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Journal of Travel Research

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• Description
• Aims and Scope
• Editorial Board
• Abstracting / Indexing
• Submission Guidelines

The Journal of Travel Research ( JTR ) is the premier, peer-reviewed research journal focusing on the business of travel and tourism development, management, marketing, economics and behavior. JTR provides researchers, educators, and professionals with up-to-date, high quality research on behavioral trends and management theory for one of the most influential and dynamic industries. Founded in 1961, JTR is the oldest of the world’s top-ranked scholarly journals focused exclusively on travel and tourism, reflecting the worldwide importance of tourism, both economically and socially.

Published by SAGE, an international leader in social science and business publishing, JTR publishes the most current and influential scholarship on travel and tourism.

The Journal of Travel Research publishes state-of-the-art research on the most important trends and issues in travel and tourism. JTR offers an international and multidisciplinary perspective on the best development and management practices by publishing research which enhances knowledge of important travel and tourism phenomena. JTR thereby contributes to the development of theory which enables improvements in tourism development policy and strategy; managerial practice; economic, social and environmental outcomes; and education and training programs.

All manuscripts submitted to the Journal of Travel Research are double-blind, peer-reviewed by leading tourism scholars. The JTR editorial review board includes top tourism scholars identified on the basis of their current research and scholarly contributions. This journal is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE).

The mission of the Journal of Travel Research is to be the premier, peer-reviewed research journal focused on the business of travel and tourism development, management, marketing, economics and behavior. Given the multifaceted, multidisciplinary and multi-stakeholder character of the tourism economy, this focus implies a concern for both the public and private sector spheres of interest as well as economic, socio-cultural, political, environmental, legal, technological, and demographic issues. Specific goals are to be international in scope with geographic diversity, to be multidisciplinary with diversity in research topics and methodologies, and to be germane to the needs of the travel and tourism industry and its stakeholders.

All manuscripts published in the Journal of Travel Research are double-blind, peer-reviewed by accomplished scholars in the topical area. The standard for publication in the Journal of Travel Research is that a paper must make a substantive contribution, either theoretically or methodologically, to the travel and tourism research literature. Additionally, a paper should specify its contribution to pragmatic tourism management concerns and practice.

Published manuscripts must be on research of the highest standards, on topics of major significance and widespread interest, and relevant to the progress of this important global sector.

• A Matter of Fact
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• Wilson Business Periodicals Index/Wilson Business Abstracts
• World Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology Abstracts (in CAB Abstracts Database)

The Journal of Travel Research publishes articles examining the business of travel and tourism development, management, marketing, economics and behavior. Its purpose is to serve as a medium through which those with research interests can exchange ideas and keep abreast of the latest theoretical, methodological and best practices research.

This Journal is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics .

Please read the guidelines below then visit the Journal’s submission site https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/jotr to upload your manuscript. Please note that manuscripts not conforming to these guidelines may be returned or rejected.

Only manuscripts of sufficient quality that meet the aims and scope of the Journal of Travel Research will be reviewed.

There are no fees payable to submit or publish in this Journal. Open Access options are available - see section 6.3 below.

As part of the submission process you will be required to warrant that you are submitting your original work, that you have the rights in the work, that you are submitting the work for first publication in the Journal and that it is not being considered for publication elsewhere and has not already been published elsewhere, and that you have obtained and can supply all necessary permissions for the reproduction of any copyright works not owned by you.

1. What do we publish?

1.1 Aims & Scope

Before submitting your manuscript to the Journal of Travel Research , please ensure you have read the Aims & Scope .

1.2 Article types

Three types of manuscripts can be submitted to the Journal of Travel Research .

1.2.1 Empirical Research Articles

The Journal of Travel Research encourages data-based articles which describe, explain, or predict a tourism phenomenon. Articles using quantitative, qualitative or mixed-methods data are encouraged. These articles should be “problem based”, focusing on a practical tourism development, management, marketing or economics problem. The standard for acceptance is that a paper must make a substantive theoretical and/or methodological contribution to the tourism research literature.

1.2.2 Foundations of Tourism Research Conceptual Articles

The  Journal of Travel Research  encourages the development of high-quality articles which are broadly conceptual with the goal of building theory and/or reviewing and evaluating the body of research in a substantive and important area. The goals of these papers should be improved conceptual clarity, holistic review of the current research, theory building and expansion, and innovation with forward looking outcomes that propose new opportunities and ideas. These articles may be wholly conceptual or conceptual/empirical with meta-analytic data. Authors of such articles must be invited, or commissioned by the Editor. Lead authors will be internationally leading experts in the field. Researchers who feel they may be in a position and have an interest in writing such an article must first contact the Editor directly with a detailed proposal (not a manuscript at this stage) including a detailed case as author demonstrating a leading international reputation and expertise to be able to write such an article. If the proposed article potentially meets the above goals and the author demonstrates a clear capacity to produce the article, the Editor will then invite the author(s) to proceed. Articles in this series will nevertheless be evaluated through the normal double-anonymize review process.

1.2.3 Letters to the Editor

The Journal of Travel Research encourages conversation. The purpose of these letters will be to provoke conversation, review our research endeavors, and commentary on our research problems, assumptions, methodologies and evaluation. Also included are comments about our publication process and expectations. Finally, constructive commentary concerning research publications is encouraged.

All Empirical Research Articles and Foundations of Tourism Research Conceptual Articles submitted to the Journal of Travel Research are first assessed by the Editor to determine their suitability for potential publication in JTR . Subsequently, selected manuscripts are then double-anonymize, peer reviewed by accomplished scholars in the topical area. Acceptance of Letters to the Editor will be the prerogative of the Editor. In all cases, the standard for publication in the Journal of Travel Research is that a paper must make a substantive theoretical and/or methodological contribution to the tourism research literature.

1.3 Writing your paper

The Sage Author Gateway has some general advice and on  how to get published , plus links to further resources. Sage Author Services also offers authors a variety of ways to improve and enhance their article including English language editing, plagiarism detection, and video abstract and infographic preparation .

1.3.1 Make your article discoverable

When writing up your paper, think about how you can make it discoverable. The title, keywords and abstract are key to ensuring readers find your article through search engines such as Google. For information and guidance on how best to title your article, write your abstract and select your keywords, have a look at this page on the Gateway: How to Help Readers Find Your Article Online .

