trips frankliniella spp

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Western flower thrips

Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) originated in western North America and has since become a major pest of vegetables, fruit and ornamental crops across the US and around the world. F. occidentalis are small (1-2 mm long), slender, soft-bodied insects that are yellow to light brown in color; adults have distinctive fringed wings. It can develop quickly, going from egg to adult in two weeks or less at favorable temperatures. Adult females insert eggs into plant tissue under the epidermis. When mature, larvae drop to the soil to go through the prepupal and pupal stages, and finally return to the plants as adults. Larvae and adults feed on flowers, buds, terminals, leaves, and fruit.

Frankliniella occidentalis feed by rasping open plant cells and sucking up the cell contents. The damaged cells collapse, leaving bronzed or russeted areas on the leaves or fruits. Besides the direct plant damage this pest causes, F. occidentalis also transmits several species of destructive plant viruses in the genus Tospovirus (Bunyaviridae), including Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus (TSWV) and Impatiens Necrotic Spot Virus (INSV), of which it is the most important vector worldwide.

Adults can move long distances on air currents to find new food; adults and larvae can also be transported on transplants. Although there are some effective natural enemies of F. occidentalis , growers rely on chemical control to reduce damaging populations of this pest. Natural enemies such as predatory bugs ( Orius spp.), lacewings ( Chrysoperla spp.) and predatory mites ( Amblyseius spp., Neoseiulus spp.) can provide significant control of F. occidentalis populations. The number of effective chemical compounds that control F. occidentalis is very limited and insecticide resistance has been reported to several major classes of insecticides.

Western flower thrips resistance profile

Susceptibility test methods.

• IRAC Susceptibility Test Method 014 Larvae Dip
• IRAC Susceptibility Test Method 010 Adults Dip Feature video

External links

• Bayer Crop Compendium - Frankliniella occidentalis
• Plantwise Knowledge Bank - Frankliniella occidentalis

Key western flower thrips resources

The information provided is based on literature reviews and as such IRAC cannot guarantee or be held accountable for the accuracy of the reports.

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Article Contents

• Materials and Methods
• Results and Discussion
• Acknowledgments
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Annual Cycles of Frankliniella spp. (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) Thrips Abundance on North Florida Uncultivated Reproductive Hosts: Predicting Possible Sources of Pest Outbreaks

University of Florida, North Florida Research and Education Center, 155 Research Rd., Quincy, FL 32351.

Corresponding author, e-mail: [email protected] .

CSIRO Entomology, Clunies Ross St., Black Mountain, ACTON ACT 2601, Australia.

USDA–ARS CMAVE, 6383 Mahan Dr., Tallahassee, FL 32308.

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Tobin D Northfield, Dean R Paini, Joe E Funderburk, Stuart R Reitz, Annual Cycles of Frankliniella spp. (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) Thrips Abundance on North Florida Uncultivated Reproductive Hosts: Predicting Possible Sources of Pest Outbreaks, Annals of the Entomological Society of America , Volume 101, Issue 4, 1 July 2008, Pages 769–778, https://doi.org/10.1603/0013-8746(2008)101[769:ACOFST]2.0.CO;2

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Frankliniella spp. (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) thrips damage a variety of crops, feed on a broad range of hosts, and often migrate into cropping systems from adjacent vegetation. To determine potential sources of Frankliniella spp. thrips on crops, annual cycles of abundance of Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande), Frankliniella fusca (Hinds), Frankliniella bispinosa (Morgan), and Frankliniella tritici (Fitch) were evaluated on seven common, uncultivated reproductive hosts. These hosts included Raphanus raphanistrum L., Rubus trivialis Michx., Rubus cuneifolius Pursh., Vicia sativa L., Trifolium repens L., Solidago canadensis L. and Chenopodium ambrosioides L. Thrips were collected from R . cuneifolius , and T. repens in the spring, R. raphanistrum in the summer, and C. ambrosioides and S. canadensis in the fall. The most common Frankliniella species on every plant species was F. tritici , and a fifth species, Pseudothrips inequalis (Beach), was collected in the fall on C. ambrosioides and S. canadensis . All thrips species were highly aggregated in the flowers or flower racemes, rather than leaves or fruit, and they were generally only collected from flowering plants. R. raphanistrum supported large populations, and they may be an important link for thrips between spring and fall. In addition, it may be an essentially enemy free host, as only one O. insidiosus , an important thrips predator, was collected from this host. S . canadensis also supported large thrips populations in the fall, and it may be a source of thrips migrating into crops the following spring. Controlling thrips on these hosts in their respective seasons may limit the number migrating into cropping systems.

