which will revolutionize scholarship in the field." - Robert Snell, Times Literary Supplement (23 June 2006)

« Le dictionnaire des pastellistes est…une somme comme on en voit peu, un ouvrage absolument indispensable, pour les historiens d'art comme pour les marchands et les collectionneurs. Pour paraphraser Pierre Rosenberg, auteur de la préface, il faudra parler désormais du Jeffares , comme on dit le Thieme-Becker, le Bellier-Auvray ou le Lugt... » - Didier Rykner, La Tribune de l'Art (20 septembre 2006)

"… Neil Jeffares...tells us where attributions may be doubted and sitters are uncertain, and we trust him." - Norbert Lynton, The Art Book (vol. 14/4, 2007)

It is recommended that citations of the artist articles in this online edition are given following the form (replacing the artist's and file names in [ ] with that of the relevant article): Neil Jeffares, "[name of artist]", Dictionary of pastellists before 1800 , London, 2006; online edition [http://www.pastellists.com/articles/[filename].pdf], accessed/update dd-mm-yyyy. The date of the latest update may be found in the footer of each pdf page. URLs for artist articles may be found on the Artist Index page, by right-clicking on the link and selecting "Copy link location". Essays and other material posted on the site should be cited as Neil Jeffares, "[title of essay]", Pastels & pastellists website [http://www.pastellists.com/Essays/[filename].pdf], accessed/update dd-mm-yyyy.

References to reproductions in the print edition may be given as: Neil Jeffares, Dictionary of pastellists before 1800 , London, 2006, p. 123, col. A , photo ii (or abbreviated to p. 123 A ii). References should not be given to images in the online edition in this form, as the page locations of individual images are not invariant; instead the J. number should be cited as a digital object identifier.

Since 31 March 2011 the site has been permanently archived on the British Library's UK Web Archive , which includes regular snapshots of the site from which earlier versions may be consulted online [NB the site is currently suspended after a cyber attack]. Additionally since 16 February 2024 the site has been archived by the New York Art Resources Consortium, with snapshots accessible here . The release date which appears in the footer of the pdf should be checked before citing.

Acknowledgements, amendments, errors and omissions

As H. W. Fowler noted in 1929, "A dictionary-maker, unless he is a monster of omniscience, must deal with a great many matters of which he has no first-hand knowledge." Or, as Diderot put it in the Encyclopédie (XII, p. 680, s.v. Plagiaire), "Les Lexicographes, au moins ceux qui traitent des arts & des sciences, paroissent devoir être exemts des lois communes du mien & du tien . Ils ne prétendent ni bâtir sur leur propre fonds, ni en tirer les matériaux nécessaires à la construction de leur ouvrage. En effet le caractere d'un bon dictionnaire tel que nous souhaiterions de rendre celui-ci, consiste en grande partie à faire usage des meilleurs découvertes d'autrui: ce que nous empruntons des autres nous l'empruntons ouvertement, au grand jour, & citant les sources où nous avons puisé." This Dictionary is however far more than a simple compilation, and presents original research intermingled with previously known facts. Published sources are acknowledged in the article bibliographies and literature entries (and in more detail in footnotes in the essays). To the lengthy list of individuals who contributed unpublished information to the print edition of the Dictionary (listed in the Foreword) might be added hundreds more to whom I am grateful. Data protection rules as well as space constraints and functionality mean that it is impracticable in the Dictionary to set out all these private communications or other information or views that are relevant to attributions or identifications.

The database of images and other information relating to pastels executed before 1800 is kept current, and details of any errors or omissions from the Dictionary will be welcomed.

The author is happy to provide further information or to give his views on any pastel before 1800 (without charge but subject to the note below) on an informal basis. Please state if you are the owner or are contemplating purchase, and please give me all the information you already have (e.g. date of sale, provenance, inscriptions, dimensions etc.). One high resolution image of the whole pastel is better than dozens of low resolution snaps, but please also include an image of the frame and of the back. All information received from private collectors will be treated in confidence. Any images supplied may be used in future editions (whether in print or electronic form) unless specifically restricted. To contact the author please e-mail [email protected]

Print edition

Published 30 April 2006 Now out of print

Introduction: Pierre Rosenberg , de l'Académie française

Hardback, 304x220x50 mm, 3.1 kg, 758 pages, 5000 reproductions (2000 in colour)

ISBN: 978 0 906290 86 6

Published by Unicorn Press

La Jeune Dame en robe bleue , the cover image, is a portrait of an unknown sitter by Adélaïde Labille-Guiard (1749–1803), pastel on paper, 622x510 mm, signed and dated 1780 (private collection).

