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How fast does electricity flow?

Drift velocity, the average speed at which electrons travel in a conductor when subjected to an electric field, is about 1mm per second.

Gareth Mitchell

Asked by: Carel Lucas, Perth, Australia

Drift velocity, the average speed at which electrons travel in a conductor when subjected to an electric field, is about 1mm per second. It’s the electromagnetic wave rippling through the electrons that propagates at close to the speed of light. The dimensions of the wire and electrical properties like its inductance affect the exact propagation speed, but usually it will be around 90 per cent of the speed of light – about 270,000 km/s.

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Current Flow Overview: How Electricity Travels Through Wires

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Although electricity has become an integral part of our lives, and life without is unimaginable, some of us still don’t understand how it all works. This article aims to help us understand how electricity travels through wires, up to our homes and businesses for consumption.

The discovery of electricity has dramatically influenced and impacted the world around us. Currently, we have massive grids and other power sources that generate electric power for consumption in our homes and offices. However, the science behind the production and how electricity travels through wires remains a mystery to many.

Electricity is a powerful force that exists naturally on this planet. We all rely on electricity from time to time. Some rely on electric power just like they do water and food.

Let us think for a minute; what would life be like with no electricity to power up the telephones , your favorite TV shows, and video games, among other gadgets?

It is undeniable that electricity is a force that exists to allow us to enjoy life in diverse ways.

Well, albeit getting to know how electricity works would be great since we will have the ability to enjoy it with a solid understanding.

Additionally, when we understand some of the principles and how electricity travels through wires will eliminate the multiple risks that come with electricity.

So How Can We Define Electricity?

To most individuals, electricity is perceived to be a mysterious force the pops up whenever we click a switch or plug in cables to a socket. I’m sure if we all had a chance to talk about electricity as we perceive it, we would end up having baskets full of hilarious answers.

Nonetheless, the best part of it is that these baskets will reveal the incredible power of imagination that our minds can conceive.

It was through this beautiful power that some great minds were able to discover electricity since the 17th century.

The likes of William Gilbert, Ben Franklin, Alessandro Volta, Michael Faraday, and Nikola Tesla, among many, are heroes in the discovery of electricity and shaping it to what we have today.

Electricity is termed to be the flow of electric charge within a complete circuit. While we may view the mechanics behind the generation and flow of electricity to be complicated, the basics of how electricity flows are quite easy to understand.

Therefore, let us define some terms used around electricity.

What is A Circuit?

The term circuit has its roots from the word circle; hence, we can think of it as a loop. The circuit is a pathway where electricity flows through from the source and back to the source.

Talking of circuits, they can either be open circuits and closed circuits.

With an open circuit, it means that there is a disconnect somewhere along the loop and electricity cannot flow.

With a closed circuit, the circle is complete; thus, electricity can flow. This principle forms the basis of electric switches.

See Related : Why is My Electric Bill So High?

What Are Electrons?

An atom is the smallest constituent unit of an element that can exist, but within each atom, there are three particles. The three particles include electrons, protons, and neutrons.

The electrons carry a negative electromagnetic charge and have unique characteristics as they can skip from one atom to another.

The ability of an electron to disassociate itself from one atom and move to the adjacent atom is what makes it the most vital particle when it comes to electricity.

This movement of electrons from one atom to another is what creates an electric current. A consistent flow of electrons within a circuit determines the current in a wire. See how to calculate potential energy to understand electrons and energy.

What is Current?

Electric current is defined as the flow of electrons in a circuit. This current is derived from the continuous jumping of the negatively charged electrons from one atom to another. The standard unit of measurement of electric current is Ampere (A).

Electric current exists in two forms, the direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC). The physics around these two might be a little bit complicated, but the fundamental difference between the two depends on how the current flows.

The type of electric current affects how electricity travels through wires. The electrical current in direct current tends to flow in a single direction whereas it is quite the opposite in alternating current since it reverses direction.

What is Voltage?

Voltage refers to the pressure of electrons in a circuit. In some cases, a voltage can also refer to as the electromotive force.

Voltage is measured in volts (V) and the conventional circuits installed in our homes and offices are generally 120 volts or 240 volts. Most light fixtures are fed by 120 volts while the large appliances use the 240 volts.

What is Resistance?

With regards to electricity, resistance is an electrical quantity that measures the opposition offered by a material to the flow of electric current. Resistance also affects how electricity travels through wires. A cable that has a low resistance has a high flow of electrons, while the one with high resistance has a low flow of electrons.

The measurement of resistance is Ohms, and too much resistance in a circuit can cause an overload which might potentially result in a fire. The reason being, resistance generates some heat within a circuit. The working of an incandescent light bulb has its basis on this principle.

Now that we understand some of the basic terms in the field of with electricity let’s take a deeper dive into the generation of electricity as well as try and see how does electricity travel at a greater depth.

How Does Electricity Travel

For electricity to flow in any material, the material ought to be a good conductor of electricity. Good conductors easily allow the flow of electron from one point to another. Secondly, electric conductors of electricity exhibit relatively low resistance to the electric current compared to the poor conductors (electrical insulators).

Poor conductors of electricity possess high resistance to the flow of electrons, thus hindering electric current from flowing from one point to another.

Electric wires are manufactured using electrical conductors and insulated with a poor conductor. In most cases, copper is the most used metal in manufacturing wires.

Copper has the least resistivity, thus making it the best option as it also helps reduce energy loss.

Where Does Electricity Start

It is essential to consider that a utility generator ought to be present for the electrons to flow in circuit wires. A utility generator is essentially a turbine that rotates huge coils of metal wires within massive magnets.

Back in 1931, Michael Faraday discovered how to create electric charges. When an electrical conductor turns within a magnetic field, it produces electric charges.

Faraday’s discovery is still being used in modern turbines as well as generators, whether being powered by water, steam, or wind. The metal coils rotate around the magnetic field, thus kick-starting the flow of electrons.

If we may use the analogy of a water pump, the pump does not create water but rather facilitate the flow of water. The same case applies to generators; they do not generate electricity but facilitate the flow of electrons through the wire.

The rotating coils of wires cut across the electromagnetic fields, thus generating electric current within the cable. The rotations can, however, be designed to either produce alternating current or direct current.

It is also important to note that some electric power sources may not require turbines such as the solar panel which generates direct current.

See Related : An Overview of Prepaid Electricity

How Does Electricity Travel Through Wire

As earlier discussed, what travels through the wires physically is not electricity but rather the negatively charged electrons. These electrons that jump from one atom to another are not firmly bound and are free to roam. We can also refer to them as free electrons.

These free electrons frequently bounce and jiggle around at room temperature since the temperatures are high, that is, in comparison to the absolute zero. The force from the turbines tends to stabilize these electrons as they slowly drift in one direction.

For the alternating current, the electrons slowly drift in one direction for about 0.02 seconds and then drift back in reverse for 0.02 seconds.

Given that the electrons drift slowly, one may wonder how fast does the electricity move? Electrical energy travels as electromagnetic waves at the speed of light, which is 3*108 meters per second.

The speed of electricity is quite fast even though the electrons move quite slowly.

The electric field produces the force that causes these electrons to drift slowly. The strength of this electric field is what we refer to as an electromotive force or preferably voltage.

On the other hand, the slow movement of the electrons in the wire results in an electric current. Let’s borrow the idea of water flowing in a pipe to help us better understand how electricity travels through wires.

Although the flow of water in a pipe is not the perfect analogy but will assist in creating a mental image. In our analogy, water will represent the electrons while the pipeline will be the wire.

The voltage can be likened to the pressure of water in a pipe, while current is the amount of water flowing through the same pipe.

See Related : Interesting Facts About Electricity

What is Transmission?

Concerning how electricity travels through wires, the transmission is the transport of electricity from the source, to the consumption point. While thinking about the electrical grid, it is a considerable network designed to transmit electric power.

Generally, electricity from the power plants moves through transmission lines to the substations. From the substations, the voltage is lowered and sent through distribution lines to our homes.

The transmission lines are fed with high voltage electricity since high voltage minimizes line losses. About 6% of the power that gets to the transmission lines is lost due to resistance of the wires. It is important to note that electric wires also provide some resistance to the electric current.

Bringing resistance into the picture clearly defines how transmission and voltage work together. Ohms law states that “Electric current is directly proportional to the voltage, while the current is inversely proportional to the resistance.”

After increasing the voltage, the electrical current increases, which then minimizes power loss during transmission.

Some of the factors that increase the resistance of a wire include:

• Temperature: The cooler the wire, the lesser the resistance than warmer wires.
• Cross-sectional area: The thick wires have lower resistance and vice versa.
• Length of the wire: shorter wires will experience lesser resistance while longer wires will experience more resistance.
• The material used to manufacture the wire also determines the resistance of the wire.

See Related : Energy Conservation Methods to Consider

Conclusion On How Electricity Travels Through Wires

How electricity travels through wires is not magic. The process is not hard to understand either, but rather simple science. Electric current is just the flow of electrons in a circuit.

For instance, for the light bulb to go on when you press that switch at home, electricity flows from the power stations through the lines, to the lamp, and then finally back to the power source.

Do you now know how it all works? Leave us your comment below.

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How Does Electricity Flow? | Explanation and Review

• The Albert Team
• Last Updated On: October 19, 2023

In this post, we’ll explore electrical circuits. We’ll cover the essential question “How does electricity flow?” and break down the components of circuit diagram. Also, we’ll distinguish between series and parallel circuits. This guide aims to enhance your comprehension of these concepts through clear explanations and practical examples. Join us in this insightful journey through the circuitry!

What We Review

How Does Electricity Flow?

In order to understand how electricity flows, we need to start with the basics. Electricity is the flow of electric charge, which, in most household contexts, means the movement of electrons through a conductor. These electrons move from areas of negative charge to areas of positive charge, creating an electric current.

The Role of Electrons

In conductive materials, such as metals, some electrons are free to move. These electrons aren’t bound to any particular atom and can drift from one atom to another. When you apply a voltage, or potential difference, across the conductor, it creates an electric field. This field exerts a force on these free electrons, propelling them through the conductor. This flow of electrons is what we refer to as electricity.

For electrons to flow, there must be a complete path, or circuit. Specifically, the circuit must lead from the negative charge source, through the conductor, and back to the positive charge source. The simplest version of this is a light bulb, a battery, a switch, and wire. If you close the switch, the circuit is complete and the battery’s negative terminal repels electrons (as like charges repel) and sends them through the wire to the bulb. As a result, the bulb lights up and the electrons continue flowing back to the positive terminal. When the switch is open, the circuit is not complete and the electricity does not flow through the wires.

Conventional vs. Electron Flow

Surprisingly, we often talk about the flow of electricity as if it were positive charges moving, and we say it flows from the positive terminal to the negative terminal. This is “conventional current” and scientists created this definition before they knew that electrons were the charges actually moving. On the other hand, “electron flow” acknowledges that electrons are moving from the negative to the positive terminal. Despite this difference, both models are appropriate, depending on the context, and they both describe how circuits behave.

Circuit Integrity

The integrity of this path is crucial. If something or someone breaks the circuit, the flow of electrons stops, and the current stops too. This could be intentional, like a switch, or something accidental, like a broken circuit element.That’s is why we call it a circuit—it’s a circle, and it has to be complete for electricity to flow.

By understanding electron movement in a circuit, you can start to understand more complex electrical concepts, for example, how different types of circuits (like series and parallel) impact this flow. The first thing to remember is that it’s all about providing a path for electrons to move from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration, much like water flowing down a hill.

Diagramming the Flow of Electricity

It’s important to realize that electrical circuits are the foundation of modern technology. You can find them in everything from smartphones to kitchen appliances. An electrical circuit is simply a path or a loop around which an electrical current flows. The path may be closed (like a loop) or open (broken), and it might consist of various components like resistors, transistors, capacitors, wires, and other devices.

Circuit Diagrams

Circuit diagrams, also known as schematic diagrams, are visual representations of electrical circuits and the flow of electricity. They use simplified standard symbols to represent electrical components and lines to show the connections between those components. They are crucial for the design, construction, and maintenance of electrical and electronic equipment.

The Importance of Circuit Diagrams

Moreover, these diagrams are a universal language, meaning people from all over the world, regardless of their country or field, can understand the workings of a circuit. This common language is super handy when it comes to sharing designs, solving circuit problems, and ensuring that circuits are safe and correct.

How to Read Circuit Diagrams

To master the art of reading circuit diagrams, you need to get familiar with the symbols that represent various components. These symbols are connected by lines that illustrate the pathways between the components, essentially showing how current flows within the circuit. So, the trick is to spot the symbols and then follow the lines, which act just like virtual wires.

Circuit Symbols

When it comes to circuit symbols, think of them as a type of shorthand. They’re the little icons you see on circuit diagrams and they provide a quick way to know what components are in the circuit. They’re the key to unlocking the details of your circuit diagram.

Basic Circuit Symbols

• Resistor: A rectangle or a zigzag line represents a resistor, indicating a component that resists the flow of electrical current.
• Capacitor: Two parallel lines with a gap represent a capacitor, a component that stores electrical energy.
• Voltage Source or Battery: A series of alternating short and long lines represents a battery, illustrating the power source for the circuit.
• Light Bulb: A circle with a cross inside represents a light bulb, indicating a component that emits light when current flows through it.

Advanced Circuit Symbols

As circuits get more complex, you will encounter symbols for a broader range of components, such as diodes, transistors, and more. Each symbol conveys essential characteristics of the component it represents. To see a full list of circuit symbols and what they represent, review the following post .

Learning and Using Circuit Symbols

Learning these symbols is a key step in understanding the world of electronics. They’re the language of electronics, allowing you to create or read complex circuit diagrams. Whether you’re designing a circuit, the ability to identify these symbols and understand their meanings is crucial.

How Does Electricity Flow in Different Types of Circuits ?

There are two main types of electrical circuits: series and parallel circuits. They each have unique characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages.

Series Circuits

In a series circuit, components are arranged end-to-end. This allows the same current go flow through each component. If you imagine water flowing through a single pipe with several pumps along its length, you’ve got the idea of a series circuit.

Characteristics of Series Circuits:

• Current: Identical through all components.
• Voltage: Divided across the components.
• Resistance: Total resistance is the sum of the individual resistances.
• Breaking the Circuit: If one component fails, the circuit breaks, and current ceases to flow.

Parallel Circuits

Parallel circuits have multiple paths for the current to move through, and components are arranged side by side. If you imagine several separate water pipes coming from the same source and going to the same destination, you’re thinking of a parallel circuit.

Characteristics of Parallel Circuits:

• Current: Divided through the different paths, with the total current being the sum of the currents through each path.
• Voltage: Same across all components.
• Resistance: Total resistance decreases as more paths are added.
• Continuity: If one path is disrupted, current still flows through the other paths.

Difference Between Parallel and Series Circuits

It’s crucial to recognize the differences between series and parallel circuits to understand how they operate.