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No comprehensive identification resource is available for the genus Frankliniella . In response, a dynamic internet–based platform with interactive identification tools, species fact sheets and slide preparation tutorials are being developed by the author(s). We reviewed certain type, port interceptions, and origin collected specimens. We attempted to validate species identification using non-destructive DNA extraction and sequencing of both intercepted and field collected specimens. Sequences explicitly linked to a permanently curated morphological voucher specimen were deposited in a public repository (GenBank). The morphological review and genetic analysis revealed that both F. bruneri Watson and F. xanthaner Hood are each likely cryptic species complexes. Five species are described, F. ecuatoriana new species, F. funderburki new species, F. pelucensis new species, F. sanabriana new species and F. suramericana new species. Sequence data are recorded for the holotype specimens of the latter four species. Taxonomic status changes for F. genuina Hood and F. venusta Moulton are provided.

KEYWORDS/PHRASES

Publication title:, collection:, publication years.

Thysanoptera in Australia

Frankliniella occidentalis, recognition data, distinguishing features.

Female macroptera. Body variable from yellow to brown, but widespread pest strain usually mainly dark yellow with brown areas medially on each tergite; antennal segments II & VI–VIII brown, III–V yellow with apices variably brown; legs mainly yellow washed with brown; fore wings pale with dark setae. Antennae 8-segmented, III–IV with forked sensorium, VIII longer than VII. Head wider than long; 3 pairs of ocellar setae present, pair III longer than distance between external margins of hind ocelli, arising on anterior margins of ocellar triangle; postocular setae pair I present, pair IV longer than distance between hind ocelli. Pronotum with 5 pairs of major setae; anteromarginal setae slightly shorter than anteroangulars, one pair of minor setae present medially between posteromarginal submedian setae. Metanotum with 2 pairs of setae at anterior margin, campaniform sensilla present. Fore wing with 2 complete rows of veinal setae. Tergites V–VIII with paired lateral ctenidia, ctenidia sometimes weakly developed on IV, on VIII anterolateral to spiracle; posteromarginal comb on VIII complete, with short slender microtrichia arising from triangular bases. Sternites III–VII without discal setae.

Male macroptera. Similar to female but smaller and paler; tergite VIII without marginal comb; IX with median pair of dorsal setae shorter than lateral pair, posterolateral setae stout in larger males; sternites III–VII with transverse pore plate.

Related and similar species

Frankliniella  species all have a pair of setae in front of the first ocellus, a complete row of setae on both veins of the forewing, and a pair of ctenidia on tergite VIII situated anterolateral to the spiracles. Most of the 180 described species are known only from the neotropics, but  F. schultzei ,  F. occidentalis  and  F. williamsi  have been widely introduced around the world (Kirk & Terry, 2003).  F. occidentalis  can usually be recognised by the pale forewings, long postocular setae, presence of metanotal campaniform sensilla, and the rather irregular comb on tergite VIII. However, this species is variable in size and colour, the dark brown form being more common at low temperatures, and the pale yellow form at higher temperatures, but the widespread pest strain is usually more constant in size and colour. Molecular studies have indicated that western flower thrips comprises two species that cannot be distinguished morphologically (Rugman-Jones et al., 2010).

Distribution data

General distribution.

Originally western USA, but now worldwide in temperate areas.

Australian distribution

Locally abundant on cultivated plants across Australia.

Biological data

Life history.

Breeds and feeds on leaves and within flowers. Causes feeding damage on developing fruits.

Host plants

This is a highly polyphagous pest, that is also an important vector of tospoviruses on many crops. However, it also feeds on leaf mites of which it can be a useful biocontrol agent.

Taxonomic data

Current valid name.