1.4 Coronavirus (COVID-19) requirements for manuscripts

COVID-19 has fundamentally affected travel and tourism and therefore impacted the way in which travel and tourism research is conducted and reported. Consequently, manuscripts submitted to the Journal of Travel Research must acknowledge the effect of COVID-19. For this reason, JTR has introduced some additional manuscript submission requirements. Please carefully read the following requirements and ensure you have addressed these appropriately:

• The relevance and usefulness of research conducted pre-COVID-19 will, in general, have declined and in some cases may now be obsolete. How we make use of pre-COVID-19 research to inform post-COVID-19 research design must recognize this reality. A thorough review of the relevant literature is still required, but authors must now acknowledge and discuss the relevance and usefulness of this earlier research in light of COVID-19 developments.
• Researchers who have already collected or used pre-COVID-19 primary data (on or before January 31, 2020) but are yet to finalize their analysis and complete the writing of their manuscript must consider how they may need to address the effect of COVID-19 on their interpretations and conclusions.
• For research involving the collection of data, in part or in whole, after January 31, 2020, during dramatically changing circumstances, will be difficult to analyse and interpret leading to potentially false assumptions and erroneous conclusions. For example, research dealing with tourism consumer behavior cannot ignore how tourism consumers are seeing the world differently. The design, analysis and writing of such research must not ignore this seismic change. Because research topics and circumstances vary so widely, it is not possible to provide prescriptive advice on how researchers must address these challenges; suffice to say that manuscript reviewers will want to clearly see and understand that authors have convincingly addressed such issues in their manuscripts.
• We are of course seeing a large influx of COVID-19-related travel and tourism research. Descriptive research which simply confirms what is already largely known does not meet JTR publication requirements. Hence, when researchers are thinking about potential post-COVID-19 research topics, it would be most helpful if they reflected on this likelihood so that: a) certain topics are not over-researched, and b) the research is not merely descriptive (the what) but is also explanatory (the why) and prescriptive (the how) thereby contributing to theory..

2. Editorial Policies

2.1 Peer review policy

Sage does not permit the use of author-suggested (recommended) reviewers at any stage of the submission process, be that through the web-based submission system or other communication. Reviewers should be experts in their fields and should be able to provide an objective assessment of the manuscript. Our policy is that reviewers should not be assigned to a paper if:

•  The reviewer is based at the same institution as any of the co-authors

•  The reviewer is based at the funding body of the paper

•  The author has recommended the reviewer

•  The reviewer has provided a personal (e.g. Gmail/Yahoo/Hotmail) email account and an institutional email account cannot be found after performing a basic Google search (name, department and institution). 

2.2 Review criteria

As a leading journal in travel and tourism research, the standards for publication in JTR  are very high. There are five primary criteria which determine whether a manuscript is suitable for publication, as follows:

• Relevant - the manuscript must be directly relevant to the stated aims and scope of the journal.
• Significant - the subject and outcomes of the research must make a significant, important, and valuable contribution to travel and tourism knowledge and theory.
• Original - the research must be original, new, and leading-edge such that it adds new knowledge to a topic of importance to JTR readership.
• Rigorous - the research design and methodology must be of a very high standard.
• Articulate - the manuscript must achieve a very high standard of English grammar and expression and must communicate all important aspects of the research in a very clear manner.

JTR receives several hundred submissions per year. The page budget for the journal permits us to publish only a small portion of these (around 114 articles per year currently). Hence, the competition for a publication slot is quite high. JTR is therefore unable to publish many of the manuscripts it receives. So, to provide authors with some further guidance on the factors which have the greatest impact on manuscript acceptance/rejection, the following additional points may be helpful as a general guide. JTR  is not primarily a hospitality/hotel management, leisure and recreation management, or even management research journal. Yet, JTR  does publish some research which blends into these fields of research providing the focus of the research has a strong travel and tourism aim.

• JTR publishes papers which are on the ‘leading edge of the wave’ or are breaking new and important ground that will become the foundation for interest in tourism research into the future. JTR seeks to lead travel and tourism research and to help shape the tourism research agenda rather than serving merely as a follower. Many studies are undertaken on topics for which there is already a major body of literature. JTR welcomes further research on these well-established research issues providing they lead to important, new results. This might occur if the research advances findings further into new important situations or helps to fill important gaps. It might also occur if the findings challenge orthodox assumptions and paradigms, or revolutionize knowledge on the issue. But if work on already heavily-researched issues simply adds yet one further similar study to the mix, JTR is unlikely to be interested in publishing the manuscript.
• JTR does not have a bias towards or away from any particular methodologies. What matters is whether the research is designed and executed well, and the research topic is of significant interest. It is important to explain and justify why the selected methodology is the most appropriate from among the various approaches available, given the research aims and objectives.
• Many studies are undertaken with a focus on addressing a particular local situation or context. The results from such studies need to have broader relevance and the context itself should be of widespread interest. The findings may indeed be of great interest and relevance to the local tourism sector, but if findings cannot be generalized to other populations,  JTR is probably not the right target journal.
• Minor English grammar and expression problems can be potentially addressed by the author through the manuscript review process, but major problems will result in rejection. Only manuscripts with a high standard of English in the final manuscript version are publishable. It is always the author’s responsibility to ensure a high English standard.
• Finally, every manuscript is competing for a limited number of publications slots per year. So sometimes very good research can miss out on a place in JTR simply because there are other more deserving manuscripts.

Reviewers are asked to consider and assess each manuscript on a 5-point scale for each of the following 14 items:

• Is the topic directly relevant to the stated aims and scope of JTR ?
• Does the research make a valuable contribution to travel and tourism knowledge and theory?
• Is the research substantially original and leading-edge for publication in JTR ?
• Is the research design rigorous, methodologically sound, and of a high standard?
• Is the manuscript highly articulate and clear? Does it contain a high standard of English grammar and expression?
• Is the literature review appropriate up-to-date?
• Is there a significant theoretical contribution to the literature?
• Is there a significant methodological contribution to the literature?
• Is the methodology sufficiently explained for future research to follow/replicate?
• Are there clearly stated and significant practical and applied contributions in the conclusions of the manuscript?
• Are there clearly stated and significant theoretical contributions in the conclusions of the manuscript?
• Are there clearly stated and significant methodological contributions in the conclusions of the manuscript?
• Are there clearly stated and exhaustive limitations in the conclusions of the manuscript?
• Are conclusions warranted?

2.3 Authorship

All parties who have made a substantive contribution to the article should be listed as authors. Principal authorship, authorship order, and other publication credits should be based on the relative scientific or professional contributions of the individuals involved, regardless of their status. A student is usually listed as principal author on any multiple-authored publication that substantially derives from the student’s dissertation or thesis.

2.3.1 Writing assistance

Individuals who provided writing assistance, e.g. from a specialist communications company, do not qualify as authors and so should be included in the Acknowledgements section. Authors must disclose any writing assistance – including the individual’s name, company and level of input – and identify the entity that paid for this assistance.

It is not necessary to disclose use of language polishing services.

Please supply any personal acknowledgements for writing assistance separately to the main text on the title page only to facilitate anonymous peer review.

Please note that AI chatbots, for example ChatGPT, should not be listed as authors. For more information see the policy on Use of ChatGPT and generative AI tools .

2.4 Acknowledgements

All contributors who do not meet the criteria for authorship should be listed in an Acknowledgements section. Examples of those who might be acknowledged include a person who provided purely technical help, or a department chair who provided only general support. Please supply any personal acknowledgements separately to the main text and only as part of the title page to facilitate anonymous peer review.