Pastels & pastellists is a non-profit-making, scholarly site. All material on the site or on any related document, communication (including without limitation any oral statement, Tweet or similar message made by the author or any report in an auction catalogue referring to the author's views or research) etc. is subject to the notice printed on page 4 of the Dictionary ; in particular, note that any attribution or other statement is a personal and subjective opinion only, in many cases has been made without inspecting the work directly, is not intended to be relied upon as a definitive classification (such as might be considered the function of a catalogue raisonné or a formal expertise ), and no liability can be accepted to any party. No such communication should be confused with a certificate of authenticity of any kind, which the author never issues. Any intending purchaser should make independent enquiry. All rights are reserved. The author asserts his moral rights. The site seeks to respect private collectors' need for confidentiality. It has not been possible to trace all copyright holders; if you believe an image appears on the site without your permission, please contact us to have the image removed or to provide any desired consent wording (bearing in mind the use of the images). This page was last modified on 7.iii.2024.

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Join us on an unforgettable tour to Moscow, the capital of Russia. Imagine visiting Red Square, St. Basil’s the Kremlin and more. Moscow is one of Europe’s most vibrant cities and one of Russia’s most historical. All of our tours to Moscow are fully customizable and can be adjusted to fit any budget. Our most popular tours are listed below. Please click on the tour details to learn more or contact us for more information about our Moscow tours using the form at the side of the page. You can also schedule a call with one of our Russian travel specialists to learn more.

Classic Moscow

This is our most popular Moscow tour that includes all the most prominent sights. You will become acquainted with ancient Russia in the Kremlin, admire Russian art in the Tretyakov Gallery, listen to street musicians as you stroll along the Old Arbat street, and learn about Soviet times on the Moscow Metro tour.

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A Week in Moscow

This tour is a perfect choice for those who wish to get to know Moscow in depth. One of the highlights of this package is the KGB history tour which gives an interesting perspective on the Cold War. You will also have time for exploring the city on your own or doing extra sightseeing.

Weekend in Moscow

This tour is a great way to get acquainted with the capital of Russia if you are short of time. You will see all the main attractions of the city, the most important of which is the Kremlin - the heart of Russia. The tour starts on Friday and can be combined with a business trip.

Group Tour Moscow Break by Intourist

Russia's capital has so much to offer, from the Kremlin and the Metro to the Old Arbat street and the Tretyakov Gallery. Besides these sites, you will also visit a fascinating country estate which today is quite off the beaten path, Gorky Estate, where the Soviet leader Lenin spent the last months of his life.

Kolomenskoye Tour with transport

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You will be told of the street’s interesting history and view the street’s artisan culture. You will also have the opportunity to view and purchase souvenirs from the...

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Considered by some to be the Russian Vatican, Sergiev Posad is the temporary residence of the Patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church. The Trinity St. Sergius Monastery (Lavra)...

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Tour to Tsaritsyno with transport

The Tsaritsyno Estate is located in the southern part of Moscow. The estate was constructed for Catherine the Great by the Russian architects Bazhenov and Kazakov in a romantic...

Moscow Metro and Old Arbat Tour

The Moscow Metro is one of the largest and most grandly built metro systems in the world. It was meant to be a showcase of the Soviet Union’s achievements for both the Russians...

Vodka Museum Tour with transport (excursion and vodka tasting)

Vodka is an important component of Russian life, an element of national identity and everyday culture. We invite you to visit the Vodka Museum and feel the atmosphere of long-gone...

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The State Museum of Lev Tolstoy Tour

Take this opportunity to learn more about the Russian writer Lev Tolstoy. During the visit to the museum you will see part of a vast collection of exhibits connected to Tolstoy...

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Panoramic City Tour. This Moscow tour is a great start to your trip and the best way to get acquainted with many of the city’s major highlights. Our professional guide will...