Frankliniella occidentalis  (Pergande)

Original name and synonyms

• Euthrips occidentalis  Pergande, 1895: 392
• Euthrips tritici  var . californicus  Moulton, 1911: 16
• Euthrips helianthi  Moulton, 1911: 40
• Frankliniella tritici  var . moultoni  Hood, 1914: 38
• Frankliniella nubila  Treherne, 1924: 84
• Frankliniella claripennis  Morgan, 1925: 142
• Frankliniella canadensis  Morgan, 1925: 143
• Frankliniella trehernei  Morgan, 1925: 144
• Frankliniella tritici maculata  Priesner, 1925: 15
• Frankliniella occidentalis  f . brunnescens  Priesner,1932: 182
• Frankliniella occidentalis  f . dubia  Priesner, 1932: 182
• Frankliniella venusta  Moulton, 1936: 172
• Frankliniella conspicua  Moulton, 1936: 173
• Frankliniella chrysanthemi  Kurosawa, 1941: 173
• Frankliniella dahliae  Moulton, 1948: 97
• Frankliniella dianthi  Moulton, 1948: 98
• Frankliniella syringae  Moulton, 1948: 98
• Frankliniella umbrosa  Moulton, 1948: 105

Kirk, WDJ & Terry I. 2003. The spread of western flower thrips  Frankliniella occidentalis Pergande. Agricultural and Forest Entomology 5 : 301-310.

Hoddle MS, Mound LA & Paris D. 2008. Thrips of California. CD-Rom published by CBIT, Brisbane.

Oz thrips taxa

• Open access
• Published: 30 December 2019

Controlling the western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) by releasing the predatory phytoseiid mites and pesticides on pepper in a greenhouse

• Ahmad S. Sanad 1 &
• Gamal M. Hassan 2  

Egyptian Journal of Biological Pest Control volume  29 , Article number:  95 ( 2019 ) Cite this article

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Metrics details

Two programs for controlling the western flower thrips (WFT), Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), were evaluated. Greenhouse experiments were conducted for reducing F. occidentalis populations on pepper plants. The first program was by releasing four phytoseiid predacious mite species namely Neoseiulus arundonaxi (Metwally and Sanad), N. barkeri (Hughes), N. bicaudus (Wainstein), and Cydnoseius negevi (Swirski and Amitai) in the presence of blue sticky traps. The second one was by applying four sequential applications of different pesticides. Results showed that two releases of N. bicaudus , N. barkeri , and N. arundonaxi in the presence of the blue sticky traps reduced WFT population by 45 to 56%. The best control management of the WFT was by the following insecticides: chlorfenapyr, imidacloprid, azadirachtin, and agricultural potassium soap (third program).

Some abiotic and biotic factors affect pepper production under greenhouse conditions. One of the biotic effects is the western flower thrips (WFT), Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae). The pest attacks many vegetable plants (Kirişik and Erler 2017 ). F. occidentalis is characterized by its small size, highly reproductive, and spread capability causing a high infestation rate (Cloyd 2009 ). The pest deposits its eggs in plant tissue and pupates in the soil or plant litter surrounding plant on the ground, while nymphs and adults inhabit flowers. In a severe infestation, the appropriate pest management was conducted by multiple applications of insecticides (Bethke et al. 2010 ).

In Egypt, Shalaby ( 2015 ) studied the population fluctuation of F. occidentalis on pepper flowers in a greenhouse, while Hanafy ( 2015 ) studied its host preference and control techniques on cucumber, squash, eggplant, and kidney bean crops. He indicated that acetamiprid and thiamethoxam gave a high reduction in F. occidentalis population on cucumber. Multiuse of synthetic pesticides had led to a resistance against major insecticide groups (Demirozer et al. 2012 ). The potential of F. occidentalis was developed extremely fast resistance against neonicotinoid insecticides (Minakuchi et al. 2013 ). The resistance had been stated for chlorpyrifos and dimethoate (Robb et al. 1995 ) and against permethrin, methomyl, abamectin, bifenthrin, and chlorpyrifos (Immaraju et al. 1992 ). The insecticide residue and toxicity problems on marketable pepper crops, towards beneficial organisms (non-target species) and environmental contamination, generated the need of alternative methods to control WFT. Apart from insecticide control, biocontrol agents such as bugs, Orius spp. (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) as well as plant extracts, are proved to be suitable and effective methods for F. occidentalis control (Arthurs et al. 2009 and Dogramaci et al. 2011 ).