2.4.1 Third party submissions

Where an individual who is not listed as an author submits a manuscript on behalf of the author(s), a statement must be included in the Acknowledgements section of the manuscript and in the accompanying cover letter. The statements must:

• Disclose this type of editorial assistance – including the individual’s name, company and level of input
• Identify any entities that paid for this assistance
• Confirm that the listed authors have authorized the submission of their manuscript via third party and approved any statements or declarations, e.g. conflicting interests, funding, etc.

Where appropriate, Sage reserves the right to deny consideration to manuscripts submitted by a third party rather than by the authors themselves .

2.5 Funding

The Journal of Travel Research requires all authors to acknowledge their funding in a consistent fashion under a separate heading.  Please visit the Funding Acknowledgements page on the Sage Journal Author Gateway to confirm the format of the acknowledgment text in the event of funding, or state that: This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Funding details should be added to the title page only in order to facilitate the anonymous review process.

2.6 Declaration of conflicting interests

The Journal of Travel Research encourages authors to include a declaration of any conflicting interests and recommends you review the good practice guidelines on the Sage Journal Author Gateway .

For guidance on conflict of interest statements, please see the ICMJE recommendations here .

3. Preparing your manuscript for submission

3.1 Online submission system

Before submitting your manuscript, please ensure you carefully read and adhere to all the guidelines and instructions to authors provided herein. The Journal of Travel Research (JTR) is hosted on SageTRACK: a web-based online submission and peer review system powered by ScholarOne™ Manuscripts. Please read the guidelines below, and then simply visit https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/jotr to login and submit your article online.

Important note: If you are submitting to your journal via Sage Track, please check whether you already have an account in the system before trying to create a new one. If you have reviewed or authored for the journal in the past year it is likely that you will have had an account created. For further guidance on submitting your manuscript online, please visit ScholarOne Online Help .

3.2 File formatting

The preferred format for your manuscript is Word. LaTeX files are also accepted. Word and (La)Tex templates are available on the Manuscript Submission Guidelines page of our Author Gateway.

Manuscripts are submitted as two or more files. The first file is the title page containing the manuscript title, author names, affiliations, any acknowledgments and declarations, and both postal and e-mail addresses. The other file(s) should contain no information which might reveal the identity of the authors. These files provide the body of the article including the title, abstract, text body, and references. Tables and figures may also be included in this file on separate pages at the end of the manuscript or uploaded as separate files.

3.3 Manuscript preparation

To be considered for publication in the Journal of Travel Research, manuscripts must meet the following standards:

• Everything is double spaced.
• Everything is left justified, with a ragged right-hand margin (no full justification)
• Format is one inch margins on all sides. Minimum print size is 12 point, except in tables and figures where 10 pt may be used.
• Manuscripts are submitted as two files: The cover page and the manuscript body.
• The cover page should include the manuscript title, ALL authors’ name, position, affiliation, address, telephone numbers, fax numbers, e-mail addresses, and any acknowledgements. Please use title case when entering the article title into the submission form.
• The manuscript file should contain the title, abstract, 4 to 5 keywords, text, appendices, notes, references, each table, and each figure.
• Authors’ names are to appear only on the cover page. There should be nothing in the manuscript file that identifies the authors either by name or institution.
• Tables and figures are not to be embedded in the manuscript – each table and figure should be provided as a separate page at the end of the manuscript. Tags should be inserted in the manuscript indicating approximately where tables and figures should be located.
• Within the manuscript file, Title, Abstract and keywords should be on one page. After that, each section is to begin with a new page.
• Abstract is to be 150 words or less
• Manuscripts must be 10,000 words or less. This 10,000 word limit includes everything in the manuscript except the title, abstract, keywords, tables, figures and references. Due to page limitations and the desire to accommodate as many authors as possible, this should be considered a hard limit.
• Acronyms are only allowed in the following circumstances: where they represent universally recognised organisations, e.g. UNWTO, NATO, or internationally recognised classifications such as ISO, GDP, or for well recognised scientific methodological terms such as ANOVA, LISREL, PLS and so on. Acronyms are not allowed for field specific terms in any circumstances.
• American English spellings are used in all sections except references. Sage Publications requires English translations of all reference citations.
• Endnotes are to be grouped on a separate page. There are to be no footnotes.
• All in-text citations should be included in the reference list, and all references should have in-text citations.

3.4 Reference style

The Journal of Travel Research uses APA 7th edition formatting. Information on APA reference examples can be found here: https://apastyle.apa.org/ .

3.5 English language editing services

Authors seeking assistance with English language editing, translation, or figure and manuscript formatting to fit the journal’s specifications should consider using Sage Language Services . Visit Sage Language Services on our Journal Author Gateway for further information.

3.6 Artwork, figures and other graphics

For guidance on the preparation of illustrations, pictures and graphs in electronic format, please visit Sage’s Manuscript Submission Guidelines  

Figures supplied in color will appear in color online regardless of whether or not these illustrations are reproduced in color in the printed version. For specifically requested color reproduction in print, you will receive information regarding the costs from Sage after receipt of your accepted article.

Figures are to be camera ready – they must appear exactly as they should in the journal. The Journal of Travel Research is published in black and white. Figures should be black and white with gray and pattern shading if necessary. Any color requirements for the printed manuscript version will incur a charge to the author(s).

Tables should not have cells or lines dividing the different elements. Preferably, each element should be separated by a tab.

3.7 Supplementary material

This journal is able to host additional materials online (e.g. datasets, podcasts, videos, images etc) alongside the full-text of the article. For more information please refer to our guidelines on submitting supplementary files

As part of our commitment to ensuring an ethical, transparent and fair peer review process Sage is a supporting member of ORCID, the Open Researcher and Contributor ID . ORCID provides a unique and persistent digital identifier that distinguishes researchers from every other researcher, even those who share the same name, and, through integration in key research workflows such as manuscript and grant submission, supports automated linkages between researchers and their professional activities, ensuring that their work is recognized.

The collection of ORCID iDs from corresponding authors is now part of the submission process of this journal. If you already have an ORCID iD you will be asked to associate that to your submission during the online submission process. We also strongly encourage all co-authors to link their ORCID ID to their accounts in our online peer review platforms. It takes seconds to do: click the link when prompted, sign into your ORCID account and our systems are automatically updated. Your ORCID iD will become part of your accepted publication’s metadata, making your work attributable to you and only you. Your ORCID iD is published with your article so that fellow researchers reading your work can link to your ORCID profile and from there link to your other publications.

If you do not already have an ORCID iD please follow this link to create one or visit our ORCID homepage to learn more.

3.9 Information required for completing your submission

You will be asked to provide contact details and academic affiliations for all co-authors via the submission system and identify who is to be the corresponding author. These details must match what appears on your manuscript. At this stage please ensure you have included all the required statements and declarations and uploaded any additional supplementary files (including reporting guidelines where relevant).

3.10 Permissions

Please also ensure that you have obtained any necessary permission from copyright holders for reproducing any illustrations, tables, figures or lengthy quotations previously published elsewhere. For further information including guidance on fair dealing for criticism and review, please see the Copyright and Permissions page on the Sage Author Gateway .