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This is a very interesting and insightful tour. You will visit places connected with Stalin’s terror - a time of great repression and fear. You will be shown monuments to...

Soviet and Post-Soviet Moscow Tour

The tour begins with a drive or walk down Tverskaya Street – a Soviet masterpiece. In the years of Soviet power, Tverskaya began to undergo a transformation: it was widened...

Tretyakov State Gallery Tour

This world-famous gallery contains masterpieces of Russian art beginning in the 10th century up until today. You will view exquisite Russian icons and paintings from the 18th and...

Jewish Heritage of Moscow Tour

This tour offers a detailed look into the history and present-day life of the Jewish community of Moscow. On the tour, you will visit sites connected with the cultural and religious...

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Lena, our guide in Moscow was excellent. She was very knowledgable and could answer any question we had for her. We liked that she could pick up on our interests and take us places we might not have thought of to go. When we realized that one of the places we had chosen to see would probably not be that interesting to us, she was able to arrange entry to the Diamond Fund and the Armoury for us. Riding the Metro with Lena was a real adventure and a lot of fun. In Saint Petersburg we found Anna well versed in the history of the Tsars and in the Hermitage collection. Arkady in Veliky Novgorod was a very good guide and answered all of our questions with ease. Novgorod was perhaps a long way to go for a day trip, but we did enjoy it. Vasily was a great driver to have and kept us safe with good humour and skill. We enjoyed ourselves so much, my daughter says she is already planning to return. We would both have no hesistation to recommend ExpresstoRussia to anyone we know.

Just wanted to let you know that My grandson Bruno and I couldn´t have been more pleased with our week in Moscow (6/15 - 6/21). We were absolutely enchanted with the whole experience, including getting lost a couple of times in the Metro during our free time. Although both our guides (both Eleanas) were excellent, I would particularly commend the first one (she took us to the Tatiakov, the KGB tour, and to that beautiful cemetery where so many great Russian artists, authors, composers, musicians, militarists, and politicians are buried). Her knowledge is encyclopedic; and her understanding of today´s Russia as a product of its past was, for us, truly enlightening. I will be taking another tour in Russia, with my wife, within the next two or three years. I will be in touch with you when the time comes. Meanwhile, I will refer you to other potential visitors to Russia as I meet them.

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Our Moscow tours are land only meaning that you arrange your own air travel to Russia and our expert staff meets you at the airport and handles everything else from there. Our online Airline Ticket booking system offers some of the most competitive rates to Russia available on the web so if you need tickets, please visit our Russian air ticket center . Rest assured that you will be taken great care of on one of our Moscow tours. Express to Russia has a fully staffed office in Moscow that will help to make your visit fun, informative and unforgettable. Please remember that of all these tours are private and can be adjusted to your taste. You can add, replace or skip some sights; you can add more days to the package or cut the tour short. Our specialists will be glad to help you create the tour of your dreams!

Moscow, a City Like No Other

Moscow is Russia’s largest city with a population of between 12 and 13 million. It is also Europe’s largest city and when you visit Moscow, you can feel it. The layout and architecture of the city is eclectic, ranging from crooked, ancient streets and alleyways to wide, bustling boulevards, from medieval churches to Stalin skyscrapers and to modern, glass buildings towering over everything and of course in the center of it all is the Kremlin and the magnificent Red Square. Moscow is also home to a fantastic, efficient and very beautiful metro system – each station having its own special design. In fact, Express to Russia’s Moscow metro tours and excursions are some of our most popular attractions that we offer. On our Moscow tours, you will see this and more.

Moscow Tours centering on Russian History

Moscow has a long and interesting history and has been the capital of Russia in many of its different iterations – capital of the Grand Duchy of Moscow , the Russian Empire and of course the Soviet Union (who could ever forget the Soviet Union?). Moscow, was founded in the 12th century by Prince Yuri Dolgaruki (Yuri of the long arms – he really did have long arms!). From that time on, it was home to the Russian Tsars until Peter the Great moved the capital to St. Petersburg in 1703. The city has survived invasions and sieges from the Mongols, the Tartars, the Poles, Lithuanians and Napoleon but has always persevered. Our Moscow tours will enlighten you on this great history and give you insights into Muscovites and their unique culture. Our Moscow tours show you what the city is like today but also brings to life the past. Moscow never seems to sleep and is bursting with energy. A Moscow tour with Express to Russia is truly the best way of getting to know Russia’s largest and most vibrant city.