Current and Voltage

In series circuits, the current is the same through all parts, but the voltage is split between them. In parallel circuits, the opposite happens: the voltage is the same for all parts, but the current divides based on the number of paths.

Resistance in series circuits adds up, making the total resistance higher. In parallel circuits, adding more paths provides more options for the current, lowering the total resistance.

Reliability

Series circuits have a downside: if one part fails, the whole circuit stops working. But in parallel circuits, even if one path is interrupted, the current still flows through the other paths, making them more reliable.

Applications of Circuits

The choice between series and parallel circuits depends on the specific requirements of a task. We commonly use series circuits when we want to ensure a uniform current. Meanwhile, parallel circuits are preferred for their reliability and consistent voltage levels.

Quick Vocabulary Review for Circuits

Before we wrap up, let’s review some vocabulary for talking about circuits and how electricity flows.

• Voltage (V) : Think of voltage as the push that gets electricity moving. It’s like the pressure that makes water flow through a pipe. In our circuits, voltage is the force that moves electric current around. It’s measured in volts (V).
• Current (I) : Current is the flow of electricity. You can imagine it as the amount of water flowing through a pipe. But here, it’s the electric charge that moves in the circuit. We measure current in amperes, often shortened to amps (A).
• Resistance (R) : Resistance slows down the current. The higher the resistance, the slower the electric current flows. This is measured in ohms (Ω).
• Circuit : This is a path or a loop that electricity follows.
• Conductor : Materials that let electricity flow easily, like most metals, are called conductors.
• Insulator : These materials do not allow electricity to pass through easily. Plastic and rubber are good examples.

Remembering these key terms will help you understand how circuits work. Keep this vocabulary list handy while studying, and you’ll be a circuits pro in no time!

In summary, we learned the basics of electrical circuits, like how electricity flows and how to read diagrams with special signs. We also reviewed two kinds of circuits, series and parallel, and learned about their differences This material goes beyond the classroom; it’s about real things like our gadgets, houses, and big places like cities. Now you know more about the electric stuff all around us!

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How Does Electricity Travel? Exploring the Physics and Components of Electrical Current Flow

By Happy Sharer

Introduction

Electricity is a form of energy that powers our lives. It’s responsible for powering our homes, fueling our businesses, and providing us with the tools we need to live comfortably. But how does it travel? Understanding the science behind electricity can help us understand how it moves through our systems and can help us be more efficient in our use of it.

What is electricity? In its simplest form, electricity is the flow of electrons. Electrons are negatively charged particles that move from one atom to another. When two atoms come into contact, they exchange electrons, creating an electric current. This current is what powers our devices and machines.

Why understanding how electricity travels is important. Knowing the path electricity takes helps us to be more efficient in our use of it. We can better understand how to use it safely, how to reduce our energy costs, and how to protect ourselves from electrical hazards.

Exploring the Physics of How Electricity Travels

To understand how electricity travels, we must first explore the physics behind it. There are two main forces at work when it comes to electricity: electric fields and magnetic fields.

Electric fields . Electric fields are created when electrons move from one atom to another. When these electrons move, they create an electric field around them. This electric field is what allows electricity to travel.

Magnetic fields . Magnetic fields are created when electrons move around a wire or other conductor. This creates a magnetic field around the wire, which can be used to generate electricity.

Magnetism and electricity . Magnetism and electricity are closely connected. The magnetic field created by moving electrons can be used to generate electricity, while the electric field created by moving electrons can be used to create a magnetic field. This connection between magnetism and electricity is what makes it possible for electricity to travel.

Understanding the Electrical Grid: How Electricity is Transported

The electrical grid is the system that transports electricity from its source to its destination. This system consists of three main parts: transmission lines, distribution lines, and local transformers.

Transmission lines . Transmission lines are the long-distance power lines that transport electricity from its source to its destination. These lines are usually located high above the ground and span over large distances.

Distribution lines . Distribution lines are the shorter power lines that transport electricity from the transmission lines to local homes and businesses. These lines are typically located close to the ground and span shorter distances.

Local transformers . Local transformers are small devices that convert the high voltage of the transmission lines to the lower voltage used in homes and businesses. These transformers are typically located on utility poles or underground.

What is the Path Electricity Follows?

Once electricity is transported to its destination, it must follow a particular path in order to power the devices and machines. This path is determined by three main factors: current flow, voltage, and resistance.

Current flow . Current flow is the measure of the amount of electricity flowing through a circuit. This is measured in amperes (amps). The higher the current, the more electricity is flowing through the circuit.

Voltage . Voltage is the measure of the electrical pressure in a circuit. This is measured in volts. The higher the voltage, the more electrical pressure is present in the circuit.

Resistance . Resistance is the measure of the opposition to the flow of electricity in a circuit. This is measured in ohms. The higher the resistance, the more the electricity is opposed in the circuit.

The Journey of an Electron: How Electricity Moves

When electricity flows through a circuit, it follows a particular path. This path is determined by the movement of electrons. Electrons move from one atom to another, creating an electric current.

As electrons move through a circuit, they gain energy. This energy is converted from potential energy to kinetic energy. Potential energy is stored energy, while kinetic energy is energy in motion. As the electrons move, they gain kinetic energy, which is used to power the devices and machines in the circuit.

The electrons then move back to the source of the electricity, completing the journey. This cycle repeats itself as long as the electricity is flowing.

Examining the Components That Make Up an Electrical Circuit

An electrical circuit is made up of several components. These components include conductors, insulators, switches, and other components. Each component serves a different purpose in the circuit.

Conductors . Conductors are materials that allow electricity to flow through them. Examples of conductors include copper wire, aluminum wire, and steel. They are used to connect different components in the circuit.

Insulators . Insulators are materials that do not allow electricity to flow through them. Examples of insulators include rubber, plastic, and glass. They are used to prevent electricity from flowing where it is not wanted.

Switches . Switches are devices that can open or close the flow of electricity in a circuit. Examples of switches include light switches, circuit breakers, and relays. They are used to control the flow of electricity in a circuit.

Mapping Out the Flow of Electricity Through a System

Now that we know the components of an electrical circuit, we can map out how electricity flows through a system. A system consists of several components, including power sources, loads, and control components.

Power sources . Power sources are the sources of electricity. Examples of power sources include batteries, generators, and solar panels. They provide the electricity needed to power the devices and machines in the system.

Loads . Loads are the devices and machines that use the electricity provided by the power sources. Examples of loads include lights, motors, and computers. They consume the electricity provided by the power sources.

Control components . Control components are the components that control the flow of electricity in the system. Examples of control components include switches, relays, and circuit breakers. They are used to control the flow of electricity in the system.

Electricity is an essential part of our lives. Understanding how it travels can help us be more efficient in our use of it. To understand how electricity travels, we must first explore the physics behind it. Electric fields and magnetic fields are the two main forces at work when it comes to electricity. We must also understand the electrical grid and how electricity is transported. Once electricity is transported to its destination, it must follow a particular path determined by current flow, voltage, and resistance. This path is determined by the movement of electrons, which move from one atom to another, gaining energy as they go. Finally, we must examine the components that make up an electrical circuit, including conductors, insulators, switches, power sources, loads, and control components. By understanding how electricity travels, we can better understand how to use it safely and efficiently.

(Note: Is this article not meeting your expectations? Do you have knowledge or insights to share? Unlock new opportunities and expand your reach by joining our authors team. Click Registration to join us and share your expertise with our readers.)

Hi, I'm Happy Sharer and I love sharing interesting and useful knowledge with others. I have a passion for learning and enjoy explaining complex concepts in a simple way.

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How Does Electricity Make Its Way From Power Plants To The Plugs In Your House?

Turn back the clock just a couple of centuries, and to our ancestors, the alchemy of electricity would seem like magic: with the single flip of a switch, our rooms are bathed in light.

But how does electricity makes its way to the plugs in your house? WNPR set out to answer that question and learned about the incredible combination of science, physics, and engineering, which all make our electricity possible.

And as I stood on the floor of the Millstone nuclear plant in Waterford, Connecticut, it did seem like some futuristic feat of engineering.

I was inside a massive room that looked like the hold of a multi-storied space freighter. Countless pipes twisted on the walls around me as I walked over a latticed corridor of metal stairs.

The nuclear reaction at Millstone happens elsewhere -- uranium atoms are split; heat is produced, and used to make steam. But I was looking at where that steam goes -- into a massive high-pressure turbine, about 250 feet long. It's the start of our electricity's journey.

"That's spinning at 1,800 revolutions per minute," said Ken Holt, a spokesperson for Millstone, who took me through the plant.

As we walked and tried to talk over the noise, steam flowed into the turbine, hitting blades, and twisting the shaft of a generator. It was all spinning a magnet inside huge coils of wire, converting mechanical energy into electricity. In this case, it was about 1,200 megawatts.

"Each megawatt, in New England ... can power 1,000 homes," Holt said. "So, Unit 3 is about 1.2 million homes."

In 2016, Millstone and other nuclear plants provided about 30 percent of New England's power generation . Natural gas pumped out about 50 percent. And the rest came from a mix of renewable energy and coal. It has many points of generation, which all feed into the same thing: our grid.

This got me curious about the next step: how does all that electricity move across all those wires?

To understand that part of the story, I hopped into a helicopter with Christine Naktenis from Air Ocean Aviation. As we took to the air, she kept an eye out for hazards.

We flew a few hundred feet over a trail of high-voltage transmission lines running through Connecticut towns. Transmission lines are the big power wires you see, often in fields, up on giant metal scaffolds. In the back seat was Tony Johnson from Eversource.

You can think of electric wires as pipes -- only instead of water, they’re carrying electricity. They're two things we wouldn’t want to mix, but for the sake of this analogy, they'll do just fine.

As the helicopter zipped and dipped, I asked Johnson about something key to electricity’s journey. When a line is "live," is it always carrying the same amount of power?

"Lines are always running at voltage level 115,000 volts or 345,000 volts," Johnson said. "But amperage -- the current -- is actually how much power is flowing."

Back to our analogy. Pipes have pressure that moves water through them. Wires have voltage that moves amperage, or current, along its way. And just like you can’t track a drop of water as it moves through pipes, you can’t track an electron as it moves along on a wire. But you can track and change its flow.

"Depending on the time of year -- the loads, the heat -- you can have a very high current running through these," Johnson said. "If you take some lines out, other lines will be loaded up, so they’ll have very high current running through them."

The process isn’t perfect. The federal Department of Energy said around five percent of electricity is lost in transmission and distribution in the U.S. Some is lost in the form of heat . And on really hot days, it’s physics you can see, power lines dipping toward the ground, as heat and electricity cause the wires physically to expand and slacken.

And here’s the part of the story where, for me at least, the whole thing gets a little bit mind-boggling. The entire electric system needs to be kept in near-perfect balance. If too much power is dumped into the grid, lines could, quite literally, burn up.

So who the heck watches that? Naturally, I had to find out.

"It's from this room, here in Holyoke, Massachusetts, that we dispatch virtually all of the electricity that consumers use from Maine down to Connecticut," said Ellen Foley, with ISO New England. They dispatch electricity over 9,000 miles of high-voltage transmission lines across the region’s electric grid -- to millions of homes and businesses.

We were in a conference room talking about electricity, when suddenly, Foley jumped up to make a call. And in Wizard-of-Oz-like fashion, one side of the room ascended, as she literally pulled back the curtain on a large control center.

Because of security, I couldn't go in. But behind the glass were the workers responsible for keeping the grid operational. 

"Electricity is used as soon as it's produced," Foley said. "So we have to make sure that we keep supply and demand in almost constant balance."

Helping with that was a giant screen about 12 feet tall by 50 feet wide. It was a visual schematic of hundreds of power plants, substations, and transmission lines across New England, which need to be tweaked as demand varies.

Foley said workers also keep close tabs on news and the weather -- and use a "neural network" to make short-term forecasts about energy demand, "which is sort of an artificial intelligence computer that takes a look at consumer behavior for electricity demand over the past 35 years on the grid," she said.

This enables ISO to run forecasting models. For example: "How much electricity will we need on a Wednesday morning in the middle of winter, with this kind of temperature?" Foley said.

Back up in the helicopter near Wallingford, Connecticut, Christine Naktenis swooped in to observe two large transmission lines running parallel. I asked Tony Johnson where it’s going next.

"It will end up going to a substation," he said.

Remember when we said voltage was like pressure for electrons? Well, just like you wouldn't take a shower with a fire hose -- for fear the water pressure would obliterate your loofah -- too much electric pressure, or voltage, could blow out your appliances.

So substations knock that electricity down to a lower voltage. Eversource runs more than 200 of those in Connecticut.

"And then, from there, you'll have these smaller lines come from that station to other substations, where it breaks it down to the distribution voltage," Johnson said.

Energy hits those small cylindrical transformers on your utility poles, where the voltage is massaged down one more time, traveling through distribution lines.

Finally, that power flows into your home, ready for you when you turn on your TV, or flip on your light.

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Electricity

by Chris Woodford . Last updated: March 23, 2024.

I f you've ever sat watching a thunderstorm, with mighty lightning bolts darting down from the sky, you'll have some idea of the power of electricity . A bolt of lightning is a sudden, massive surge of electricity between the sky and the ground beneath. The energy in a single lightning bolt is enough to light 100 powerful lamps for a whole day or to make about twenty thousand slices of toast! [1]

Electricity is the most versatile energy source that we have; it is also one of the newest: homes and businesses have been using it for not much more than a hundred years. Electricity has played a vital part of our past. But it could play a different role in our future, with many more buildings generating their own renewable electric power using solar cells and wind turbines. Let's take a closer look at electricity and find out how it works!

What is electricity?

Electricity is a type of energy that can build up in one place or flow from one place to another. When electricity gathers in one place it is known as static electricity (the word static means something that does not move); electricity that moves from one place to another is called current electricity .

• Static electricity

Photo: Lightning happens when static electricity (built up in one place) turns to current electricity (flowing from one place to another).

Static electricity often happens when you rub things together. If you rub a balloon against your pullover 20 or 30 times, you'll find the balloon sticks to you. This happens because rubbing the balloon gives it an electric charge (a small amount of electricity). The charge makes it stick to your pullover like a magnet , because your pullover gains an opposite electric charge. So your pullover and the balloon attract one another like the opposite ends of two magnets.

Have you ever walked across a nylon rug or carpet and felt a slight tingling sensation? Then touched something metal, like a door knob or a faucet (tap), and felt a sharp pain in your hand? That is an example of an electric shock . When you walk across the rug, your feet are rubbing against it. Your body gradually builds up an electric charge, which is the tingling you can sense. When you touch metal, the charge runs instantly to Earth—and that's the shock you feel.

Lightning is also caused by static electricity. As rain clouds move through the sky, ice crystals inside them sink to the bottom, while water droplets rise to the top. The crystals have one kind of charge (negative) while the water droplets have the other kind (positive). It's the separation of these charges that allows a cloud to build up its power. Eventually, when the charge is big enough, it leaps to Earth as a bolt of lightning. You can often feel the tingling in the air when a storm is brewing nearby. This is the electricity in the air around you. Read more about this in our article on capacitors .