Several species of the family Phytoseiidae (Acari: Mesostigmata) are important predatory mites on many crops. Numerous phytoseiid species had been reported as effective predators of WFT such as Neoseiulus cucumeris (Oudemans), Amblyseius swirskii (Athias-Henriot), and Amblydromalus limonicus (Garman and McGregor) (Messelink et al. 2006 and Knapp et al. 2013 ). Neoseiulus barkeri (Hughes) was commonly used as a biological control agent for thrips in pepper (Ramakers 1988 ). Moreover, few studies had conducted on this pest on pepper crops in Egypt.

The objective of the present study was to evaluate the reduction of F. occidentalis populations on pepper crop under greenhouse conditions by releasing the predatory phytoseiid mites in combination of using of blue sticky traps and/or by applying pesticides.

Materials and methods

The stored grain mite, Tyrophagous putrescentiae (Schrank) (Acari: Acaridae), was collected from debris samples of wheat bran, using modified Tullgren funnels (Krantz and Walter 2009 ). T. putrescentiae was reared on a mixture of wheat bran and bakery dry yeast at 25 °C in top vented plastic containers (6 × 3 cm, diameters × depth). Mass rearing of the phytoseiid predatory mites was conducted on Tyrophagous putrescentiae . Tested phytoseiid mites were reared constantly on a mixture of all stages of the acarid mite under controlled conditions of 25 ± 2 °C in top-vented plastic containers (6 cm diameter and 10 cm depth). All units were kept in large boxes provided with NaCl-saturated solution for keeping up RH inside the boxes as 75% (Winston and Bates 1960 ). Releasing of phytoseiid mites was conducted by using of a carrier which consisted of a mixture of wheat bran and vermiculate material by 1:1 ratio.

Greenhouse experiments

Two field experiments were conducted in two symmetrical pepper greenhouses (6 m width × 45 m length × 2.5 m height) in a horticulture farm at Qaha district, Qalyobia Governorate, Egypt, during the period from 12 May to 7 July throughout two successive seasons, 2017 and 2018, under natural infestation conditions. The two greenhouses were cultivated by pepper (Top Star var.). Recommended agricultural practices were applied.

The obtained F. occidentalis individuals from the infested greenhouses were preserved in vials containing 70% ethanol alcohol until identification took place at the Taxonomy Research Department, Plant Protection Research Institute (PPRI), Agriculture Research Center (ARC), Giza, Egypt.

The first experiment was carried out to determine the efficiency of four predatory phytoseiid mites (in the presence of blue sticky trap) to reduce F. occidentalis population in pepper greenhouse. The greenhouse was divided into five blocks (9 × 6 m 2 /block and 9 × 2 m 2 /replicates), and each was divided to three replicates. Each block was completely separated by acrylic sheet to prevent mite movement. Thirty blue sticky traps were utilized for attracting of F. occidentalis adults during both seasons in all blocks (each block treatment contained 6 traps). Sticky sheet was (18 cm width × 28 cm length) with a sticky material exposed on both sides. The blue sticky sheet was weekly replaced by new ones. The blue sheet trap (blue sensitive plastic sheet) was obtained from PPRI. The rates and times of releasing of the four predatory phytoseiid mites were presented in Table 1 ; the releasing of four predatory mites was conducted throughout the flowering stage of pepper plant, due to the F. occidentalis infestation level was highly population.

The second experiment was conducted in a neighbor pepper greenhouse, divided as the first one. All management control programs of WFT used spray of chemical, to be compared with untreated block (Table 2 ). Comparison between the four programs of insecticides, against WFT and untreated control (check), was conducted throughout the two successive seasons, 2017 and 2018. Pesticide applications were conducted using calibrated handheld compression sprayer (Kwazar) before application. Each block treatment was completely separated by a plastic sheet to avoid pesticide drift.

The mean numbers of WFT individuals (adults and nymphs/10 pepper flowers) were recorded weekly till the end of the experiments. Also, the mean numbers of WFT adults attracted per blue sheet were recorded. Inspection of WFT per ten pepper flowers was carried out, using a white plan sheet (23 cm width × 33 cm length) as inspection plate. The plate was sprayed by water to avoid insects escaping.

Data analysis

Statistical analyses were performed, using SAS program computer including F -test (SAS Institute 2003 ). Revised least significant differences (LSD) at 5% level of probability were used for comparing means.