Frequently Asked Questions From Our Travelers

What is the best time to visit moscow.

Any time of year is fine depending on what you plan to do. Summertime is pleasantly warm, ideal for exploring the city and its vibrant atmosphere, but Moscow will be much busier and accommodation is more expensive. Winter can be quite cold but beautiful nonetheless, and this is unproblematic if you intend to spend most of your trip in museums and galleries. There are also various festivals and events organised throughout the year. For more information about the best time to visit, read our guide

How many days are enough in Moscow?

If you plan your itinerary strategically and aren’t averse to a packed schedule, you can cover Moscow’s main sights over a long weekend. Most popular attractions are in the city centre, and the Moscow Metro allows you to cover much ground in a small amount of time. Ensure that your accommodation is fairly central and book tickets in advance, so that you can make the most of your days. For an informative and well-organised day out, check out our Moscow day tours with options to suit all interests.

Do they speak English in Moscow?

As Russia’s capital city, tourists are well accommodated in Moscow. There should be English-speaking staff in restaurants, bars, hotels, shops and attractions in tourist hotspots, and there are also English-speaking tourist police. Transport services have English translations on their maps and English announcements via intercom; alternatively, order taxis from the Yandex Taxi app (Russian Uber), though it’s unlikely that your taxi driver will speak English. If you get stuck and cannot communicate, it’s fine to use Google Translate.

Is it safe to travel to Moscow?

It is no less safe to travel to Moscow than to any European city if you exercise common sense and look after your belongings. As with every city some regions can be more unsavoury than others, but no tourist attractions are located there. The traffic in Moscow is notorious, so exercise caution when crossing roads. Do not take unlicensed taxis; book in advance or take public transport, which is widespread and perfectly safe. If you encounter any problems, look for the special tourist police who can help you. For more information, read our guide about staying safe in Russia .

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Moscow Vibes – Three Day City Escape

Duration 3 days

Price from USD $730 ? Currency Conversion Converted from USD based on the latest exchange rate. Final amount and payment will be in USD. Final conversion rate is determined by your bank.

Trip Style Sightseeing

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This short Moscow tour will give you a true taste of the history, culture and incomparable urban vibe that define one of the world’s largest metropolises. In just three days, this Moscow itinerary takes in all the most iconic sights of this attraction-packed destination. After two and half days getting acquainted with the city, we’ve set time aside for you to explore Moscow your way and discover your own favourite hang-outs in a city overflowing with hidden treasures

3-Day Moscow Tour Highlights:

• Panoramic Tour of Moscow: See Moscow beyond the postcard images on a private excursion by car through the city streets including a drive along the banks of the Moskva River. Visit the famous Bolshoi Theatre, pass by Gorky Park and the Novodevichy Convent, and admire the city from on high at the Sparrow Hill observation platform.
• Moscow Historical City Centre Guided Walking Tour : Immerse yourself in the atmosphere of one of the world’s biggest metropolises and discover local haunts on foot, including the Red Square, the Kremlin and the multi-coloured domes of St Basil’s Cathedral.
• Armory Chamber tour: Explore the endless treasures of this unique museum, displaying the wealth accumulated by Russian rulers from the 12th century until the October Revolution of 1917. Walking through the exhibition halls is a journey through the centuries.
• Moscow Metro Tour : Go deep underground on a subway tour of the famous Moscow metro. The world’s deepest metro system is renowned for its palatial, art-adorned stations, complete with marble columns and chandeliers.

On your first day, you’ll be treated to a panoramic, drive-by tour of Moscow to get a feel for the immense scale of one of the world’s most rapidly developing urban centres. The city’s history unfolds in real-time as you pass lavish imperial mansions, solemn Soviet structures and luxurious modern shopping centres.

Day two kicks off exploring Moscow’s historic centre on foot, followed by a tour of the Kremlin, the seat of Russian power and political intrigue for centuries. Stand in the Red Square, surrounded by the stunning architecture as you hear stories of the people and events behind many of Moscow’s most iconic landmarks.