How static electricity works

Electricity is caused by electrons, the tiny particles that "orbit" around the edges of atoms , from which everything is made. Each electron has a small negative charge. An atom normally has an equal number of electrons and protons (positively charged particles in its nucleus or center), so atoms have no overall electrical charge. A piece of rubber is made from large collections of atoms called molecules. Since the atoms have no electrical charge, the molecules have no charge either—and nor does the rubber.

Suppose you rub a balloon on your pullover over and over again. As you move the balloon back and forward, you give it energy. The energy from your hand makes the balloon move. As it rubs against the wool in your pullover, some of the electrons in the rubber molecules are pulled free and gather on your body. This leaves the balloon with slightly too few electrons. Since electrons are negatively charged, having too few electrons makes the balloon slightly positively charged. Your pullover meanwhile gains these extra electrons and becomes negatively charged. Your pullover is negatively charged, and the balloon is positively charged. Opposite charges attract, so your pullover sticks to the balloon.

Photo: A classic demonstration of static electricity you may have seen in your school. When you touch the metal ball of a Van de Graaff static electricity generator, you receive a huge electric charge and your hair literally stands on end! Each strand of hair gets the same static charge and like charges repel, so the hairs push away from one another. In a bit more detail: the Van de Graaff ball builds up a huge positive charge. This "sucks" electrons (e) out of your body, and from the hairs in your head, leaving each clump of hair with a positive charge that repels the other hairs. Find out how a Van de Graaff Generator works .

Current electricity

When electrons move, they carry electrical energy from one place to another. This is called current electricity or an electric current . A lightning bolt is one example of an electric current, although it does not last very long. Electric currents are also involved in powering all the electrical appliances that you use, from washing machines to flashlights and from telephones to MP3 players . These electric currents last much longer.

Have you heard of the terms potential energy and kinetic energy? Potential energy means energy that is stored somehow for use in the future. A car at the top of a hill has potential energy, because it has the potential (or ability) to roll down the hill in future. When it's rolling down the hill, its potential energy is gradually converted into kinetic energy (the energy something has because it's moving). You can read more about this in our article on energy .

Static electricity and current electricity are like potential energy and kinetic energy. When electricity gathers in one place, it has the potential to do something in the future. Electricity stored in a battery is an example of electrical potential energy. You can use the energy in the battery to power a flashlight, for example. When you switch on a flashlight, the battery inside begins to supply electrical energy to the lamp, making it give off light. All the time the light is switched on, energy is flowing from the battery to the lamp. Over time, the energy stored in the battery is gradually turned into light (and heat) in the lamp. This is why the battery runs flat.

Electric circuits

For an electric current to happen, there must be a circuit . A circuit is a closed path or loop around which an electric current flows. A circuit is usually made by linking electrical components together with pieces of wire cable. Thus, in a flashlight, there is a simple circuit with a switch, a lamp, and a battery linked together by a few short pieces of copper wire. When you turn the switch on, electricity flows around the circuit. If there is a break anywhere in the circuit, electricity cannot flow. If one of the wires is broken, for example, the lamp will not light. Similarly, if the switch is turned off, no electricity can flow. This is why a switch is sometimes called a circuit breaker .

You don't always need wires to make a circuit, however. There is a circuit formed between a storm cloud and the Earth by the air in between. Normally air does not conduct electricity. However, if there is a big enough electrical charge in the cloud, it can create charged particles in the air called ions ( atoms that have lost or gained some electrons). The ions work like an invisible cable linking the cloud above and the air below. Lightning flows through the air between the ions.

How electricity moves in a circuit

Materials such as copper metal that conduct electricity (allow it to flow freely) are called conductors . Materials that don't allow electricity to pass through them so readily, such as rubber and plastic , are called insulators . What makes copper a conductor and rubber an insulator?

A current of electricity is a steady flow of electrons. When electrons move from one place to another, round a circuit, they carry electrical energy from place to place like marching ants carrying leaves. Instead of carrying leaves, electrons carry a tiny amount of electric charge.

Electricity can travel through something when its structure allows electrons to move through it easily. Metals like copper have "free" electrons that are not bound tightly to their parent atoms. These electrons flow freely throughout the structure of copper and this is what enables an electric current to flow. In rubber, the electrons are more tightly bound. There are no "free" electrons and, as a result, electricity does not really flow through rubber at all. Conductors that let electricity flow freely are said to have a high conductance and a low resistance ; insulators that do not allow electricity to flow are the opposite: they have a low conductance and a high resistance.

For electricity to flow, there has to be something to push the electrons along. This is called an electromotive force (EMF) . A battery or power outlet creates the electromotive force that makes a current of electrons flow. An electromotive force is better known as a voltage .

Direct current and alternating current

Electromagnetism.

Electricity and magnetism are closely related. You might have seen giant steel electromagnets working in a scrapyard. An electromagnet is a magnet that can be switched on and off with electricity. When the current flows, it works like a magnet; when the current stops, it goes back to being an ordinary, unmagnetized piece of steel . Scrapyard cranes pick up bits of metal junk by switching the magnet on. To release the junk, they switch the magnet off again.

Electromagnets show that electricity can make magnetism, but how do they work? When electricity flows through a wire, it creates an invisible pattern of magnetism all around it. If you put a compass needle near an electric cable, and switch the electricity on or off, you can see the needle move because of the magnetism the cable generates. The magnetism is caused by the changing electricity when you switch the current on or off.

This is how an electric motor works. An electric motor is a machine that turns electricity into mechanical energy. In other words, electric power makes the motor spin around—and the motor can drive machinery. In a clothes washing machine , an electric motor spins the drum; in an electric drill , an electric motor makes the drill bit spin at high speed and bite into the material you're drilling. An electric motor is a cylinder packed with magnets around its edge. In the middle, there's a core made of iron wire wrapped around many times. When electricity flows into the iron core, it creates magnetism. The magnetism created in the core pushes against the magnetism in the outer cylinder and makes the core of the motor spin around. Read more in our main article on electric motors .

Make an electromagnet

Picture: Why not make an electromagnet? All you need is a few common household items.

You can make a small electromagnet using a battery, some insulated (plastic-covered) copper wire, and a nail. Here are a couple of websites that tell you what to do step-by-step:

• How do I make an electromagnet? : Handy hints from Jefferson Lab.
• Make your own Electromagnet : A simple activity from the Naked Scientists.
• Electromagnet science projects : Nine simple activities involving electromagnets from the Science Buddies website.

Making electricity

Just as electricity can make magnetism, so magnetism can make electricity. A dynamo is a bit like an electric motor inside. When you pedal your bicycle , the dynamo clipped to the wheel spins around. Inside the dynamo, there is a heavy core made from iron wire wrapped tightly around—much like the inside of a motor. The core spins freely inside some large fixed magnets. As you pedal, the core rotates inside these outer magnets and generates electricity. The electricity flows out from the dynamo and powers your bicycle lamp.

The electric generators used in power plants work in exactly the same way, only on a much bigger scale. Instead of being powered by someone's legs, pedaling furiously, these large generators are driven by steam. The steam is made by burning fuels or by nuclear reactions. Power plants can make enormous amounts of electricity, but they waste quite a lot of the energy they produce. The energy has to flow from the plant, where it is made, to the homes, offices, and factories where it is used down many miles of electric power cable. Making electricity in a power plant and delivering it to a distant building can waste up to two thirds of the energy that was originally present in the fuel!

Another problem with power plants is that they make electricity by burning "fossil fuels" such as coal, gas, or oil. This creates pollution and adds to the problem known as global warming (the way Earth is steadily heating up because of the energy people are using). Another problem with fossil fuels is that supplies are limited and they are steadily running out.

Photo: Making clean, renewable energy from the wind. Each wind turbine contains an electricity generator in the top section, just behind the spinning rotors. In this turbine, the rotors are on the left and the generator is the ribbed cylinder on the right. Photo by Joe Smith courtesy of National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) .

There are other ways to make energy that are more efficient, less polluting, and do not contribute to global warming. These types of energy are called renewable , because they can last indefinitely. Examples of renewable energy include wind turbines and solar power . Unlike huge electric power plants, they are often much more efficient ways of making electricity. Because they can be sited closer to where the electricity is used, less energy is wasted transmitting power down the wires.

Wind turbines are effectively just electric generators with a "propeller" on the front. The wind turns the propeller, which spins the generator inside, and makes a study current of electricity.

Unlike virtually every other way of making electricity, solar cells (like the ones on calculators and digital watches) do not work using electricity generators and magnetism. When light falls on a solar cell, the material it is made from (silicon) captures the light's energy and turns it directly into electricity. Potentially, this means solar cells are an extremely efficient way to make electricity. A home with solar electric panels on the roof might be able to make most of its own electricity, for example.

Electricity and electronics

Photo: A transistor (a typical electronic component) on a circuit board. Components like this run on electricity, just like clothes washing machines, but they use much smaller currents and voltages.

Electricity is about using relatively large currents of electrical energy to do useful jobs, like driving a washing machine or powering an electric drill. Electronics is a very different kind of electricity. It's a way of controlling things using incredibly tiny currents of electricity—sometimes even individual electrons! Suppose you have an electronic clothes washing machine. Large currents of electricity come from the power outlet (mains supply) to make the drum rotate and heat the water. Smaller currents of electricity operate the electronic components in the washing machine's programmer unit. These tiny currents control the bigger currents, making the drum rotate back and forth, starting and stopping the water supply, and so on. Read more in our main article on electronics .

The power of electricity

Before the invention of electricity, people had to make energy wherever and whenever they needed it. Thus, they had to make wood or coal fires to heat their homes or cook food. The invention of electricity changed all that. It meant energy could be made in one place then supplied over long distances to wherever it was needed. People no longer had to worry about making energy for heating or cooking: all they had to do was plug in and switch on—and the energy was there as soon as they wanted it.

Another good thing about electricity is that it's like a common "language" that all modern appliances can "speak." You can run a car using the energy in gasoline, or you can cook food on a barbecue in your garden using charcoal, though you can't run your car on charcoal or cook food with gasoline. But electricity is quite different. You can cook with it, run cars on it, heat your home with it, and charge your cellphone with it. This is the great beauty and the power of electricity: it's energy for everyone, everywhere, and always.

Measuring electricity

We can measure electricity in a number of different ways, but a few measurements are particularly important.

The voltage is a kind of electrical force that makes electricity move through a wire and we measure it in volts. The bigger the voltage, the more current will tend to flow. So a 12-volt car battery will generally produce more current than a 1.5-volt flashlight battery.

Voltage does not, itself, go anywhere: it's quite wrong to talk about voltage "flowing through" things. What moves through the wire in a circuit is electrical current : a steady flow of electrons, measured in amperes (or amps).

Together, voltage and current give you electrical power . The bigger the voltage and the bigger the current, the more electrical power you have. We measure electric power in units called watts. Something that uses 1 watt uses 1 joule of energy each second.

The electric power in a circuit is equal to the voltage × the current (in other words: watts = volts × amps). So if you have a 100-watt (100 W) light and you know your electricity supply is rated as 120 volts (typical household voltage in the United States), the current flowing must be 100/120 = 0.8 amps. If you're in Europe, your household voltage is more likely 230 volts. So if you use the same 100-watt light, the current flowing is 100/230 = 0.4 amps. The light burns just as brightly in both countries and uses the same amount of power in each case; in Europe it uses a higher voltage and lower current; in the States, there's a lower voltage and higher current. (One quick note: 120 volts and 230 volts are the "nominal" or standard household voltages—the voltages you're supposed to have, in theory. In practice, your home might have more or less voltage than this, for all sorts of reasons, but mainly because of how far you are from your local power plant or power supply.)

A brief history of electricity

• 600 BCE: Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus (c.624–546 BCE) discovered static electricity.
• 1600 CE: English scientist William Gilbert (1544–1603) was the first person to use the word "electricity." He believed electricity was caused by a moving fluid called humor.
• 1733: French scientist Charles du Fay (1698–1739) found that there were two different kinds of static electric charge.
• 1752: American printer, journalist, scientist, and statesman Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) carried out further experiments and named the two kinds of electric charge "positive" and "negative."
• 1780: Italian biologist Luigi Galvani (1737–1798) touched two pieces of metal to a dead frog's leg and made it jump. This led him to believe electricity is made inside animals' bodies.
• 1785: French scientist Charles Augustin de Coulomb (1736–1806) explored the mysteries of electric fields: the electrically active areas around electric charges.
• 1800: One of Galvani's friends, an Italian physics professor named Alessandro Volta (1745–1827), realized "animal electricity" was made by the metals Galvani had used. After further research, he found out how to make electricity by joining different metals together and invented batteries.
• 1827: German physicist Georg Ohm (1789–1854) found some materials carry electricity better than others and developed the idea of resistance.
• 1820: Danish physicist Hans Christian Oersted (1777–1851) put a compass near an electric cable and discovered that electricity can make magnetism.
• 1821: A French physicist called Andre-Marie Ampère (1775–1836) put two electric cables near to one another, wired them up to a power source, and watched them push one another apart. This showed electricity and magnetism can work together to make a force.
• 1821: Michael Faraday (1791–1867), an English chemist and physicist, developed the first, primitive electric motor.
• 1830s: American physicist Joseph Henry (1797–1879) and British inventor William Sturgeon (1783–1850) independently made the first practical electromagnets and electric motors.
• 1831: Building on his earlier discoveries, Michael Faraday invented the electric generator.
• 1840: Scottish physicist James Prescott Joule (1818–1889) proved that electricity is a kind of energy.
• 1870s: Belgian engineer Zénobe Gramme (1826–1901) made the first large-scale electric generators.
• 1873: James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879), another British physicist, set out a detailed theory of electromagnetism (how electricity and magnetism work together).
• 1881: The world's first experimental electric power plant opened in Godalming, England.
• 1882: Thomas Edison (1846–1931) built the first large-scale electric power plants in the USA.
• 1890s: Edison's former employee Nikola Tesla (1856–1943) promoted alternating current (AC) electricity, a rival to the direct current (DC) system promoted by Edison. Edison and Tesla battled for supremacy and, although Edison is remembered as the pioneer of electric power, it was Tesla's AC system that ultimately triumphed.

DON'T ever play with electricity!

Electricity is amazingly useful—but it can be really dangerous as well. When electricity zaps from power plants to your home, it's at thousands of times higher voltages and massively more dangerous than the electricity in your home. If you are silly enough to touch or play near power equipment, you could die an extremely nasty and unpleasant death —electricity doesn't just shock you, it burns you alive. Heed warnings like this one and stay well away.

Electricity can also be dangerous in your home. Household electric power can kill you, so be sure to treat it with respect too. Don't play with household power sockets or push things into them. Don't take apart electrical appliances, because dangerous voltages can linger inside for a long time after they are switched off. If you want to know what something electrical looks like inside, search on the web—you'll find a safe answer that way.