4. Manuscript revision requirements

To enable you to revise your manuscript so as to give it the best chances of reaching a successful outcome, please carefully read these guidelines and follow them meticulously. It is essential that you understand that the invitation to revise and resubmit a paper is not a commitment on the part of the Journal of Travel Research to eventually accept and publish the paper. Even if the author addresses the concerns raised in the initial review, the further review of the revised manuscript must determine whether the paper then meets the standards required for publication in JTR .

As you revise your paper for resubmission to the Journal of Travel Research , please make sure it meets the following guidelines. If the paper is ultimately accepted, you will receive the list of formatting requirements again with a “it must meet…” statement. It is critical that you take care to ensure you meet these requirements as it can save a great deal of your time and our time at the typesetting stage.

Please submit your revised paper via the Journal of Travel Research Manuscript Central process. It is important that the paper be submitted as a revision of your first submission. Specifically, this means it would be submitted under the same manuscript number and be treated both by Manuscript Central and by the Editorial Office as a revised paper. This will result in a much faster review process.

Include with your submission a supplementary file indicating how the paper has been revised relative to the substantive comments made by the reviewers of the original version as well as any additional comments or requirements indicated by the Editor as contained in the decision email. It is important that this file be submitted together with the revised manuscript so that it can be forwarded it to the reviewers. This paper must explain how the authors have addressed the concerns raised in the initial review. Subsequent reviews focus specifically on this response. When you finish with your resubmission, you can review a pdf file of the complete submission – make sure the supplementary file is included. Also, since it is potentially going back to the reviewers, please be sure not to include your name or identity in the supplementary file.

To create this supplementary file you should:

• Cut and paste all comments by each reviewer, as well any requirements indicated by the Editor in the decision email.
• For each substantive comment, provide a detailed explanation and justification of your response.
• Your response to each comment should clearly indicate whether or not a change has occurred in the manuscript and, if so, what that change is and precisely where it can be found.
• If you are in disagreement with the reviewer comments or suggestions, or prefer an alternative approach to address an issue they have raised, this is quite acceptable. However, in such cases, you need to discuss and explain your views and justify your preferred approach either not to change the manuscript, or to change it in a different manner. Again, any change should be clearly explained and its location in the manuscript specified.

Attending to these points adequately will significantly benefit the further review of revised manuscripts.

In addition to responding to the reviewer comments, it is important to make sure the paper is current in its review of the literature. Often the manuscript process, from inception to completion, can take many months. It is important that, during each revision process, you update the review of literature, including, as appropriate, how this paper fits within the related papers published in the tourism literature and JTR over the past few years. Please also make sure to check for relevant manuscripts in the JTR Online First ( http://jtr.sagepub.com/content/early/recent ) listing as that is the most current papers that will be published in advance of your paper.

5. On acceptance and publication

5.1 Sage Production

Your Sage Production Editor will keep you informed as to your article’s progress throughout the production process. Proofs will be sent by PDF to the corresponding author and should be returned promptly.  Authors are reminded to check their proofs carefully to confirm that all author information, including names, affiliations, sequence and contact details are correct, and that Funding and Conflict of Interest statements, if any, are accurate.

5.2 Online First publication

Online First allows final articles (completed and approved articles awaiting assignment to a future issue) to be published online prior to their inclusion in a journal issue, which significantly reduces the lead time between submission and publication. Visit the Sage Journals help page for more details, including how to cite Online First articles.

5.3 Access to your published article

Sage provides authors with online access to their final article.

5.4 Promoting your article

Publication is not the end of the process! You can help disseminate your paper and ensure it is as widely read and cited as possible. The Sage Author Gateway has numerous resources to help you promote your work. Visit the Promote Your Article page on the Gateway for tips and advice. 

6. Publishing Policies

6.1 Publication ethics

Sage is committed to upholding the integrity of the academic record. We encourage authors to refer to the Committee on Publication Ethics’ International Standards for Authors and view the Publication Ethics page on the Sage Author Gateway

6.1.1 Plagiarism

The Journal of Travel Research and Sage take issues of copyright infringement, plagiarism or other breaches of best practice in publication very seriously. We seek to protect the rights of our authors and we always investigate claims of plagiarism or misuse of published articles. Equally, we seek to protect the reputation of the journal against malpractice. Submitted articles may be checked with duplication-checking software. Where an article, for example, is found to have plagiarised other work or included third-party copyright material without permission or with insufficient acknowledgement, or where the authorship of the article is contested, we reserve the right to take action including, but not limited to: publishing an erratum or corrigendum (correction); retracting the article; taking up the matter with the head of department or dean of the author's institution and/or relevant academic bodies or societies; or taking appropriate legal action.

6.1.2 Prior publication

If material has been previously published it is not generally acceptable for publication in a Sage journal. However, there are certain circumstances where previously published material can be considered for publication. Please refer to the guidance on the Sage Author Gateway or if in doubt, contact the Editor at the address given below.

6.2 Contributor's publishing agreement

Before publication, Sage requires the author as the rights holder to sign a Journal Contributor’s Publishing Agreement. Sage’s Journal Contributor’s Publishing Agreement is an exclusive licence agreement which means that the author retains copyright in the work but grants Sage the sole and exclusive right and licence to publish for the full legal term of copyright. Exceptions may exist where an assignment of copyright is required or preferred by a proprietor other than Sage. In this case copyright in the work will be assigned from the author to the society. For more information please visit the Sage Author Gateway

6.3 Open access and author archiving

The Journal of Travel Research offers optional open access publishing via the Sage Choice programme and Open Access agreements, where authors can publish open access either discounted or free of charge depending on the agreement with Sage. Find out if your institution is participating by visiting Open Access Agreements at Sage . For more information on Open Access publishing options at Sage please visit Sage Open Access . For information on funding body compliance, and depositing your article in repositories, please visit Sage’s Author Archiving and Re-Use Guidelines and Publishing Policies .

7. Further information

Any correspondence, queries or additional requests for information on the manuscript submission process should be sent to the Co-Editors Nancy Gard McGehee at [email protected] or James Petrick at [email protected] .

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Enhancing destination image through virtual reality technology: the role of tourists’ immersive experience

• Published: 27 April 2024

Cite this article

• Davood Ghorbanzadeh   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3238-8241 1 ,
• Ahmad Qasim Mohammad AlHamad   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7083-5375 2 ,
• Kuicthok Yak Deng 3 ,
• Ahmed Alaa Hani Alkurdi 4 , 5 ,
• K. D. V. Prasad 6 &
• Mohsen Sharbatiyan   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7941-7655 7  

This study investigates the relationship between the immersive VR experience, destination cognitive image, destination affective image, and tourists’ travel intention. The sample of this research is 167 visitors of three tourist attractions of Isfahan Province in Iran, through 360-degree virtual reality videos. In order to collect research data, an online survey and convenience sampling methods were used. PLS-SEM was utilized to assess both the measurement and structural models. The findings indicated that among factors of external technical environment stimuli, media richness has a stronger effect on the formation of the destination’s cognitive image than the affective image. Also, perceived interactivity compared to media richness has a significant impact on the formation of the destination’s affective image. In addition, vision consistency as an internal technical environment stimulus has a positive effect on the formation of the cognitive and affective image of the destination. Finally, the affective image of the destination resulting from the immersive VR experience has a stronger effect on travel intention than the cognitive image.