On your final day, we’ll head beneath the city for a tour of the Moscow Metro and its famously ornate underground stations. Art lovers should hit up one of Moscow’s many world-class galleries such as the Tretyakov State Gallery, the Pushkin Museum or Garage, Moscow’s cutting-edge contemporary art museum. History fans can follow a Soviet trail through the city including Stalin’s Bunker, while those seeking a more indulgent experience can browse trendy neighbourhoods like Kitay Gorod or shop for everything from fashion to kitsch souvenirs at the enchanting Izmaylovo Flea Market. Foodies can head to one of the countless speciality stores sampling vodka, caviar and chocolate.

If you only have a few days to spend in Moscow, this tour will ensure you make the most of your time in the city. Let the experts navigate you through this complex and occasionally overwhelming capital, giving you plenty of time to soak up the city’s most unmissable attractions.

Accomodation

Not Included

Sightseeing

Action rating ?

Type of tour

3 days / 2 nights

Private - Any Date

Day 1 Panoramic city tour

Welcome to the glorious capital of Russia, Moscow! You’ll be met by your driver at the airport and taken to your centrally located hotel.

After check-in and rest, meet your private guide at the hotel lobby for a comprehensive tour of Moscow by car. Visit the starkly contrasting Theatre Square to see the stunning Bolshoi Theatre, pass Tverskaya Street, the city’s main boulevard and home to the landmark Yeleseyevskiy Grocery Store.

You’ll enjoy a panoramic drive along the Moskva River, where a huge, controversial state of Peter the Great was erected. Pass by the legendary Gorky Park and the White House before a stop at the architecturally stunning Novodevichy Convent, and the observation platform at Sparrow Hills, for a bird’s eye view over this staggering megalopolis.

Day 2 Red Square and Kremlin

After breakfast at the hotel, your guide will take you on a walking tour of the historical city centre. Stroll through the Red Square, the hub of cultural life in Moscow, with its elaborate ‘stone flower’ fountain and fantasy-like St Basil’s Cathedral – a postcard-perfect symbol of the nation. Admire the grandiose façade of GUM, the city’s most luxurious shopping centre, and visit Alexander’s Garden, with its eternal flame and the chance to watch a changing of the guards.

Break for lunch before continuing on a tour of the Kremlin and Armoury Chamber, famous of its collection of tsarist fashion, with regalia such as jewel-encrusted crowns, orbs and sceptres as well as arms and armour, exotic gifts from the leaders of faraway lands, and an illustrious case of Imperial Faberge eggs.

As an option* spend an evening on a sumptuous dinner cruise, taking in the stunning sights and city lights of this mesmerising metropolis by night.

Day 3 Metro and Arbat Street

Start a day with a tour of Metro, stopping on the way to marvel at some of the most elaborately decorated stations of the world-famous Moscow subway system. Take a stroll along Old Arbat street - the most famous street in Moscow. Through the centuries Arbat used to be one of the most bohemian places in Moscow. Today Arbat is a promenade full of small cozy cafes and street life.

The afternoon is free for you to either enjoy the rest of the day on your own or choose among optional excursions to explore more of Moscow. Visit the Tretyakov Gallery or Pushkin State Museum to admire Russian art. Join locals for a stroll at the Gorky or VDNH park.

Visit beautiful Kolomeskoye Estate or Izmailovo Kremlin, or spend a day exploring the beautiful city of the Golden Ring (Russian province) - Sergiev Posad. In the evening you will be transferred to the airport for your departure to your next destination.

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Group airport/train-station arrival and departure transfers

All transportation according to the itinerary with a private driver

4* hotel accommodation in the historical city center (twin/double)

Local licensed English-speaking guide

All activities, indicated in the itinerary, except optional

Entry fees according to the itinerary (skip-the-lines policy)

Russian visa support document

Travel insurance

Russian visa and visa fees. Russian visa can be arranged by 56th Parallel for an additional cost (for Australian citizens only). Apply for concierge visa service here .

Optional excursions/activities

*Private tour. Price is per person, based on min 2 people

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Day 1: Panoramic city tour

Day 2: red square and kremlin, day 3: metro and arbat street, not included, start planning your tour.

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