It's generally okay to use small (1.5 volt) flashlight batteries for your experiments if you want to learn about electricity; they make small and safe voltages and electric currents that will do you no harm. Ask an adult for advice if you're not sure what's safe.

If you liked this article...

Find out more, related articles on our site, history of electricity, for younger children (ages 9–12).

• The Shocking World of Electricity with Max Axiom Super Scientist by Liam O'Donnell. Capstone, 2019. A graphic-novel (comic) style introduction likely to appeal to reluctant readers. Ages 7–10.
• Electricity (Science in a Flash) by Georgia Amson-Bradshaw. Hachette/Franklin Watts, 2017/2018. A clearly written 32-page guide for ages 7–9, with some basic hands-on activities and a helpful glossary.
• Electricity for Young Makers: Fun and Easy Do-It-Yourself Projects by Marc de Vinck. Maker Media, 2017. A safe and friendly hands-on introduction in which you get to build a flashlight, a loudspeaker, and a couple of electric motors!
• A Beginner's Guide to Electricity and Magnetism by Gill Arbuthnot. A&C Black/Bloomsbury, 2016. Another 64-page overview for ages 7–10.
• Eyewitness: Electricity by Steve Parker. Dorling Kindersley, 2005. A classic glossy Eyewitness book that blends facts and history. Also worth investing in the same series: Eyewitness: Electronics by Roger Bridgman. Dorling Kindersley, 2007. This one takes a similar approach but covers electronics and electronic components.
• Charged Up: The Story of Electricity by Jackie Bailey and Matthew Lilly. Picture Window Books/A & C Black, 2004. A humorous, cartoon-style tour through the history of electricity. (For some reason, it's also published under the title "Charging About.")

For older children (ages 10+)

• MAKE Electronics by Charles Platt. O'Reilly, 2015. A great hands-on guide to learning about electronic components and circuits.
• Electronic Gadgets for the Evil Genius by Roger Iannini. McGraw-Hill Education, 2013. There are quite a few "Evil Genius" books in this series that will appeal to budding young hackers keen to experiment with more advanced circuits.

Children's books by me

• Scientific Pathways: Electricity by Chris Woodford. Rosen, 2013: A simple introduction to the history of electricity, from the ancient Greeks to modern times. This book aims to show how science and technology progresses from one discovery to the next, a bit like a relay race, through the work of many different people. (This is an updated version of a book originally published by Blackbirch in 2004 under the series title Routes of Science.)
• Cool Science: Experiments with Electricity and Magnetism by Chris Woodford. Gareth Stevens, 2010: A 32-page, hands-on, practical approach to understanding electricity and magnetism.
• The Wizard of Menlo Park: How Thomas Alva Edison Invented the Modern World by Randall Stross. Random House, 2007. A revised look at the life of Thomas Edison, which portrays him as a much more flawed and hapless figure than conventional accounts.
• Electricity & Electronics Science Projects : Lots of great science fair project ideas from Science Buddies.
• Exploratorium: Science Snacks: Electricity : Simple experiments with electricity you can try for yourself.
• Creative Science Centre: Things to Make : Quite a few of Dr Jonathan Hare's projects are simple and safe experiments with electricity.

Notes and references

Text copyright © Chris Woodford 2006, 2021. All rights reserved. Full copyright notice and terms of use .

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The electric power grid

Electricity is generated at power plants and moves through a complex system, sometimes called the grid . The grid includes electricity substations, transformers, and power lines that connect electricity producers and consumers. Most local grids are interconnected to maintain reliability and for commercial purposes, forming larger, more dependable networks that helps suppliers consistently produce the right amount of electricity to meet demand.

In the United States, the entire electricity grid consists thousands of miles of high-voltage power lines and millions of miles of low-voltage power lines. This network of power lines connects thousands of power plants to hundreds of millions of electricity customers across the country.

Electricity sources and types of providers

The origin of the electricity that consumers purchase varies. Some electric utilities generate all the electricity they sell using just the power plants they own. Other utilities purchase electricity from other utilities, power marketers, and independent power producers or from a wholesale market organized by a regional transmission reliability organization.

• A not-for-profit municipal electric utility
• An electric cooperative owned by its members
• A private, for-profit electric utility owned by stockholders (often called an investor-owned utility)

In some states, electric utility customers can purchase electricity through a power marketer, and the electricity is delivered by a local distribution utility. A few federally owned power authorities—including the Bonneville Power Administration and the Tennessee Valley Authority , among others—also generate, buy, sell, and distribute power. Local electric utilities operate the distribution system that connects consumers with the grid regardless of the source of the electricity.

The process of delivering electricity

Power plants generate the electricity that is delivered to customers through transmission and distribution power lines. High-voltage transmission lines, such as those that hang between tall metal towers, carry electricity over long distances. Higher voltage electricity is more efficient and less expensive for long-distance electricity transmission. Lower voltage electricity is safer for use in homes and businesses. Transformers at substations increase (step up) or reduce (step down) voltages to adjust to the different stages of the journey from the power plant on long-distance transmission lines to distribution lines that carry electricity to homes and businesses.

Evolution of the electric power grid

At the beginning of the 20th century, more than 4,000 electric utilities operated in isolation from each other. As the demand for electricity grew, especially after World War II, utilities began to connect their transmission systems. These connections allowed utilities to share the economic benefits of building large and often jointly owned power plants to serve their combined electricity demand at the lowest possible cost. Interconnection also reduced the amount of extra generating capacity that each utility had to hold to ensure reliable service during times of high and peak demand. Over time, three large, interconnected systems evolved in the United States.

U.S. electrical system interconnections

The stability of the electricity grid requires electricity supply to constantly meet electricity demand, which in turn, requires numerous entities that operate different components of the grid to coordinate with each other. Local electricity grids are interconnected to form larger networks to maintain reliability and for commercial purposes. At the highest level, the U.S. power system in the Lower 48 states is made up of three main interconnections, which operate largely independently from each other with limited transfers of electricity between them:

• The Eastern Interconnection covers the area east of the Rocky Mountains and a portion of the Texas panhandle.
• The Western Interconnection covers the area from the Rocky Mountains to the west.
• The Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT) covers most of Texas.

The Eastern and Western Interconnections in the United States are also linked with Canada's power grid. The network structure of the interconnections helps maintain the reliability of the grid by providing multiple routes for power to flow and allowing generators to supply electricity to many load centers. This redundancy helps prevent transmission line or power plant failures from causing interruptions in service to retail customers.

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Balancing authorities

The three major grid interconnections describe the large-scale physical structure of the grid. The regional operation of the electric system is managed by entities called balancing authorities . They ensure that electricity supply constantly matches power demand. Most of the balancing authorities are electric utilities that have taken on the balancing responsibilities for a specific part of the power system. All of the regional transmission organizations in the United States also function as balancing authorities. ERCOT is unique because the balancing authority, interconnection, and regional transmission organization are all the same entity and physical system.

A balancing authority ensures that electricity demand and supply are finely balanced to ensure the grid is safe and reliable. If electricity demand and supply fall out of balance, local or even widespread blackouts can result. Balancing authorities maintain appropriate operating conditions for the electric system by ensuring that enough electricity is available to serve expected demand, which includes managing electricity transfers with other balancing authorities.

Electric reliability organizations

Electric utilities are responsible for maintaining the safety of their systems and planning for the future power needs of their customers. Initially, the electric power industry developed voluntary standards to ensure they coordinated with linked interconnections. Today, mandatory reliability standards for planning and operating power systems and for addressing security concerns at critical electrical infrastructure are in place. The North American Electric Reliability Corporation developed and enforces mandatory grid reliability standards approved by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) . In Canada, Canadian regulators fill this role.

A smart electricity meter

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did you know

The smart grid incorporates digital technology and advanced instrumentation into the traditional electrical system, which allows utilities and customers to receive information from and communicate with the grid. A smarter grid makes the electrical system more reliable and efficient by helping utilities reduce electricity losses and to detect and fix problems more quickly. The smart grid can help consumers manage energy use, especially at times when demand is significantly high or when low electricity demand is needed to support system reliability.

Smart devices in homes, offices, and factories can inform consumers and their energy management systems of times when an appliance is using relatively higher-priced electricity. These alerts help consumers, or their intelligent systems, to optimally adjust settings that can lower electricity bills when supported by demand reduction incentives or time-of use electricity rates. Smart devices on transmission and distribution lines and at substations allow a utility to more efficiently manage voltage levels and more easily find out where an outage or other problem is on the system. Smart grids can sometimes remotely correct problems in the electrical distribution system by digitally sending instructions to equipment that can adjust the conditions of the system.

Challenges facing the power grid

Construction of electricity infrastructure in the United States began in the early 1900s and investment was driven by new transmission technologies, central-station generating plants, and growing electricity demand, especially after World War II. Now, some of the older, existing transmission and distribution lines have reached the end of their useful lives and must be replaced or upgraded. New power lines are also needed to maintain the electrical system's overall reliability and to provide links to new renewable energy generation resources, such as wind and solar power, which are often located far from where electricity demand is concentrated.

Several challenges exist for improving the infrastructure of the grid:

• Siting new transmission lines (getting approval of new routes and obtaining rights to the necessary land)
• Determining an equitable approach for recovering the construction costs of a new transmission line built in one state when the line provides benefits to consumers in other states
• Addressing the uncertainty in federal regulations regarding who is responsible for paying for new transmission lines, which affects the private sector's ability to raise money to build transmission lines
• Expanding the network of long-distance transmission lines to renewable energy generation sites where high-quality wind and solar resources are located, which are often far from where electricity demand is concentrated
• Protecting the grid from physical and cyber attacks

Last reviewed: April 16, 2024.

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How fast does electricity travel.

The phenomenon of electricity is something that continually powers our daily lives, yet its complexity often lies beyond the layman’s understanding. One such intriguing facet is the speed at which electricity travels. This article delves into the intricacies of its speed, providing a comprehensive understanding of how fast this incredible form of energy moves to light our homes, power our devices, and maintain the rhythm of our modern life.

What is Electricity?

Electricity is the flow of electrons that occurs when certain materials are connected together and a voltage applied. It is essentially energy moving from one place to another, and it can move very quickly depending on the material that is used to conduct the electricity. The speed at which electricity travels depends on several factors, such as the type of conductor and the amount of resistance in the circuit.

Electricity travels at the speed of light, meaning that it moves incredibly fast. In fact, electricity can travel 300 million meters in just one second! This means that when you flick a switch, it takes almost no time for the electricity to reach its destination.

In addition to being extremely fast, electricity is also very versatile. It can move through solids, liquids, and gases. This means that electricity can follow many paths to reach its destination, making it an invaluable part of our lives.

The speed of electricity also makes it very useful in telecommunications. Because electricity moves so quickly, telephone signals are able to travel from one place to another in mere seconds. This has made long-distance communication much easier and more efficient.

Electricity also has multiple uses in the medical field. It can be used to diagnose and treat various conditions, as well as provide power for various medical equipment. This makes it an invaluable tool when treating patients. [1]

Overall, electricity is a powerful force that allows us to do many things in a short amount of time. Its speed and versatility make it a great asset in our everyday lives. From powering our homes to treating medical conditions, electricity is truly an invaluable resource.

Factors Affecting the Rate of Transfer

The rate at which electricity travels also depends on several factors. For example, the type of conductor being used has a major impact on how quickly electricity moves. Copper and aluminum are generally considered the best conductors, as they have low electrical resistance and can move electricity more quickly than other materials.

The amount of voltage in the circuit is another important factor to consider. The higher the voltage, the faster electricity will travel. This is due to the fact that higher voltages create more powerful electromagnetic fields, which can carry current more efficiently and quickly.

Finally, the length of the circuit also plays a role in how fast electricity moves. Longer circuits take longer for electricity to move through, as the electric field has further to travel. Shorter circuits, on the other hand, allow electricity to move more quickly as the distance it has to cover is much smaller.

Electromagnetic Wave Theory

Electricity is also related to electromagnetic wave theory. This theory states that electric and magnetic fields are interrelated, and that they create an electromagnetic wave when combined. The speed of the wave depends on the frequency of the alternating current, which can range from extremely slow to incredibly fast.

When electricity travels, it does so in the form of an electromagnetic wave. As the wave travels, it carries with it energy and information. This is why electricity can be used for a variety of purposes, such as powering lights and appliances in our homes.

In conclusion, electricity is an incredibly powerful force that moves incredibly fast and has a variety of uses in our lives. Its speed, versatility, and ability to carry energy make it an invaluable resource. Understanding the factors affecting its rate of transfer and electromagnetic wave theory can help us better understand how electricity works and why it is so important to our modern lives. [2]

Safety Considerations When Working with Electricity

It is important to remember that while electricity is a useful tool, it must be used carefully at all times. Electric shocks can be dangerous, and it is important to take precautions when dealing with electricity. Wear protective clothing and equipment, such as rubber gloves and safety goggles, when handling electrical wiring or appliances. In addition, make sure to check wires for frays or other signs of wear before using them.

It is also important to remember that electricity can cause fires if not handled correctly. Make sure to check appliances and wiring regularly for any signs of wear or damage that could lead to a fire. If you detect any potential problems, take steps immediately to correct them.

Finally, always be aware of your surroundings when dealing with electricity. Avoid standing in water while working with electricity, as this can increase the likelihood of an electric shock. Keep away from objects that could potentially conduct electricity and make sure to stay clear of any exposed wires or outlets.

By taking the necessary precautions, you can help ensure your safety when dealing with electricity. Understanding how electricity works and following safety guidelines will help you use this powerful resource safely and efficiently.

Applications of Electricity in Everyday Life

Electricity has a variety of uses in our everyday lives. It powers many of the appliances and gadgets we use, such as computers, televisions, and microwaves. In addition, electricity is also used to power public transportation systems, such as trains and buses. This makes it easier for people to get from one place to another in a short amount of time.

Electricity is also used to provide lighting in our homes and businesses. From light bulbs to LED lights, electricity provides a reliable source of illumination that helps us see clearly. In addition, electricity can be used to power heating and cooling systems, making it easier to maintain comfortable temperatures in our homes and workplaces. [3]

Finally, electricity is also used to power many of the machines and equipment we use in industry and manufacturing. Automated machinery allows for mass production of goods in a short amount of time, making it easier for companies to meet demand and increase profits.

Overall, electricity plays an important role in our daily lives. From powering our homes and businesses to providing light and heat, electricity is a valuable resource that we rely on for our everyday needs. Understanding how it works and taking the necessary precautions is essential in order to safely use this powerful tool.

Speed of Light as a Limiting Factor

Electricity is a remarkable force, but its speed is limited by the speed of light. As electricity travels along electrical wires or through the air, it can only move as quickly as the speed of light allows. This means that no matter how powerful the current is, it cannot travel faster than 186,000 miles per second.

In addition to being limited by the speed of light, electricity is also affected by the type of material it is traveling through. Different materials have different levels of resistance to electrical current, and these levels can affect how quickly electricity moves. For example, copper and aluminum are good conductors that allow electricity to move more quickly than other materials.