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Department of Management and Social Science, Islamic Azad University of Tehran North Branch, Tehran, Iran

Davood Ghorbanzadeh

Department of Business Administration, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, UAE

Ahmad Qasim Mohammad AlHamad

Department of Business Management, Lincoln University College, Petaling Jaya, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia

Kuicthok Yak Deng

Department of Information Technology, Duhok Technical College, Duhok Polytechnic University, KRG, Duhok, Iraq

Ahmed Alaa Hani Alkurdi

Department of Computer Science, College of Science, Nawroz University, Duhok, KRG, Iraq

Symbiosis Institute of Business Management, Hyderabad, India

K. D. V. Prasad

Department of Executive Master of Business Administration, Faculty of Management, Islamic Azad University of Tehran Central Branch, Tehran, Iran

Mohsen Sharbatiyan

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Ghorbanzadeh, D., AlHamad, A.Q.M., Deng, K.Y. et al. Enhancing destination image through virtual reality technology: the role of tourists’ immersive experience. Curr Psychol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-06007-3

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Most Americans have traveled abroad, although differences among demographic groups are large

Americans are gradually returning to international travel, though international travel restrictions remain in place in many countries.

In March 2021 – the most recent month for which data is available – around 3 million American citizens traveled outside of the country. This is shy of the nearly 4 million U.S. citizens who traveled abroad in March 2020 as the coronavirus pandemic unfolded and far below the roughly 8 million who did so in March 2019, according to U.S. Department of Commerce data . But it represents a significant uptick over the low point in the late spring of 2020, when only around 1 million Americans or fewer left the United States. Still, international travel by Americans remains far below pre-pandemic levels.

To provide context for the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on international travel, this post looks at the habits of Americans when it comes to who most frequently goes abroad, as well as those groups in the U.S. who have been less likely to do so. To do this, we analyzed I-92 data from the International Air Travel Statistics Program at the U.S. Department of Commerce. This data includes all flights in and out of the U.S. and reports the total volume of air traffic as well as the number of U.S. citizens traveling. 

The post also uses findings from a Pew Research Center survey conducted June 14-27, 2021. The survey sampled 10,606 adults who are part of the Center’s American Trends Panel (ATP), an online survey panel that is recruited through national, random sampling of residential addresses. This way nearly all U.S. adults have a chance of selection. The survey is weighted to be representative of the U.S. adult population by gender, race, ethnicity, partisan affiliation, education and other categories. Read more about the ATP’s methodology .

Here are the questions used for the report, along with responses, and its methodology .

Whether before or during the pandemic, international travel is something a 71% majority of U.S. adults have done at some point in their lives, according to a June Pew Research Center survey. By contrast, around a quarter (27%) have not traveled abroad.

Still, the degree to which Americans have traveled around the globe varies widely: 19% have been to only one foreign country, 12% to two countries, 15% to three or four countries, and 14% to five to nine countries. Only 11% of Americans have been to 10 or more countries.

Who travels – and how much – also differs substantially across demographic groups. Income plays a decided role: Almost half (48%) of those earning less than $30,000 a year have not left the country, compared with 28% of those who earn between $30,000 and $79,999 a year and 10% of those earning $80,000 or more. These highest earners are also significantly more likely to have visited multiple countries.

Americans with lower levels of education are much less likely to have traveled widely than those with more schooling. For example, 37% of those with just some college education or less have not left the country, compared with only 7% of those who have graduated college. College graduates are also more likely to have been to multiple countries: A quarter have been to 10 or more countries. 

Women (32%) are more likely than men (22%) to have never traveled outside the country. Men, for their part, are much more likely than women to have been to five or more countries (30% vs. 22%). Still, men and women are equally likely to have been to only one country. 

Black Americans are much less likely to have ever traveled abroad (49%) than White (75%) or Hispanic Americans (73%). White adults are also more likely to have been to five or more countries (30%) than Black (13%) or Hispanic (15%) adults.

When it comes to party affiliation, there are no significant differences in the share of Republicans and Democrats who have traveled internationally or in the number of countries they have visited.

The 64% of Americans who say they are at least somewhat interested in keeping up to date on foreign affairs or foreign policy are much more likely to have traveled abroad at some point in their lives than those who say they have limited or no interest. They are also more likely to have been to many countries. For example, 32% of those who are interested in foreign affairs or foreign policy have been to at least five foreign countries, compared with 14% who are less focused on keeping up to date on foreign affairs.

Note: Here are the questions used for the report, along with responses, and its methodology .

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Wealth Surged in the Pandemic, but Debt Endures for Poorer Black and Hispanic Families

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Opportunities for industry leaders as new travelers take to the skies

Travel fell sharply during the COVID-19 pandemic—airline revenues dropped by 60 percent in 2020, and air travel and tourism are not expected to return to 2019 levels before 2024. 1 “ Back to the future? Airline sector poised for change post-COVID-19 ,” McKinsey, April 2, 2021; “ What will it take to go from ‘travel shock’ to surge? ” McKinsey, November 23, 2021. While this downturn is worrisome, it is likely to be temporary. McKinsey’s latest survey of more than 5,500 air travelers around the world shows that the aviation industry faces an even bigger challenge: sustainability.

The survey results indicate emerging trends in passenger priorities:

About the survey

We asked about 5,500 people in 13 countries, half of them women, to answer 36 questions in July 2021. Each had taken one or more flights in the previous 12 months. More than 25 percent took at least half of their flights for business reasons; 5 percent had taken more than eight flights in the previous 24 months. They ranged in age from 18 to over 75 and hailed from the US and Canada, the UK, Sweden, Spain, Poland, Germany, Saudi Arabia, India, China, Japan, Australia, and Brazil.

Topics included concerns about climate change and carbon emissions, carbon reduction measures, and factors influencing tourism stays and activities.

We compared the results to those of a survey asking the same questions that we conducted in July 2019.

• Most passengers understand that aviation has a significant impact on the environment. Emissions are now the top concern of respondents in 11 of the 13 countries polled, up from four in the 2019 survey. More than half of respondents said they’re “really worried” about climate change, and that aviation should become carbon neutral in the future.
• Travelers continue to prioritize price and connections over sustainability in booking decisions, for now. This may be partly because no airline has built a business system or brand promise on sustainability. Also, some consumers may currently be less concerned about their own impact because they’re flying less frequently in the pandemic. That said, almost 40 percent of travelers globally are now willing to pay at least two percent more for carbon-neutral tickets, or about $20 for a $1,000 round-trip, and 36 percent plan to fly less to reduce their climate impact.
• Attitudes and preferences vary widely among countries and customer segments. Around 60 percent of travelers in Spain are willing to pay more for carbon-neutral flights, for example, compared to nine percent in India and two percent in Japan.