Finally, the length of a circuit is also important when considering the speed of electricity. Longer circuits take longer for electricity to move through, as the electric field has further to travel. Shorter circuits, on the other hand, allow electricity to move more quickly as the distance it has to cover is much smaller. [4]

Ultimately, while electricity is an incredible force that can be used for a variety of purposes, its speed is limited by the speed of light and other factors. Understanding these limitations can help us better understand how electricity works and why it is so important to our modern lives.

It is also important to remember that electricity, while powerful, needs to be used responsibly at all times. Taking the necessary precautions when using electrical wiring or appliances can help ensure your safety and that of those around you.

Electric Field and Magnetic Field

Electricity doesn’t just travel in a straight line, it can also move in an electric and magnetic field. This is important to understand because electricity often needs to be induced from one area to another. The electric field is generated by charges that have been separated like positive and negative charges. These charges create an electric force between them that allow electrons to flow through the medium. On the other hand, a magnetic field is generated when electric current flows through a conductor like a wire or cable. This creates a force that can induce an electrical current in another conductor nearby.

Together, these fields enable electricity to travel around curves and up-and-down hills while maintaining its velocity of almost 300 million meters per second in vacuum. The strength and direction of the electric and magnetic fields, as well as the conductivity of the medium through which electricity is traveling, can all affect its speed. Electric and magnetic fields also play a role in controlling how much energy is stored and released when electricity travels. [5]

Lightening as a Demonstration of Quick Electrical Movement

One of the most visible examples of electricity’s speed is seen in a lightning strike. Electricity can travel at speeds approaching the speed of light (3 x 10⁸ m/s) within a lightning bolt, making it one of the fastest natural forms of energy transfer known.

Lightning occurs when an electric current builds up between two clouds or between a cloud and the ground. This current is then discharged in a sudden burst, creating a bright lightning bolt across the sky. The electricity in lightning travels at speeds of up to 30,000 m/s — making it one of the fastest known natural processes on earth.

This rapid transfer of energy demonstrates just how quickly electricity can travel when released all at once. It also highlights the power of electricity, as lightning has been known to cause serious injury and even death when it strikes an unlucky person or animal.

The same principles are being applied in many electrical engineering projects. High-voltage systems such as high-tension wires and electrical substations require a great deal of insulation to protect people from harm — similar to how a thunderstorm needs to be respected and taken seriously.

Resistance of Material Conductors

The speed at which electricity travels is determined by the type of material it is traveling through. Materials with a low resistance, such as copper or aluminum, allow electricity to travel more quickly than materials with high resistance, such as rubber or wood. The higher the resistance of the conductor material, the slower electricity will travel through it. This means that if you want electricity to travel quickly, you should always use low-resistance materials such as copper or aluminum.

In addition to the material of the conductor, other factors can also affect how quickly electricity travels. For instance, the length of a wire will impact how fast electricity moves through it. Longer wires offer more resistance than shorter ones, meaning that electricity will take longer to move through them. Temperature also plays a role: the hotter the wire, the slower electricity will travel through it.

Finally, any obstructions or breaks in the wire can slow down how quickly electricity moves. This is why it’s important to ensure that wires are not damaged or kinked when running electrical systems. By making sure there are no obstructions in your wiring system, you can help ensure that electricity travels as quickly and efficiently as possible. [6]

Impedance Matching

Another factor which affects how quickly electricity travels is impedance matching. Impedance matching is the process of ensuring that the electrical resistance of different components in a system are similar. This helps to reduce any losses caused by differences in electrical resistance between components, allowing electricity to travel more quickly and efficiently through the system.

For instance, if two pieces of equipment have different electrical resistances then electricity will be lost as it moves between them. However, if the electrical resistance of both components is matched then this loss can be minimized.

Impedance matching is particularly important in complex systems such as audio equipment and other electronics. By ensuring that all of the components are impedance-matched, you can ensure that electricity travels through your system as quickly and efficiently as possible.

Alternatives to Electrical Currents

While electricity is the most common way to move energy through a system, there are also other methods of doing so. One alternative is light-emitting diodes (LEDs). LEDs work by converting electrical energy into light, and this light can be used to power other components in a system such as sensors or motors. LEDs offer several advantages over traditional electrical currents, such as being more efficient and durable.

Another alternative to using electrical currents is wireless power transmission. This method uses electromagnetic waves instead of wires to transfer energy to different components in a system. Wireless power transmission can be used in many different applications, from charging mobile phones to powering medical equipment. It offers several advantages over traditional methods of energy transfer, including being less expensive and easier to install.

Finally, using renewable energy sources such as solar panels or wind turbines can help to reduce the reliance on electrical power. These sources of energy are clean and sustainable, making them an attractive option for powering a system with minimal environmental impact.

No matter which method you choose for transferring energy through your system, it’s important to ensure that it is efficient and reliable. By taking the time to understand how electricity travels, choosing appropriate materials, and exploring other alternatives such as LEDs or renewable energy sources, you can help ensure your system operates as efficiently as possible. [7]

What is the speed of electricity?

The speed at which electricity travels depends on the material it is traveling through. Generally, electricity will travel faster through materials with lower resistance such as copper or aluminum. The length of a wire also affects how quickly electricity moves: longer wires will offer more resistance and slow down the current.

What is impedance matching?

Impedance matching is the process of ensuring that the electrical resistance of different components in a system are similar. This can help reduce any losses caused by differences in electrical resistance between components, allowing electricity to travel more quickly and efficiently through the system.

What are some alternatives to using electricity?

Some alternatives to using electrical currents include light-emitting diodes (LEDs), wireless power transmission, and renewable energy sources such as solar panels or wind turbines. Each of these methods can be used to transfer energy through a system in different ways, with their own advantages and disadvantages. It’s important to consider the needs of your system when choosing an alternative method for transferring energy.

Are there any other factors that affect electricity travel?

Yes, other factors such as temperature and any obstructions or breaks in the wire can affect how quickly electricity travels. The hotter the wire, the slower electricity will move through it, and any obstacles can slow down the current. It is important to make sure that wires are not damaged or kinked when running electrical systems in order to ensure that electricity travels as quickly and efficiently as possible.

Does the speed of electricity vary depending on the medium?

Yes, the speed of electricity will vary depending on the material it is traveling through. Generally, materials with lower resistances such as copper or aluminum will offer less resistance to electrical current and therefore allow electricity to travel faster. Other factors such as temperature or obstructions can also affect how quickly electricity moves.

Is the speed of electricity the same as the speed of light?

No, the speed of electricity is not the same as the speed of light. Electricity moves much slower than light and its speed will vary depending on the material it is traveling through. The length of a wire also affects how quickly electricity moves: longer wires will offer more resistance and slow down the current. Light, on the other hand, always travels at a constant speed of 299,792,458 meters per second.

How can I make sure my system operates as efficiently as possible?

In order to ensure that your system operates as efficiently as possible, it’s important to understand how electricity travels and take steps to minimize any losses due to resistance between components. This includes choosing materials with low electrical resistance such as copper or aluminum, and ensuring that any components that need to be impedance-matched are. Additionally, exploring alternatives such as LEDs or renewable energy sources can also help reduce your reliance on electrical power. Taking the time to understand how electricity travels and using appropriate materials can help ensure that your system operates as efficiently as possible.

How is the speed of electricity measured?

The speed of electricity is usually measured in terms of nano-seconds (ns). To measure the speed, a device called an oscilloscope can be used. This device is able to measure the time it takes for electrical current to move through different materials. It is important to note that the speed of electricity will vary depending on the material it is traveling through and any other obstructions in the way. Taking into account these variations can help to ensure that your system operates as efficiently as possible.

Is it possible to transfer energy without using wires?

Yes, it is possible to transfer energy wirelessly through the use of electromagnetic waves. Wireless power transmission can be used in a variety of applications, from charging mobile phones to powering medical equipment. With this method, energy is transferred through electromagnetic waves instead of through wires, making it a viable option in some cases where wiring may be difficult or impractical. However, it should also be noted that wireless power transmission can be less efficient than using traditional wiring as there can be losses due to interference and other factors.

What role does voltage play in the speed of electricity?

The voltage of a system plays a major role in the speed of electricity. Higher voltages will cause the current to move faster through the circuit, while lower voltages will slow down the current. It is important to choose an appropriate voltage for your system depending on what type of components you are using and how quickly you need electricity to travel. Additionally, it’s important to ensure that any components in the system are impedance-matched, as this can help reduce losses due to differences in electrical resistance between components.

How does the speed of electricity affect our daily life?

The speed of electricity affects our daily life in many ways. One of the most obvious is that it allows us to power our electronic devices, from computers and phones to TVs and appliances. Without electricity, none of these things would work. Additionally, because electricity travels at different speeds depending on the material it is travelling through, efficient design and engineering is required to ensure that the current moves quickly and efficiently through a system. This is especially important in large-scale power systems, which need to be designed carefully to ensure that electricity travels as quickly and efficiently as possible.

Useful Video: Almost simple #2: What is the speed of ELECTRICITY?

Electricity is a form of energy that travels quickly and efficiently. It moves at almost the speed of light, which is around 300 million meters per second. This means that when electricity is sent from one point to another, it can travel across long distances in a very short amount of time. This makes it an ideal power source for many applications. While there are other forms of energy that travel at slower speeds, electricity remains one of the most reliable and efficient sources of energy. With advancements in technology, electrical transmission systems are increasingly being used to power households and businesses around the world. In conclusion, understanding how fast electricity travels is essential for understanding how it is used in different applications.

• https://www.sciencefocus.com/science/how-fast-does-electricity-flow
• https://wtamu.edu/~cbaird/sq/2014/02/19/what-is-the-speed-of-electricity/
• https://www.uu.edu/dept/physics/scienceguys/2001Nov.cfm
• https://atlantickeyenergy.com/how-fast-does-electricity-travel/
• https://peaksubstation.com/how-fast-can-electricity-travel/
• https://www.scienceabc.com/nature/what-is-the-speed-of-electricity.html
• https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/does-electricity-travel-speed-light-jonathan-baker

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Anatomy of an Electromagnetic Wave

Energy, a measure of the ability to do work, comes in many forms and can transform from one type to another. Examples of stored or potential energy include batteries and water behind a dam. Objects in motion are examples of kinetic energy. Charged particles—such as electrons and protons—create electromagnetic fields when they move, and these fields transport the type of energy we call electromagnetic radiation, or light.

What are Electromagnetic and Mechanical waves?

Mechanical waves and electromagnetic waves are two important ways that energy is transported in the world around us. Waves in water and sound waves in air are two examples of mechanical waves. Mechanical waves are caused by a disturbance or vibration in matter, whether solid, gas, liquid, or plasma. Matter that waves are traveling through is called a medium. Water waves are formed by vibrations in a liquid and sound waves are formed by vibrations in a gas (air). These mechanical waves travel through a medium by causing the molecules to bump into each other, like falling dominoes transferring energy from one to the next. Sound waves cannot travel in the vacuum of space because there is no medium to transmit these mechanical waves.

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Electricity can be static, like the energy that can make your hair stand on end. Magnetism can also be static, as it is in a refrigerator magnet. A changing magnetic field will induce a changing electric field and vice-versa—the two are linked. These changing fields form electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic waves differ from mechanical waves in that they do not require a medium to propagate. This means that electromagnetic waves can travel not only through air and solid materials, but also through the vacuum of space.

In the 1860's and 1870's, a Scottish scientist named James Clerk Maxwell developed a scientific theory to explain electromagnetic waves. He noticed that electrical fields and magnetic fields can couple together to form electromagnetic waves. He summarized this relationship between electricity and magnetism into what are now referred to as "Maxwell's Equations."

Heinrich Hertz, a German physicist, applied Maxwell's theories to the production and reception of radio waves. The unit of frequency of a radio wave -- one cycle per second -- is named the hertz, in honor of Heinrich Hertz.

His experiment with radio waves solved two problems. First, he had demonstrated in the concrete, what Maxwell had only theorized — that the velocity of radio waves was equal to the velocity of light! This proved that radio waves were a form of light! Second, Hertz found out how to make the electric and magnetic fields detach themselves from wires and go free as Maxwell's waves — electromagnetic waves.

WAVES OR PARTICLES? YES!

Light is made of discrete packets of energy called photons. Photons carry momentum, have no mass, and travel at the speed of light. All light has both particle-like and wave-like properties. How an instrument is designed to sense the light influences which of these properties are observed. An instrument that diffracts light into a spectrum for analysis is an example of observing the wave-like property of light. The particle-like nature of light is observed by detectors used in digital cameras—individual photons liberate electrons that are used for the detection and storage of the image data.

POLARIZATION

One of the physical properties of light is that it can be polarized. Polarization is a measurement of the electromagnetic field's alignment. In the figure above, the electric field (in red) is vertically polarized. Think of a throwing a Frisbee at a picket fence. In one orientation it will pass through, in another it will be rejected. This is similar to how sunglasses are able to eliminate glare by absorbing the polarized portion of the light.

DESCRIBING ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY

The terms light, electromagnetic waves, and radiation all refer to the same physical phenomenon: electromagnetic energy. This energy can be described by frequency, wavelength, or energy. All three are related mathematically such that if you know one, you can calculate the other two. Radio and microwaves are usually described in terms of frequency (Hertz), infrared and visible light in terms of wavelength (meters), and x-rays and gamma rays in terms of energy (electron volts). This is a scientific convention that allows the convenient use of units that have numbers that are neither too large nor too small.

The number of crests that pass a given point within one second is described as the frequency of the wave. One wave—or cycle—per second is called a Hertz (Hz), after Heinrich Hertz who established the existence of radio waves. A wave with two cycles that pass a point in one second has a frequency of 2 Hz.

Electromagnetic waves have crests and troughs similar to those of ocean waves. The distance between crests is the wavelength. The shortest wavelengths are just fractions of the size of an atom, while the longest wavelengths scientists currently study can be larger than the diameter of our planet!

An electromagnetic wave can also be described in terms of its energy—in units of measure called electron volts (eV). An electron volt is the amount of kinetic energy needed to move an electron through one volt potential. Moving along the spectrum from long to short wavelengths, energy increases as the wavelength shortens. Consider a jump rope with its ends being pulled up and down. More energy is needed to make the rope have more waves.

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National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Science Mission Directorate. (2010). Anatomy of an Electromagnetic Wave. Retrieved [insert date - e.g. August 10, 2016] , from NASA Science website: http://science.nasa.gov/ems/02_anatomy

Science Mission Directorate. "Anatomy of an Electromagnetic Wave" NASA Science . 2010. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. [insert date - e.g. 10 Aug. 2016] http://science.nasa.gov/ems/02_anatomy

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Velocity of Electron Flow: Unraveling How Fast Does Electricity Travel

The passage of electrons along a conductor inside an electrical field is what electricity in motion is all about. To give you a simple example, an electrical cord that links a table lamp to a power source contains a copper wire that works as a conductor.

This energy moves at the speed of light (roughly) in the shape of electromagnetic waves. Light travels at a speed of 670,616,629 miles per hour, or 300 million meters per second. Electrons within the electromagnetic field or waves, on the other hand, travel the electromagnetic field at a slightly slower rate. This is referred to as drift velocity.

Before we start discussing some important things, you should know beforehand that these things are not really something that anyone can easily grasp especially if you are just curious about what goes on in you electrical system. If you are researching about electricity in particular, we can definitely help you know more about it in just a second. However, if you are experiencing any issues with your electrical system, make sure that you get help from professional electricians like Arc Angel Electric so that you won’t have to face any potential danger surrounding electricity.

With that in mind, here are a few concepts you should know about when talking about electricity and electrons in particular.

Electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic waves are a type of energy made up of magnetic and electrical fields that oscillate. They are created when charged particles, such as electrons, are accelerated. Electromagnetic waves can move through a vacuum (similar to space) as well as many materials and media.

The electromagnetic spectrum is made up of electromagnetic waves with a wide range of frequencies and wavelengths. Radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays are all part of the spectrum. Each wave has a unique frequency, wavelength, and energy.

These waves are distinguished by their capacity to travel through space without the use of a medium (such as air or water) for transmission. In a vacuum, they can travel at the speed of light, which is roughly 299,792,458 meters per second (or approximately 670,616,629 miles per hour). Electromagnetic waves are important in many elements of our daily life, including communication, technology, and light behavior.

Electromagnetic Waves and Electricity

Electromagnetic waves are important in the generation, transmission, and use of electricity. Here are a few highlights:

Electricity generating: Electromagnetic waves, specifically light, are used in a variety of electricity generation processes. Photovoltaic (solar) cells, for example, use the photoelectric effect to turn sunlight into electricity. Another way in which changing magnetic fields produce electric currents in conductive materials is electromagnetic induction, which is utilized in power plants, generators, and transformers.

Electricity transmission: Electric power is frequently transmitted over vast distances via power lines. For efficient transmission, electromagnetic waves in the form of alternating current (AC) are used. AC electricity generates oscillating electric and magnetic fields, which propagate as electromagnetic waves through power lines.

Electromagnetic waves are widely used in wireless communication systems. Radio waves, microwaves, and other electromagnetic spectrum segments are used in broadcasting, cellular communication, Wi-Fi, satellite communication, and other applications. These waves encode information as fluctuations in amplitude, frequency, or phase.

Electrical appliances and devices: Electromagnetic waves are used in the operation of many electrical appliances and gadgets. Electric motors and transformers, for example, rely on the interaction of magnetic fields and electric currents to convert electrical energy to mechanical energy or vice versa.

Electromagnetic interference: Electromagnetic waves can sometimes interfere with the operation of electrical systems. This type of interference, known as electromagnetic interference (EMI), can interrupt, degrade, or malfunction sensitive electronic equipment. Shielding, grounding, and good design are all used to reduce EMI.

In conclusion, electromagnetic waves are inextricably linked to the generation, transport, and consumption of energy, enabling a wide range of technologies and applications in our modern world.

Free Electrons

Conduction electrons, or free electrons, are electrons that are not strongly bonded to an atom and are relatively movable inside a material. The outermost electrons of the atoms of a solid, such as a metal, are loosely bound and can flow freely throughout the substance. These liberated electrons add to the material’s electrical conductivity.

The existence of free electrons, for example, in metals allows for the flow of electric current. Free electrons can flow in response to an electric field when a potential difference (voltage) is introduced across a metal conductor. An electric current is formed by the movement of electrons. Metals are generally good conductors of electricity due to the high mobility of free electrons.

In contrast, electrons in insulators are securely bonded to their individual atoms, with very few free electrons accessible for conduction. Insulators are hence weak electrical conductors.

The quantity of free electrons in semiconductors can be changed by adding impurities or applying external factors such as temperature. Because of this feature, semiconductors can be both conductive and insulating, making them vital components in electronic devices.

Understanding free electron behavior and interactions with materials is critical in the study of electrical conduction and the design of electronic circuits and devices.

Free electrons play a crucial role in the conduction of electricity. When a potential difference (voltage) is applied across a conductor, such as a metal wire, the presence of free electrons allows for the flow of electric current.

Free electrons and electricity

Electric current: Free electrons are able to move through a conductor in response to an applied electric field. When a voltage is applied across a conductor, the free electrons experience a force and start to drift in a particular direction. This movement of electrons constitutes an electric current. The greater the number of free electrons and their mobility, the higher the conductivity of the material.

Conductivity: Materials with a higher concentration of free electrons or greater electron mobility tend to be good conductors of electricity. Metals, for example, have a large number of free electrons that can move freely throughout the material, allowing for efficient flow of electric current. In contrast, insulators have fewer free electrons, limiting their ability to conduct electricity.

Resistance: The presence of free electrons in a conductor also gives rise to electrical resistance. As the free electrons move through the conductor, they collide with atoms or other imperfections in the material. These collisions impede the flow of electrons and result in resistance to the current. The resistance of a material is determined by factors such as the number of free electrons, their mobility, and the characteristics of the material itself.

Electric circuits: Free electrons enable the functioning of electric circuits. In a closed circuit, the presence of free electrons allows for the flow of current from a power source (such as a battery) through the connected components (such as resistors, capacitors, and light bulbs) and back to the source. The behavior of free electrons and their interaction with circuit elements determine the flow of current and the overall operation of the circuit.

Understanding the behavior and properties of free electrons is essential in the field of electrical engineering and the design and analysis of electrical circuits.

Estimating the electron speed in electricity

Every electron has a negative charge. A number of electrons are permanently attached to an atom. Others can freely move inside the conductor grid, which is constructed of safe atoms. An electrical charge is formed when these liberated electrons travel the power grid and bounce around.

The quantity actual speed of electrons that can travel through the substance determines its conductivity. Certain substances (such as copper) carry electricity better than others.

Electrons move in the exact contrary and opposite direction that of a positive charge because they are negatively charged. As a result, unbound electrons bounce in various directions, rather randomly. This intense bouncing contributes to the formation of an electric charge, but it is useless without precise direction. This is when an electrical force, referred to as electromagnetic force or EMF, enters the picture.

Recognizing electrical currents

Electrical currents in wires are analogous to water flowing through a conduit. The flow will be stronger if there exists greater force at one end. When a wire is linked to a battery or a mains electricity outlet, it is analogous to putting pressure at one end of a pipe – except that instead of water, you transmit an electrical field to copper wire.

While the rate of transmission of an electric current is about equal to the speed of light, electrons within an electromagnetic wave may only be able to move a few millimeters per second. This is why electrons are bouncing across the conductor, creating an electromagnetic energy there, but they have no intention of traveling with it.

Direct current and alternating current

Consider the differences between alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC). In alternating current, the current through metal wire changes direction around 50-60 times every second, and the majority of the electrons involved never leave the wire. However, electricity continues to flow as a result of the electrons’ excitation.

Direct current, or DC, is distinguished by the fact that electricity flows in just one direction. Although DC is essentially a raw current, it may be transformed into AC and utilized to power buildings. Because alternating current (AC) is very easy to distribute over long distances, it is used in the majority of residences. It is also considered to be safer than direct current (DC).

Furthermore, alternating currents are capable of being downscaled or upscaled based on the power requirements of a home or company. The usage of transformers allows for this scalability. AC electricity that is not used immediately will effectively slowly make its way back to the power system – and we are now aware that it does so at breakneck speed!

Individual Electron Velocity

Copper conducts due to the fact that it is brimming with free electrons. Because of their closeness to the nucleus, electrons in the valence or outermost layer of their atoms are least drawn to it and can so exit or free themselves from its force. When we attach the metal to a battery, the created electric field pushes the free electrons farther from the terminal that is negative as well as toward the positive terminal. Electricity is made up of this flow of charges.

The noun “flow” can nevertheless be exceedingly misleading: electricity is not defined by a constant, continuous stream of electrons gravitating towards the positive terminal. The technical definition word electricity only mentions “movement”; the entirely unplanned movement of electrons or charges. Inside the conductor, the charges practically go berserk, stumbling and smashing not only with one another but also with the rest of the metal’s atoms on their way to the terminal. This description also explains the concept of resistance pretty well: collisions generate heat and restrict their travel, lowering the value of the current.

Therefore, the speed of motion of a single electron equals the speed amid collisions. How long does it take an electron for it to move one nanometer? Singular velocity is determined in the millions of meters per second range. Nevertheless, since their mobility is random, each electron moves at a different speed.

Standard Or Electron Drift Velocity

The ambiguity is bothersome since it makes computations difficult. To eliminate this variability, we must take an average of all velocity values before and after the impacts. The average velocity, additionally referred to as drift velocity, is thought to be the average speed at which electricity moves.

Certain electrons travel very quickly in electric currents, while others do not. The average will obviously be significantly lower than a million meters per second. What is astonishing is that averaging the velocities propels the decimal point on the left to an unfathomable distance. The drift velocity of electrons across a 3.00 x 10-6 m2 copper wire carrying a 10A current is roughly 2.5 × 10-4 m/s, or one-fourth of a millimeter every second!

Drift velocity increases as DC voltage rises, but it stays constant if AC voltage decreases or increases constantly negligible. The drift velocity of AC current is hundreds to thousands of times less than that of electron drift velocity of DC current. While the previously mentioned copper wire delivering a DC current moved at 250 micrometers per second, the identical copper wire carrying an AC current moved at 0.25 micrometers per second.

Although the contact point or switch that lets the electrons escape is no greater than 0.25 micrometers in length. Consider that, unlike DC currents, electrons in an AC current do not flow linearly forward, but rather alternate between both terminals; if they alternate at 0.25 micrometers per second, do they then, paradoxically, not reach the circuit at all?

Signal Velocity

Finally, some people think that electricity moves at the speed of electricity that light does since it mix the speed of each of the electrons with the speed of electromagnetic waves emitted by the electrons. Although an electron is an indivisible, mass-carrying particle that cannot move at the speed of light is still its characteristic.

Indeed, electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light; in fact, light is an electromagnetic wave. The speed of an electromagnetic wave, or electricity flow on the other hand, varies with the qualities of the medium through which it travels. The waves emitted by electrons travel at 300 million meters per second in a state of vacuum, but only if the arrangement or geometry of the conductor allows it.

The waves of electromagnetic fields, or signals, can travel at speeds ranging from 50% to 90% of the speed of light, according to whether the electrons are traveling in a ‘poor’ or ‘good’ conductor. How does the bulb in your bedroom glow practically instantly if electrons physically drift to complete a circuit? Because the action of electromagnetic waves or the signal propagates at a velocity greater than the speed of light, it is perceived as essentially instantaneous. As a result, the race cannot end in a tie; the photon will always be triumphant.

Consider this: imagine a line of people who are blatantly impatient and frantically fidget in their places. At once, the person at the back of the line chooses to push the individual in front, who then pushes the one in front of her, and so on. The push or signal ‘travels’ in a moment, but the person or electron does not. If the people had lined up to enter a door, the distributed push would undoubtedly be the first to reach the door. The first pusher, on the other hand, would be far further behind. People would keep trying to fidget as they saw individual electrons zip along at incredible speeds. Nevertheless, the queue advances at a slow speed on average.

Electricity Speed and Solar Panels

Many people believe that the electricity generated by solar panels travels at a slower rate than electricity obtained from the electrical power grid. This, however, is a myth. Their speeds are identical since the source of the energy has no effect on their speed.

Solar panels provide direct current electricity that moves at approximately the speed of light. You cannot, nevertheless, utilize this electricity to power your appliances. To do so, you’ll need a solar inverter to convert DC electricity to AC energy.

Though it may appear obvious that transferring electricity from one current to another would result in a loss of speed, this is not the case in this circumstance. In fact, you stand to gain nothing. Your inverter merely enables you to power your home while keeping the electricity speed constant.

If you produce more energy than you are able to use (as in the summer), you have two choices. One option is to feed extra energy back into the electricity system. However, owing to net metering, there are ways to store the electricity and use it later.

Why Electrons Cannot Travel At The Speed Of Light

There are only three possible outcomes for this race involving an electron and a photon: whether the electron wins, the photon wins, or the contest finishes in an even score. The first possibility, unquestionably, has to be rejected; it is a physical impossibility; nothing can travel faster than light. So, does the photon triumph? If so, why does the race not end in a tie?

In a vacuum, not to mention inside a conductor, the electron cannot win the race. Because the electron has mass, it is unable to move at the same speed as light. Light is the quickest thing in the Universe because it is massless; it carries no luggage and has no inertia that slows it down.

The mass of an electron may be comically small, but it is sufficient to prohibit the elementary particle from moving at 300 million m/s. In fact, excluding the photon, which has no mass, the electron cannot be considered the lightest particle we’ve identified; that honor goes to the neutrino. A neutrino is over 500,000 times more massive than an electron.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Is electricity as fast as the speed of light?

Electricity does not travel at the speed of light. The speed of electricity depends on the medium through which it travels.

How fast does electricity travel in mph?

The speed of electricity can vary depending on the circumstances, but it typically travels at a fraction of the speed of light. In most cases, it moves at speeds ranging from about 50 to 99% of the speed of light.

Does electricity travel faster than lightning?

No, electricity does not travel faster than lightning. Lightning is a visible discharge of electricity that can move at speeds of around 220,000 miles per hour (354,000 kilometers per hour), which is much faster than the typical speed of electricity in power lines or conductors.

How fast does electricity move in air?

The speed of electricity in air is similar to its speed in other conductive materials, such as wires. It typically moves at a fraction of the speed of light, around 90-99% of the speed of light.

What is the speed of electricity?

The speed of electricity varies depending on the medium through which it travels. In a vacuum or in the theoretical absence of resistance, the speed of electricity would be approximately equal to the speed of light, which is about 299,792,458 meters per second (or roughly 670,616,629 miles per hour).

How much faster is electricity than light?

In most cases, electricity does not travel faster than light. The speed of electricity is typically slower than the speed of light, ranging from about 50 to 99% of the speed of light, depending on the medium through which it travels.

How fast is the speed of electricity?

As mentioned earlier, the speed of electricity varies depending on the medium. In a vacuum or in the theoretical absence of resistance, it would be approximately equal to the speed of light, which is about 299,792,458 meters per second (or roughly 670,616,629 miles per hour).

What is the speed of electricity called?

The speed of electricity is often referred to as the “velocity factor” or “propagation speed.”

What is the max speed of electricity?

The maximum speed of electricity is determined by the speed of light in the given medium. In a vacuum, the speed of light is the maximum speed, which is about 299,792,458 meters per second (or roughly 670,616,629 miles per hour).

How fast do electric waves travel?

Electric waves, also known as electromagnetic waves, including radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays, all travel at the speed of light in a vacuum, which is about 299,792,458 meters per second (or roughly 670,616,629 miles per hour).