This article outlines steps that airlines, airports, and their suppliers could take to respond to changing attitudes and preferences. The survey findings suggest that airlines may need to begin with gaining a deeper understanding of changes across heterogenous customer segments and geographies. With those insights in hand, they could tailor their communications, products, and services to differentiate their brands, build awareness among each passenger segment, and better connect with customers.

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The survey findings point to fundamental and ongoing changes in consumer behavior.

After a decade of steady growth in passenger traffic, air travel was hit hard by the pandemic. International air travel immediately fell by almost 100 percent, and overall bookings declined by more than 60 percent for 2020, according to Airports Council International. At the time of writing, revenue passenger miles have returned to close to pre-pandemic levels in the United States, but still lag behind in other markets. 2 “COVID-19: October 2021 traffic data,” International Air Transport Association (IATA), December 8, 2021. In its October 2021 report, before the Omicron variant emerged, the International Air Transport Association (IATA) forecast that the industry’s losses would be around $52 billion in 2021 and $12 billion in 2022. 3 “Economic performance of the airline industry,” IATA, October 4, 2021.

Furthermore, travelers’ preferences and behaviors have changed sharply during the pandemic, particularly around health and safety requirements. An Ipsos survey for the World Economic Forum found that, on average, three in four adults across 28 countries agreed that COVID-19 vaccine passports should be required of travelers to enter their country and that they would be effective in making travel and large events safe. 4 “Global public backs COVID-19 vaccine passports for international travel,” Ipsos, April 28, 2021. And a 2021 survey by Expedia Group found that people buying plane tickets now care more about health, safety, and flexibility than previously. But, there is also renewed interest in travel as nearly one in five travelers expected travel to be the thing they spent the most on in 2021, one in three had larger travel budgets for the year, and many were looking for new experiences such as once-in-a-lifetime trips. 5 “New research: How travelers are making decisions for the second half of 2021,” Skift, August 26, 2021.

Comparing McKinsey’s 2019 and 2021 survey results, sustainability remains a priority as respondents show similar levels of concern about climate change, continue to believe that aviation must become carbon neutral, and want their governments to step in to reduce airline emissions. Some changes were more striking. The share of respondents who say they plan to fly less to minimize their environmental impact rose five percentage points to 36 percent. In 2021 half of all respondents said they want to fly less after the pandemic. Changes in opinion varied across markets. Passengers in the UK, US, and Saudi Arabia, for example, were more likely to feel “flygskam,” (shame about flying) while those in Spain, Poland, and Australia felt significantly less guilty about flying.

It is worth tracking these trends in each market and demographic, because passengers’ experiences and opinions are increasingly relevant: passengers spend far more time online, increasingly trust each other’s recommendations more than traditional marketing, and can reshape brand perceptions faster than ever. 6 “ Understanding the ever-evolving, always-surprising consumer ,” McKinsey, August 31, 2021. In some markets consumers may reward airlines that meet rising demands for environmental sustainability—and punish those who fall behind.

The Australian airline Qantas may be acting on a similar belief. In November 2021, it announced a new “green tier” in its loyalty program. The initiative, based on feedback from passengers, is “designed to encourage, and recognize the airline’s 13 million frequent flyers for doing things like offsetting their flights, staying in eco-hotels, walking to work, and installing solar panels at home”. Qantas states that it is one of the largest private-sector buyers of Australian carbon credits, and it will use program funds to support more conservation and environmental projects. 7 “Qantas frequent flyers to be rewarded for being sustainable,” Qantas media release, November 26,, 2021. “A look at how people around the world view climate change,” Pew Research April 18, 2019. Washington Post-Kaiser Family Foundation climate change survey, July 9 to August 5, 2019.

Given these shifting trends, it may be helpful for all industry stakeholders to maintain a deep and up-to-date understanding of consumer segments in each market that they serve. Three main findings about today’s travelers emerged from the 2021 survey:

Finding 1: Most travelers now have concerns about climate change and carbon emissions—and many are prepared to act on these concerns

Concern about carbon emissions from aviation did not rise much during the pandemic, probably in part because air travel declined so sharply. About 56 percent of respondents said they were worried about climate change, and 54 percent said aviation should “definitely become carbon neutral” in the future.

While these numbers have increased only one or two percentage points since 2019, the share of respondents who rank CO 2 emissions as their top concern about aviation—ahead of concerns such as noise pollution and mass tourism—rose by nine percentage points to 34 percent. More than 30 percent of respondents have paid to offset their CO2 emissions from air travel.

Finding 2: Price and connections still matter much more than emissions to most travelers

Of the nine major factors travelers consider when booking a flight, carbon emissions consistently rank as sixth-most important across customer segments. This may be partly because most airline marketing centers around low cost or superior service, and pricing and revenue management are targeted at price and best connection. Most booking websites allow prospective travelers to sort by price and number of connections, for example, but not by carbon footprint. Google Flights has made a first step, showing average CO2 emissions per flight and improving transparency for travelers.

Travelers might begin to make different choices if emissions featured more prominently in the booking process—particularly if more airlines offered CO 2 reduction measures that delivered genuine environmental impact.

Finding 3: Attitudes vary widely by demographics and geography

Beliefs about the seriousness of climate change, and how to respond to it, vary across demographics and geographies (exhibit). Although younger people are generally more aware of the predicted consequences of climate change, older cohorts have become more concerned about climate change since the 2019 survey. In some countries, large majorities see climate change as a major threat, while that represents a minority view in other countries.

The survey shows that frequent travelers feel slightly more shame about flying than other respondents—37 percent compared to 30 percent—but show a much lower intention to reduce their air travel to minimize their climate impact, at 19 percent compared to 38 percent.

According to Pew Research, more than 80 percent of people in Greece, Spain, France, and South Korea believe climate change is a major threat, compared to around 40 percent of those in Russia, Nigeria, and Israel. 8 “A look at how people around the world view climate change,” Pew Research April 18, 2019. According to 2019 polling by the Washington Post and Kaiser Family Foundation, more than three-quarters of Americans believe it represents a major problem or a crisis—but fewer than half are willing to pay to help address it. 9 Washington Post-Kaiser Family Foundation climate change survey, July 9 to August 5, 2019.

These numbers may change quickly in the next few years as discussions about climate change become less abstract as oceans rise and storms, forest fires, and droughts become more severe. Instead of being one topic of concern among many, millions more people around the world may come to see climate change as today’s greatest challenge.

This shift seems to be apparent in government action, especially in mature economies. The US, for example, announced its intention to exit the Paris Agreement in June 2017 but pledged to rejoin in April 2021. 10 “Climate change: US formally withdraws from Paris agreement,” BBC, November 4, 2020; “President Biden sets 2030 greenhouse gas pollution reduction target,” White House fact sheet, April 22, 2021. And in September, the White House set a goal for the country to produce 3 billion gallons of sustainable aircraft fuel annually by 2030—up from about 4.5 million gallons produced in the US in 2020—which would cut carbon emissions from flying by 20 percent compared with taking no action. 11 “Biden administration advances the future of sustainable fuels in American aviation,” White House fact sheet, September 9, 2021.

Taking stock of the pandemic’s impact on global aviation

How the industry can be cleared for takeoff.

Travelers’ attitudes and behaviors appear to be in flux, and will likely continue to change. Depending on the world’s progress in preventing and treating COVID-19, the industry will likely take at least a couple of years to recover from the downdrafts caused by the pandemic.

In this unique moment in aviation history, airlines may be able to communicate in new ways to inspire passengers to join the fight against climate change. Based on McKinsey’s experience in aviation and other industries around the world, there may be an opportunity for carriers to make it “easy to do good”. When following such an approach, experience shows that customers are drawn to straightforward language, demonstrations of what the industry is doing in this area, and the tangible benefits of those efforts. The most compelling stories are positive and connect with customers’ emotional needs.

As in the early days of travel advertising, airlines could reinforce the idea that the journey is the destination—that “getting there is half the fun.” By inviting customers to get involved in creating a greener future and own the solution, they could forge new partnerships and deepen loyalty.

Actual progress will be essential; organizations that talk about sustainability without demonstrating action may quickly be held to account. Simply keeping pace with trends or regulatory requirements will offer no advantages. Airlines that move boldly, such as by replacing rather than modifying a loyalty program with some kind of “planet-positive” scheme, will stand out from competitors.

The survey results and McKinsey’s work in the industry lead us to believe that the market is ready for a forward-thinking airline to chart a route to a cleaner future for the industry. Leading airlines that build a business strategy and brand promise on sustainability will likely attract a growing share of business and leisure travelers, fresh capital and talent, and new allies across the industry, government, and society at large.

In the years ahead, more customers will be willing to pay for sustainability, particularly if airlines can engage them with interesting approaches, such as gamification in frequent flyer programs, opt-out rather than opt-in offsets, “green fast lanes” for check-ins and security control, and customized emission-reduction offers. Decarbonization could become the standard to reach and maintain next-tier levels in loyalty programs. Passengers will be able to join the global decarbonization team and transform flight shame into flight pride.

Like many private flyers, corporate customers will look for ways to mitigate their CO 2 footprint. Passenger and cargo airlines could craft attractive decarbonization programs to engage the rising numbers of corporates aiming to significantly reduce their scope 3 emissions from air transport.

No single set of approaches will be effective in every geography or with every passenger segment. But airlines with a deep understanding of their customers’ changing needs and desires will continue to outperform those that don’t. Such organizations could recruit more of their passengers to the decarbonization team while protecting their brands, the future of aviation, and the planet itself.

Mishal Ahmad is a manager in McKinsey’s New Jersey office, Frederik Franz is a senior associate in the Berlin office, Tomas Nauclér is a senior partner the Stockholm office, and Daniel Riefer is an associate partner in the Munich office.

The authors would like to thank Joost Krämer for his contributions to this article.

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Are you thinking of launching a trip planning startup or actively working on one? Travelers use dozens of websites and apps while planning their trips, frantically brainstorming ideas, comparing prices and compiling options into spreadsheets. There simply must be a better way, right?

Trip planners have been the holy grail of travel entrepreneurs for decades and Phocuswright has received thousands of pitches for them. With so much passion and effort poured into this space, why hasn’t there been a stand-out winner? Why have so many companies failed? And as travel embraces artificial intelligence, does AI hold the keys to future success?

Hear from Mike Coletta, Manager of Research and Innovation at Phocuswright and Gilad Berenstein, investor and former founder of Utrip, on their personal experiences with trip planning startups and what Phocuswright’s startup data tells us about success and failure. This webinar recording is a must-watch event for all entrepreneurs working on startups in the inspiration, itinerary or content areas of the travel industry.

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'Conan O'Brien Must Go' is side-splitting evidence of life beyond late night TV

Eric Deggans

Conan O'Brien dresses as a Viking in Norway. Conaco/Max hide caption

Conan O'Brien dresses as a Viking in Norway.

To be honest, when I first heard Conan O'Brien was ending his TV talk show in 2021, I assumed news that he might turn to variety shows and online programs to continue his career was some combination of face-saving and wishful thinking.

But after watching the four episodes of his new Max series Conan O'Brien Must Go , it's now obvious — even to a thickheaded critic like me — that leaving late night TV really was liberating for O'Brien. He's leveraged his unique sensibility into several different podcasts, a deal with Sirius XM , specials featuring other stand-up comics and now this travel series for Max — which resembles jokey specials he did for cable channel TBS back in the day.

And as the late night TV genre crumbles under sagging viewership and the decline of traditional media, O'Brien's renaissance also provides an example for the future — where fertile comedy minds and talented performers can spread their work over a much larger canvas.

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O'Brien already made a splash recently with his brilliantly maniacal appearance on the interview-while-eating-hot-wings show Hot Ones , slobbering over hot sauces while claiming, as he was checked over by a fake doctor, that "I'm fine! I'm perfectly f*****g fine!"

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The conceit of the show is pretty simple. O'Brien heads overseas to visit average folks in Norway, Argentina, Thailand and Ireland who had once Zoomed in to speak with him on the podcast Conan O'Brien Needs a Fan . Sometimes the visits seem like a surprise — he catches one aspiring Norwegian rapper in shorts and Crocs after popping up on his doorstep — and others seem a bit more planned, including his visit to a radio show with about four listeners in Buenos Aires.

Each episode begins with a solemn monologue which sounds like it is delivered by the film world's most eccentric voice, German filmmaker and actor Werner Herzog (he's not credited in the show and when asked, a publicist at Max shared a quote from O'Brien: "I can neither confirm nor deny the voice in question.")

The torturous accent by "Herzog" makes every line sound absurdly hilarious, describing O'Brien as "the defiler ... with dull, tiny eyes ... the eyes of a crudely painted doll ... he scavenges in distant lands, uninvited, fueled by a bottomless hunger for recognition and the occasional selfie."

Now that's smart. And oh so stupid.

A funhouse mirror version of a travel show

O'Brien performs onstage with a fan in Norway Conaco/Max hide caption

O'Brien performs onstage with a fan in Norway

Fans of O'Brien's Conan Without Borders specials on TBS already know what his style is when he tackles a travel show — throwing himself into outrageous reactions and situations while working his quirky brand of improvised conversations with hapless bystanders.

In the Max series Conan O'Brien Must Go , that includes O'Brien offering screechy vocals onstage during a performance of a Norwegian emo/rap band. Or asking provocative questions of a couple therapist/sex expert. Or getting beat up in a "fight" with a 10-year-old boy in a bar.

It's all an excuse for O'Brien to unleash his energetic wit, taste for silly absurdity and skill at drawing laughs from sympathetic — if often befuddled — strangers. Whether you enjoy this special will depend on how you feel about O'Brien's style, which can feel a bit like the world's best class clown doing everything possible to make you crack a smile.