As you’ve already guessed from all the details we’ve given you so far, the answer to the issue at hand, “How fast does electricity travel?” is fairly easy. Its speed is comparable to that of light and is independent of the energy source. As a result, your solar panels will generate electricity at the same pace and strength as your utility provider. If you have any concerns with your electricity and would like to know more about this system or would like to have something fixed in your home, you can contact Arc Angel Electric to solve any underlying issues with your home’s electrical system. Our professionals will answer any more lingering questions you have regarding electricity. For more information or to schedule an appointment, contact Arc Angel Electric today.

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Electric Vehicle Trip Planner

Easily find all the EV charging stations available along your route in North America.

To learn more about the different types of charging stations and how to charge before planning your trip, check out our guide on   ”How To Charge Your Electric Car With Charging Stations ” .

How To Use The EV Trip Planner?

To access the trip planner from the ChargeHub website, click on “Map”, in the top left corner of the navigation bar.

Once you are on the map page, you can open the trip planner panel by clicking the “Trip Planner” tab on the left side of the charging stations map page.

To enable the planner, click on the “OFF/ON” button so that it is "ON" . Note that at this point, you will have the option to select the unit of measurement by clicking on "KM" .

Once enabled the Trip Planner right sidebar will be displayed.

Enter Your Trip Details

Enter a “ Starting Point” and “ Destination” in the trip planner. It will suggest options based on what you input. Select the option you want, as shown in the following screenshot.

Now you have the option to choose how far away from your route you want the charging stations to be. Then click on "Find Routes". 

After clicking on “Find Routes” you will be asked to choose which route you prefer from the proposed routes as seen below, on the right panel of the Trip Planner :

Once you select a route, click on "Start Planning My Trip" and start adding charging stations to your itinerary, as explained in the following section "Add Charging Stops to your Itinerary".

Add Charging Stops to your Itinerary

At this point, you can add charging stations to your trip by zooming in on the map and clicking on map markers.

If you are planning to use the ChargeHub App to activate the station and pay , please make sure to select charging stations that have a golden thunderbolt in the center, as seen in the image below.

Only the charging stations that have a golden thunderbolt in the center are compatible with ChargeHub’s wallet app. You can pay for your charging sessions , across all available networks, at these charging stations, from within the app.

Once you have selected a charging station, all the information regarding the station will be displayed, on the right side of the screen.

Based on your EV and charging preferences, you can decide if the charging station meets your needs. If it does, add it to your trip by clicking "Add to trip".

NOTE: If you click on “See Complete Details” you will exit the trip planner and it will reset. In this case, you will need to start the whole Trip Planner process again from step one.

Once the charging station has been selected, it will be added to your trip as shown below.

If you need to add more charging stations, select and add as many as you need, by following the same process.

Save And Share Your EV Trip

Once you have finalized your itinerary you can: 

• Save your trip in your account for future reference
• Access your saved trips.

NOTE: To save and load a trip, you must be logged in to your  ChargeHub account.

Check out our other guides and resources on home charging

• A Beginner’s Guide to Electric Cars
• How to choose your charging station
• Top 9 most popular charging stations in 2024
• Incentives available in Canada for EV chargers
• Find the best EVSE solution according to your EV or PHEV

Browse the chargers on the ChargeHub Store

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By Air, Land and Sea, Travel is Electrifying

By Zach Wichter

• July 17, 2019

The roar of a jet engine, the vroom of a car, the vibration of a moving ship.

These sounds and sensations, commonly associated with travel and motion, share a common source: fossil fuel-powered engines.

But as regulators and businesses around the world try to reduce carbon emissions, airplanes, automobiles and ships are going electric. It’s good for the environment, but it also means travel itself may be changing. Here’s a look at a few of the initiatives that are underway.

Starting later this year, Hawaii’s Mokulele Airlines and its partner Ampaire, a California-based electric airplane startup, will begin testing a hybrid aircraft over Maui on the commuter route between the Kahului and Hana airports.

The flying public won’t be able to buy tickets for those early test flights, but the companies behind the tests say it’s an important step in proving that electric service is viable.

“You uncover a lot of gremlins when you start flying in a true operational cadence,” said Kevin Noertker, Ampaire’s co-founder and chief executive. He added that the current plan is to introduce commercial hybrid service by the end of 2021.

The planes have a range of around 200 miles, but because they are hybrids, test pilots don’t need to worry if their batteries run out of juice midair.

“We’ve designed the system with resilience in mind,” Mr. Noertker said.

Hybrid and fully-electric airplanes can also have lower operating and maintenance costs than traditional fossil-fuel-driven aircraft, because they use less fuel and have fewer moving parts. Those savings may ultimately be passed on to passengers. They also mean that more rural airports could one day see commercial service as the economics of flying to low-population destinations improve.

“Scheduled air service can come back to communities that have lost it in all the consolidation with the airlines,” said Rob McKinney, the president of Pacific operations for Southern Airways Express, which operates as Mokulele Airlines. “Rural communities will have air service again that haven’t had it in 20 or 30 years.”

Nevada has been undergoing a yearslong project to build out its electric vehicle charging infrastructure. It has deemed a stretch of U.S. 95 (the primary route between Las Vegas and Reno, not to be confused with Interstate 95 on the East Coast), along with portions of other major roadways in the state the “Electric Highway,” and is encouraging visitors to see the state by taking an emission-free road trip. Nevada is also home to the Tesla Gigafactory, which in some ways jump-started its electric vehicle efforts.

“We have so many cultural and historical sites that people are interested in and we promote the state through the road trip,” said Chris Moran, a public relations specialist at Travel Nevada . “It’s great to do it in a sustainable and respectful way to the environment.”

In some ways the new technology also allows people to travel in a more old-fashioned style. Because charging takes longer than filling up a gas tank, it means electric vehicle drivers are more likely to spend time and money in small communities along their route.

“If you think of what the interstate highway system is, how it so dramatically changed the nature of road travel and road trip tourism, this is a different way to travel and see places,” said David Bobzien from the Nevada Governor’s Office of Energy. “We have a lot of car enthusiasts who love their electric vehicles and they love to drive them, so it’s the road trip and the joy of the road trip that lures them to use the highway.”

Similar infrastructure can be found in many places in the Northeast as well, with Tesla charging stations along the Interstate 91 and 95 corridors.

Hamlet Aguilar relies on those stations as the anchor for his new business, Bound . The car-service, which began earlier this year, shuttles passengers between New York and Boston in Teslas for prices that begin at $99 each way.

“The electric cars allow us to provide a price point that the other transportation companies cannot do,” Mr. Aguilar said. “The high cost of maintaining a fleet and the gas, it was never cost effective. Being able to use these Teslas enables us to offer a very attractive price point.”

Water and electricity are finally beginning to mix.

Hurtigruten , a Norway-based expedition cruise company, is investing heavily in sustainably powered ships. The company focuses on exploration cruises, with its ships traveling places far from the Caribbean and Mediterranean destinations that most cruise passengers visit.

“This is something that has been a natural part of the development of the company and driven by a lot of very engaged people,” said Daniel Skjeldam, Hurtigruten’s chief executive. “One of the reasons they have been so proactive on it, since we’ve been sailing in these areas, they’ve been seeing the changes” like glaciers retreating, firsthand.

The company’s efforts include investing in an all-new hybrid-powered cruise ship, which will launch in September. That Alaskan cruise is already sold out.

In the next few years, the company will also convert its older diesel-burning ships to liquid natural gas and biogas-fueled hybrids (biogas is made from organic waste), and will launch a battery-powered hybrid catamaran for expeditions near the Norwegian coast later this year, with more coming into service in 2020. The company is working to develop solar chargers for those vessels.

None of these first-generation ships will be fully electric, but Mr. Skjeldam predicts that in the not-too-distant future, some vessels will be able to sail entirely under battery power for hours at a time.

He also said he thinks his company isn’t too far ahead of industry trends.

“I think we’ll see, to be honest, a revolution on sustainable travel in the next decade. I think a lot more ports worldwide will be much more demanding to the industry on what kind of ships they will accept into ports. The local emissions from a cruise ship are huge if they’re running on heavy fuel oil,” he said, adding that Norway will require ships in its Unesco-designated heritage fjords to be emission-free by 2026.

He admits though, that battery-powered vessels are still technologically limited.

“We don’t think batteries can be the only source for power, but it’s the perfect way to operate ships into sensitive areas.”

Elisabeth Goodridge contributed reporting.

A Picture-Perfect Look at How Electrical Activity Travels through the Brain

Photo by jxfzsy/iStock

New imaging technique developed by BU, MIT researchers can detect more individual brain cells firing in the brain than ever before

Anne trafton.

Brain cells function using rapid electrical impulses, a process that underlies our thoughts, behavior, and perception of the world. Yet, for a long time, it’s been challenging for scientists to see exactly how individual neurons work together in larger circuits.

Now, a new technique reported in Nature finally gives the clearest picture ever of brain cell activity. Using a voltage-sensing molecule that fluorescently lights up when brain cells are electrically active, researchers at Boston University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology have shown that they can see the activity of many more individual neurons than before as they fire inside the brains of mice.

With the new voltage sensor, it is also possible to measure very small fluctuations in activity that occur even when a neuron is not firing a big spike in electrical activity. This could help neuroscientists study how small fluctuations impact a neuron’s overall behavior, which has previously been very difficult to do in living brains, says paper co–corresponding author Xue Han , a BU College of Engineering associate professor of biomedical engineering, describing the advance. 

This technique can be performed using a simple light microscope, and it could allow neuroscientists to link firing of certain cell groups to specific behaviors, says co–corresponding author Edward Boyden of MIT. “If you want to study a behavior, or a disease, you need to image the activity of populations of neurons because they work together in a network.”

Until now, it’s been possible to measure the electrical activity of neurons by inserting an electrode into the brain, but this technique is labor-intensive and typically only allows researchers to record activity from one neuron at a time. Multielectrode arrays can allow monitoring of electrical activity from many neurons at once, but it’s impossible to record the densely packed activities of all neurons within a piece of brain tissue. A technique called calcium imaging does allow such dense sampling, but it measures calcium, which is an indirect and slow measure of neural electrical activity.

In 2018, Boyden’s team first developed an alternative way to monitor electrical activity by labeling neurons with a fluorescent probe. They engineered a molecule called Archon1 that can be genetically inserted into neurons, where it becomes embedded in the cell membrane. When a neuron’s electrical activity increases, the molecule becomes brighter, and this fluorescence can be seen with a standard light microscope. The researchers showed that they could use the molecule to image electrical activity in the brains of transparent worms and zebrafish embryos, and also in mouse brain slices. But for the new study, they wanted to try to use it in living, awake mice as they engaged in a specific behavior.

To do that, the researchers needed to modify the probe so that it would go to a more specific region of the neuron’s cell membrane, because when the molecule inserts itself throughout the entire cell membrane, the resulting images are blurry from the sprawling tendrils—called axons and dendrites—that extend outward from neurons like the arms of a starfish. The research team engineered a new version of Archon1 that sticks specifically to membranes of the central cell bodies of neurons, but not its outer axons or dendrites. They named this modified voltage-tracking molecule SomArchon.

“With SomArchon, you can see each cell as a distinct sphere,” Boyden says. “Rather than having one cell’s light blurring all its neighbors, each cell can speak by itself loudly and clearly, uncontaminated by its neighbors.”

To test how it worked in live mice, Boyden partnered with Han’s lab at BU. “My lab has been doing a lot of work on imaging single neurons inside the brain,” says Han. “We’ve used calcium imaging to look at a large number of neurons…but the timescale is very slow for calcium imaging. Voltage changes are all happening at the timescale of milliseconds. That’s why we have been trying to do voltage imaging.” 

Genetically engineering live mice to have SomArchon in their brain cells, the research team imaged electrical activity in a part of the brain involved in planning movement, called the striatum, while the mice ran on a ball. They were able to monitor electrical activity in many neurons simultaneously and correlate each one’s activity with the mice’s movement. Some neurons’ activity went up when the mice were running, some went down, and others showed no significant change. Former BU graduate researcher Seth Bensussen, one of three co–first authors on the study, led the team’s brain imaging efforts, and BU research scientist Hua-an Tseng led the computational aspect of the work.

“Over the years, my lab has tried many different versions of voltage sensors, and none of them have worked in living mammalian brains until this one,” Han says. “With this technology, we can look at subtle changes in how voltage travels through brain cell membranes. A big part of my research is looking at the dynamics related to Parkinson’s disease and deep brain stimulation. These voltage sensors will allow us to study how individual neurons communicate to generate larger neurological phenomena. Ultimately, it could guide in the design of new therapies to treat neurodegenerative diseases.”

The team also showed that the voltage sensors can be combined with optogenetics, a technique that Han and Boyden pioneered over a decade ago, that allows researchers to turn brain cells on and off with laser light. In this case, the researchers activated certain neurons with light and then measured the resulting electrical activity in these neurons. 

This work was supported by funding from the National Institutes of Health, the National Science Foundation, the Howard Hughes Medical Institute Simons Faculty Scholars Program, the Human Frontier Science Program, the US Army Research Office, the Grainger Foundation, the Pew Foundation, and Boston University Biomedical Engineering Department.

This story was adapted from an MIT article originally written by Anne Trafton.

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There are 5 comments on A Picture-Perfect Look at How Electrical Activity Travels through the Brain

I’m currently working on a project about the eradication of epileptic seizures. So my question is where and how do epileptic seizures start in the brain? What causes certain individuals to suffer from epileptic seizures and some not? What is the electrical activity like when some one is undergoing an epileptic seizure

If the brain is electrical in nature? (And we know that electricity cannot be destroyed), what then happens to that energy once our bodies have completely broken down after death?

I would think of it like an alkeline battery either buried in the ground (slow discharge) or burnt in a fire (converted to heat).

According to Dr. Leroy Little Bear, professor emeritus at the University of Lethbridge, and member of the Blackfoot tribe in Canada, while physicists were contemplating the particle/wave duality of electrons and matter in general, Little Bear asserted that in Native Science, it’s all waves, energy waves, and those waves are spirit. When we die, those particular wave patterns dissipate and take on a different configuration. But you are still you. YouTube has several of his lectures. I was able to attend the one in 2011 at the Heard Museum at Phoenix. It was part of a series of Native American speakers sponsored by Arizona State University. This particular one compared Western and Native Science, which Little Bear said were becoming closer to one another through discoveries in quantum physics and string theory. You might want to check it out.

Ok. But now the real question, where does the electricity come from? Does the pregnant person’s brain gain more electricity to give to the child?

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On a small stretch of highway in Indiana, crews are retrofitting the road surface with a series of coils in the pavement that will turn one lane of the four-lane divided highway into a power-producing strip for an electric vehicle .

The road, a quarter-mile stretch of U.S. 231/52 in West Lafayette, will provide researchers with a real-world test of the same science that powers many smartphones and small devices. And while there are projects in other states and countries testing wireless EV charging directly through roads, this project − a joint partnership of the Indiana Department of Transportation, Purdue University and Indiana-based Cummins Inc. − is scaling up the technology for use in a highway (with faster speeds) and heavy-duty vehicles.