(Rent a family in Norway so they can say goodbye when he gets on a SeaCraft? Check. Get local artists to paint a mural of O'Brien, a soccer star and The Pope on the side of a building in Argentina? Double check.)

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But what amazes in a larger sense is how O'Brien has turned his sensibility into a comedy brand to fuel work on many different platforms. And, at age 60, with more than 30 years as a comedy star, he's been released from the shackles of any genre to shine wherever he chooses — whether it's an episode of Hot Ones or a streaming service which sometimes looks like a collision between True Detective and 90 Day Fiancé .

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O'Brien left NBC after a disastrous deal where the network tried to make him host of its venerated late night program The Tonight Show and also keep its former host Jay Leno at the network. He moved to a late night show on TBS in 2010, but even then, there was a sense that his creativity was a bit hemmed in by the format.

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Now, with a podcast and digital media company worth many millions and growing status as a TV comedy legend still willing to do almost anything for a laugh, O'Brien is proving there is a successful life beyond late night.

Particularly, if you have the talent to play the fool while leaving little doubt you're also the smartest person in the room.

Can using VPN save you money on hotels, car rentals? I tested it out.

As I planned a trip to Mexico for this summer, my search for a bargain took me over the border without ever leaving my desk.

A recent study commissioned by cybersecurity company NordVPN found that U.S. travelers were being charged significantly more than those overseas for accommodations and rental cars.

"There's no need to overpay for a holiday abroad," the company said in a blog post about the research. "Using a VPN can save you a lot of money – and it's easy to get started."

Perennially drawn to finding a deal with minimal effort, I used that approach to plan three hypothetical trips and put the strategy to the test. Here's what I learned by using two different VPN services.

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Can you find travel deals by using a VPN?

NordVPN researchers found some major price differences when booking travel in the U.S. versus using a VPN, a virtual private network  that hides your IP address and physical location.

A two-week stay for a family of four at Zoetry Casa del Mar Los Cabos in Mexico, for instance, was priced at $84,929 on Hotels.com when booking in the U.S., but just $27,514 when using a VPN set in Mexico, according to the blog post.

In another case, renting a Peugeot 5008 from Budget – via Expedia – at London's Gatwick Airport for a little over a week costs $2,157.32 in the U.S. compared to $1,166.33 using a VPN set to the United Kingdom.

But the searches didn't strictly yield deals. "When conducting the research, there were cases when prices offered to consumers in different countries were similar," the company said in a news release.

In my own hunt for bargains using NordVPN, I came up mostly empty-handed. I compared hotel and rental car bookings in Mexico, the U.K. and Italy to U.S.-based prices and most were almost identical regardless of my virtual country of origin.

A June weekend stay at Fairfield Inn Los Cabos ran $334 via Hotels.com in the U.S. for one room, for example, and just a few cents more with my location set to Mexico, while renting a Chevrolet Aveo or similar car from Hertz in Mexico City cost about $49.50 per day in both cases.

Story continues below.

My luck didn't turn around across the pond, either: The Westin London City cost me $948 in the U.S. and about $949.50 with my location set to the U.K. In one case, the U.S. price was noticeably cheaper: when I priced out a rental car from Budget at London's Heathrow Airport, I stood to pay $278.82 in the U.S. and $364.65 with the help of a VPN set to the United Kingdom.

I did find one deal on a Fiat Panda 1.2 – or similar-sized vehicle – at Leonardo da Vinci-Fiumicino Airport in Rome from Sicily by Car via Expedia. The U.S. price was $146 compared to $101.98 when I set my location to Italy.

I tried the same approach the next day using another VPN service, ExpressVPN, but got similar results.

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"Typically, you can find great deals by looking at local sites (in the place) you are traveling to, but it's not always consistent and other locations can sometimes present a cheaper price, so it does take trial and error to hunt down the best price," Lauren Hendry Parsons, ExpressVPN privacy advocate and global head of communications, told USA TODAY in an email.

A spokesperson for Expedia Group – which operates Expedia and Hotels.com, among others – said the company did not have any information to add. Hertz and Avis Budget Group did not respond to USA TODAY's request for comment.

Can you get cheaper flights by using VPN?

While NordVPN's study didn't include flights, I went ahead and checked fares from New York to each country, too.

The lowest fares were about the same in most cases, but I found a slight price difference on round-trip flights from John F. Kennedy International Airport to Mexico City, which would have cost me $602 booking in the U.S., but the same itinerary was around $586 with the VPN set to Mexico (the same was true with both NordVPN and ExpressVPN).

Does using a VPN to book travel work?

It depends. Different rate structures can be applied to different distribution channels and geography, according to Robert Cole, Senior Research Analyst, Lodging and Leisure Travel at Phocuswright.

A hotel might give a third-party booking site a cheaper rate but request that the site only list that price in a specific place, for example.

"They go, 'That's great, but do not sell that in the U.S.,'" Cole said. "You know, 'We are Miami Beach resort or we're a resort in Cancun (or) the Dominican Republic, we want German business.'"

Prices can vary on a host of other factors, too, including timing and availability, he said, and the best deal for a given booking may be on a U.S. site. A website might also require travelers to provide a home address or, in the case of rental cars, a driver's license from that country in order to access a given rate, Cole added.

He recommended proceeding with caution, particularly if you are booking with a foreign site you aren't familiar with, where help may be hard to track down if a problem occurs.

"My words of warning are, yes, you can do it, but that you have to be very careful knowing who you're dealing with," Cole added. "So, it's very much traveler beware."

Is using a VPN to book travel worth it?

My largely fruitless bargain hunt may have been due to bad luck, or perhaps travelers looking to find the kinds of deals NordVPN researchers did have to exercise more patience.

And while I may not have saved much on the hypothetical trips, the experiment did cost me money. I paid just over $14 for a one-month NordVPN subscription and nearly $13 for a monthly subscription to ExpressVPN.

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Along the way, I ran into roadblocks, too.

After checking prices on hotels and rental cars in Mexico, I clicked my way to the U.K., but Hotels.com repeatedly asked me to prove I was not a robot by choosing the penguin in a series of graphics. Several attempts later, the site would not let me out of penguin jail and I switched over to Expedia.

Marijus Briedis, Chief Technology Officer at NordVPN, said in an email that its researchers ran into the bot identification issue and fixed it "by effectively disconnecting from the VPN, clearing the browsing data/cache/cookies etc and then going into the site again."

Parsons also said banks and credit card companies have varying policies regarding international transaction fees. "So if a person were to make a purchase in a currency outside their home market it would depend on the terms and conditions of the bank or credit card company they use whether they would be charged a transaction fee for this purchase or not," she said.

As he put it, when it comes to using a VPN to book travel, there are "inherent risks that may not be worth the potential reward."

Nathan Diller is a consumer travel reporter for USA TODAY based in Nashville. You can reach him at [email protected].