The road's feasibility: Indiana wants to charge your electric vehicle while you drive. But is it actually possible?

How does an EV vehicle draw power from the road?

The charging process itself, called dynamic wireless power transfer, or DWPT, powers EVs through the series of coils embedded in the roadway and is based on the physics of electromagnetic induction discovered by Michael Faraday in 1831.

Think of it as a larger-scale version of the way many newer smartphones can charge wirelessly, simply by placing the phone atop a powered charging pad.

The science behind DWPT would work in a similar way: an array of 3-foot-wide charging panels, each roughly 12 feet long, is embedded in the concrete. These charging panels include the primary coils that can send up to 200 kilowatts of power − roughly the electricity it takes to power 100 homes − to the vehicle's motor.

For the Indiana test, the power is coming from a nearby portable diesel generator, enough to power one truck. If the technology became more widespread, the electric power would come from the grid.

The primary transmitter coils will sit a few inches below the road surface, capped by a polymer concrete patch.

For testing, an electric truck equipped with a receiver coil on the bottom of the cab will travel the lane directly over the line of transmitter coils, receiving energy that bypasses the battery and propels the vehicle via its electric motor.

The truck will drive over the embedded coils as part of the pilot program that is tentatively set for spring or summer 2025.

Can this kind of road recharge your Tesla?

The test track isn't designed to power existing consumer EV models. In fact, the test road's primary coil is designed to work with the Cummins truck. Existing EVs lack the receiver coil necessary to draw a charge from the roadway.

If this technology were to become mainstream, vehicles would need to be redesigned and manufactured with the receiver. An upside, Purdue points out, would be the need for less onboard battery capacity in such EVs, and there would be a reduction in the overall cost and weight of the vehicle.

Contributing: Sarah Bowman , IndyStar

SOURCES: Purdue University; Indiana Department of Transportation

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Green Energy

• Electric train
• Los Angeles

The Las Vegas–LA electric high-speed rail line just broke ground

Brightline West, a future electric high-speed rail line between Las Vegas and Los Angeles, broke ground today in Nevada.

On December 6, 2023, Electrek reported that the Biden administration awarded Brightline West $3 billion in funding. The money was part of $6 billion previously earmarked for high-speed rail, and came from the Biden administration’s Bipartisan Infrastructure Law as part of its Federal-State Partnership Program. (The other $3 billion will go to the public high-speed Los Angeles to San Francisco rail project, which has more than 100 miles of a high-speed line under construction.)

Brightline West will be a privately owned, 218-mile, all-electric high-speed rail service that will include a flagship station in Las Vegas (pictured above), with additional stations in Apple Valley, Hesperia, and Rancho Cucamonga. At speeds of more than 186 miles per hour, trains will take passengers from Las Vegas to Rancho Cucamonga, which is 37 miles east of downtown Los Angeles, in just 2 hours and 10 minutes – twice as fast as the normal drive time. 

Florida-based Brightline Holdings is expected to model the Las Vegas-LA rail line on its high-speed route between Miami and Orlando – the US’s only privately owned and operated intercity passenger railroad.

Brightline West estimates it will remove 3 million cars from I-15 annually, reducing over 400,000 tons of carbon emissions annually. It also anticipates creating an astounding 35,000 union jobs. The federal funding will enable the project, which is aiming to open by 2028, to begin construction.

Rick Harnish, executive director of the national nonprofit High Speed Rail Alliance , said today:

This is a transformational investment in American trains. Getting a high-speed line in operation this decade will show Americans this terrific way to travel. If you have ever felt frustrated by traffic gridlock or airport hassles, a better future just got closer.

Top comment by Al

I'm very excited to see this project completed. I never go to Vegas personally, but I think the more Americans that are introduced to the beauty of high speed rail, the less resistance there will be for future projects.

And why do people profess that the money spent has simply disappeared? That money went to jobs in the area and across the nation, both directly and indirectly. I've read that the economic multiplier is about 1.8, I don't understand how you have an issue with that.

Read more: The US’s busiest rail corridor just got a $16.4B boost – why that’s huge

Photos: Brightline West

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Michelle Lewis is a writer and editor on Electrek and an editor on DroneDJ, 9to5Mac, and 9to5Google. She lives in White River Junction, Vermont. She has previously worked for Fast Company, the Guardian, News Deeply, Time, and others. Message Michelle on Twitter or at [email protected]. Check out her personal blog.

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5 Electric Camping Trailers for a Greener Vacation

T he electrification of transportation is starting to change the way we travel, in everything from EV-ready car rentals and road trips to battery-powered cruise ships and even planes . Now, we're seeing that crossover in the recreational vehicle (RV) space, too, with a batch of pioneering e-camper vans being met by a crop of all-new, all-electric camping trailers.

The burgeoning market for e-trailers is being fed by an emergence of younger buyers: Stats from the RV Industry Association (RVIA) show that the median age for first-time RV buyers has dipped to 32-down from age 41 in 2020.

Experts say the new e-trailers are a shake-up for an industry that's been rather set in its ways. "Historically speaking, the RV industry hasn't been known as a particularly innovative space," says Kraig Becker, digital editor at RV.com . "But in recent years, that's changed, as technology adoption has accelerated to meet the needs of younger buyers. Much of that innovation is coming from smaller brands, which tend to be a bit more nimble and willing to take risks."

One such newcomer is California-based Pebble, which has developed a self-propelled, remote-controlled electric trailer that's striving to bring a hassle-free "iPhone-like experience to RVing" through automation. The company is helmed by alum from tech heavyweights like Tesla, Apple, and Zoox.

Part of the appeal of Pebble and other e-trailers is that they solve a problem for an increasingly electrified automobile industry. (According to an RVIA survey of leisure travelers, half of EV owners plan to use their vehicles for RV towing.) "Anyone who has tried to tow a trailer with an electric vehicle knows that it dramatically reduces the range of the EV. E-trailers, with their own electric drive, eliminate that issue and greatly reduce range anxiety," Becker explains.

Indeed, the aerodynamically designed e-trailers come with their own battery-powered propulsion systems to help move them along as they're being towed, reducing drag and translating to less gas (and cash) to burn for fossil fuel–powered vehicles and less range (and charge time) to lose for the EVs doing the towing.

Plus, for campers eager to chip away at their carbon footprints, the electrified trailers eliminate emissions, as well as noise, since they don't need buzzing gas or propane generators once they're parked camp-side. Instead, their batteries power all the cooking, heating and air-conditioning, lighting, and more. "An e-trailer, paired with an electric vehicle, will be the most eco-friendly way to camp ever," Becker says.

That independent energy system also allows for fully off-grid camping experiences, for longer periods of time. The modern trailers can be used at home, too, as an office or guest room. Pebble's head of brand & marketing, Ivan Wang, says the massive battery of Pebble's trailer is more powerful than a Tesla Powerwall: "You can also use it as a home energy backup solution in case of blackouts."

Check out these five game-changing electric trailer options to inspire your next glamping, off-grid, or digital nomad adventure.

U.S. luxury RV manufacturer Bowlus, which has put out retro-looking, aircraft-inspired, aluminum-riveted trailers for 90 years, transitioned to becoming the first fully electric RV company in 2023. The move followed the 2022 debut of its plush and polished 27-foot-long electric "Volterra" model, with premium features like wood-paneled interiors, a king-size bed, and tech-savvy extras, including solar roof panels, satellite internet, induction cooktops, and a hydronic heating system (with heated floors). The Volterra joins the company's similarly curvy "Terra Firma" and soon-to-debut "Heritage" e-trailer models, each offering lower entry points on pricing with slightly scaled-down features. All sleep up to four guests and stand out for their notably lightweight design that makes the Bowlus a relative breeze to tow-ranging from 2,900 to 3,250 pounds, they're roughly half the weight of other EV trailers. Pricing from $165,000; bowlus.com

A subsidiary of Tennessee-based, commercial trailer manufacturer Aero Build, Coast is readying to deliver the first batch of its modern "Model 1" travel trailers in April. The comparatively compact 21-foot-long rig features a composite shell made from recycled materials (with wool insulation), and comes with rooftop solar panels and a battery bank powerful enough for a week of off-grid camping. With a minimalist design, the trailers have plenty of smart features like a touchscreen-based command system, satellite internet, and two Samsung frame TVs; a kitchen outfitted with Smeg appliances; and a dedicated bedroom space (the unit sleeps up to four). Minimum towing capacity is 6,000 pounds; preorder pricing from $129,900; coastrv.co

California-based startup Pebble announced its all-electric "Pebble Flow" in October 2023. The 25-foot-long futuristic trailer, with room for four, comes with a retractable Murphy bed that converts into a workspace, chef's kitchen (with a full-size fridge and portable induction cooktop), and wraparound windows, while the heavy-duty battery and solar paneling permit off-grid camping for up to seven days. The unit's pioneering tech-forward features include remote-controlled maneuvering (via a smartphone app), automated hitching, and plenty of push-of-a-button extras (such as for the auto-leveling stabilizers or to manage the awning and stairs). The company expects models to ship by late 2024. Minimum towing capacity is 6,200 pounds; preorder pricing from $109,000; pebblelife.com

Lightship unveiled its battery- and solar-powered "L1" travel trailer in early 2023, claiming it as the most aerodynamic trailer to enter the market. A California/Colorado-based venture, helmed by Tesla alum, Lightship's sleek, 27-foot-long trailer is touted as being three times more aerodynamic than a standard trailer, translating to reduced drag and near-zero loss in fuel efficiency for the tow vehicle. Features include a unique dual-mode roof (with a lofty 10-foot-high ceiling in "camp mode" that shrinks down to under 7 feet for a more aerodynamic "road mode"), and mod interiors with panoramic windows and all-electric appliances (including an induction stovetop and dishwasher), with room to sleep up to six. The high-powered battery, boosted by a solar-paneled roof, means the trailer can go off-grid for up to a week before needing a charge. Vehicle production is slated to kick off in late 2024. Minimum towing capacity is 7,500 pounds; preorder pricing from $125,000; lightshiprv.com

Living Vehicle

For those with deep pockets, California-based Living Vehicle hails its luxe, 30-foot-long "HD30" as the "most powerful . . . trailer on earth." The customizable units, designed by a LEED-accredited crew, come with configuration variations including a king-bed suite, bunk room for four, or mobile office. Thanks to mini-split HVAC systems, the four-season trailers can apparently thrive in temps ranging from subzero to 120°F, while other tech-friendly features include a home theater system and an industry-first water generator that can create water from the air. With an expansive all-solar roof and awnings, the HD can live off grid without plugging in-indefinitely. The company also offers a smaller "HD24" model, measuring 24 feet, as well as two larger fifth-wheel electric trailers that are currently available for preorder (the "GT32" and "GT38"). The spacious units sleep up to eight. Note that given the rigs' hefty weight, ranging from 10,000 to 18,000 pounds, they're not currently compatible for towing with any EVs. Pricing from $299,995; livingvehicle.com

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ALL RANGE ROVER. ALL ELECTRIC. TESTED FOR LEADERSHIP.

23 april 2024.

The first Range Rover Electric prototype vehicles begin testing on the frozen lakes of Sweden.

• The first Range Rover Electric prototype vehicles are now being subjected to global testing, as they complete cold temperature calibration assessment in the Arctic Circle
• First images released of the initial all-black prototypes: its modernist design language stays true to the Range Rover bloodline while an uncamouflaged exterior underlines the build quality of the initial prototypes
• Release of first Range Rover Electric vehicles on-road follows year-long component and virtual development process which will is on track to deliver the quietest and most refined Range Rover ever created

Range Rover Electric will lead the way for electric propulsion capability, refinement and luxury travel, with the first vehicle prototypes now deployed at some of the world’s most challenging test locations. The all-electric drivetrain is now being put through its paces at extremes of temperatures, from -40°C in the Arctic Circle, to +50°C in the searing deserts of the Middle East.

RANGE ROVER ELECTRIC PROTOTYPE TESTING

The first tests have focused on the capability of the battery and Electric Drive Unit (EDU) - effectively the vehicle’s core components including the transmission, electric motor and power electronics - in extreme sub-zero temperatures as low as –40°C. Both the battery and EDU are assembled in house by JLR in a first for the brand.

Testing on the frozen lakes of Sweden has demonstrated Range Rover’s new-in house all-electric propulsion system, which will allow Range Rover to exceed its already renowned performance on low-grip surfaces, ensuring the all-terrain, all-weather and all-surface capability of the Range Rover remains unparallelled.  

In a first for Range Rover, a new traction control system delivers exceptional levels of performance on icy or low-grip surfaces. Rather than a traditional traction control setup based solely in the ABS unit, Range Rover Electric distributes the wheel slip management task directly to each individual electric drive control unit, reducing the torque reaction time at each wheel from around 100 milliseconds, to as little as 1 millisecond.

Innovative software, developed in house by JLR, enables precise EDU speed control for accurate management of wheel slip, reducing the need for ABS intervention. Traction is maximised on all surfaces with exceptional response and composed refinement, significantly enhancing the Range Rover drive experience. This system works in harmony with the stability control and chassis systems to provide an even more overall refined drive.

Range Rover with electric power – means customary Range Rover luxury, refinement and capability plus near-silent fully electric propulsion; with effortlessly smooth and relaxed journeys. To ensure we leave no stone uncovered, we are well underway with our physical testing and development programme, all designed at pushing Range Rover Electric to the extremes to ensure its capability remains unparalleled when it reaches you.

Thomas Mueller

Executive director, product engineering.

Further information

Social Channels:

TikTok:  https://www.tiktok.com/@rangerover  

Facebook:  http://www.facebook.com/LandRover

Twitter:  http://twitter.com/LandRover

Instagram:  http://instagram.com/LandRover

YouTube:  http://www.youtube.com/LandRover

Notes to Editors

About Range Rover

Every Range Rover leads by example with modernist design, connected, refined interiors and electrified performance driving unrivalled luxury. Inspired by exemplary design since 1970.

The brand encompasses Range Rover, Range Rover Sport, Range Rover Velar and Range Rover Evoque and is underpinned by Land Rover – a mark of trust built on 75 years of expertise in technology, vehicle architecture and world-leading off-road capability. 

Range Rover is one of the world’s leading British luxury brands, sold in 121 countries. It belongs to the JLR house of brands together with Defender, Discovery and Jaguar.

Important notice JLR is constantly seeking ways to improve the specification, design and production of its vehicles, parts and accessories and alterations take place continually. Whilst every effort is made to produce up-to-date literature, this document should not be regarded as an infallible guide to current specifications or availability, nor does it constitute an offer for the sale of any particular vehicle, part or accessory. All figures are manufacturer’s estimates.

RANGE ROVER ELECTRIC PROTOTYPE TESTING - IMAGES

Range Rover Electric will lead the way for electric propulsion capability, refinement and luxury travel

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