Results and discussion

In the untreated check (control), the WFT population recorded three peaks on 19 May, 9 June, and 30 June, 2017, by 33.67, 255.33, and 185.67 individuals per 10 flowers, respectively (Table 3 ). In the treatments, after 2 June 2017 (first date of releasing), the F. occidentalis individuals decreased by releasing the phytoseiid mites. In the treatment of N. barkeri and N. arundonaxi , a low population of WFT (24.33 and 62.67 individuals/10 flowers, respectively, in season 2017) was recorded after 1 week from releasing. At the second releasing of the four tested predatory mites, the population of WFT increased on the block with N. bicaudus and C. negevi (176.67 and 163.73 individuals/10 flowers, respectively, in 2017 season) (Table 3 ).

After the second releasing (30 June 2017), the WFT population was sharply dropped after 2 weeks from releasing all phytoseiid mites. The total mean numbers of WFT were 47.60, 39.86, 67.25, 73.87, and 81.13 individuals per 10 flowers in the case of N. barkeri , N. arundonaxi , N. bicaudus , C. negevi , and untreated check, respectively, during the 2017 season (Table 3 ). Generally, the releasing of both N. barkeri and N. arundonaxi was more effective for WFT suppression in the pepper greenhouse.

In the second season, 2018, the same trend was reported in the four releases of phytoseiid mites against WFT infestation on pepper plants under greenhouse conditions. The releasing of these predators was applied on 19 May and 9 June 2018. During the 2018 season, the population of WFT-infested pepper plant was slowly decreased after the first releasing of predators, while the WFT suppression was rapidly dropped after the two releases in the 2018 season (Table 3 ). Insignificant differences were recorded among the four releases of the phytoseiid mites throughout the season 2018. In general, the block, released by N. barkeri and N. arundonaxi , harbored the low infestation of WFT, F. occidentalis , during the two successive seasons, 2017 and 2018, under greenhouse. A higher reduction percentage rate in population of WFT on pepper was detected when N. barkeri was released in 2017 (74.54, 63.47, and 69.00% reduction after first and second releases and mean reduction after two releases, respectively), followed by N. arundonaxi recording 64.17, 31.36, and 47.77% reduction in the case of first and second releases and overall mean reduction after two releases, respectively (Fig. 1 ). However, N. bicaudus and C. negevi recorded the low reduction percentages (overall means of 40.87 and 36.0% reduction, respectively) on F. occidentalis on pepper plant under greenhouse conditions in the 2017 season (Fig. 1 ).

Reduction percentages of Frankliniella occidentalis adults and nymph stages after releasing the phytoseiid mites on pepper greenhouse

On the other hand, N. bicaudus and C. negevi caused the higher reduction of F. occidentalis individuals after two releasing processes than the other two predators, N. barkeri and N. arundonaxi , in season 2018. The reduction percentage was 53.46, 24.28, 15.79, and 4.53% after first releases of N. bicaudus , N. arundonaxi , C. negevi , and N. barkeri , respectively, in the second season 2018. After the second releasing, the reduction was 93.65, 92.37, 84.39, and 83.80% for C. negevi , N. bicaudus , N. arundonaxi , and N. barkeri in 2018, respectively. The overall mean reduction percentage was 72.92, 54.72, 54.34, and 44.16% in the second season 2018 with N. bicaudus , C. negevi , N. arundonaxi , and N. barkeri , respectively (Fig. 1 ).

Generally, the overall mean reduction percentage can be arranged as the following: 56.89, 56.58, 51.05, and 45.38% with N. bicaudus , N. barkeri , N. arundonaxi , and C. negevi , in seasons 2017 and 2018, respectively.

Data in Table 4 show the combined effect of releasing tested phytoseiids and the used of blue sticky trap on pepper plant under greenhouse conditions. The population of WFT individuals/blue sticky sheet recorded three peaks through the tested seasons, 2017 and 2018. The combined effect of predators and sticky traps on the WFT infestations decreased sharply on pepper plants than in the untreated pepper plants (check) (Table 4 ). The use of predators and blue sticky traps together was more effective for thrips suppression. The means of F. occidentalis individuals/blue sheet during 2017 and 2018 seasons are shown in Table 4 . The overall mean of WFT individuals/blue sticky sheet was the highest (63.80 and 34.10 individuals/blue sheet) in block of untreated check, followed by the block of treated one with N. arundonaxi releasing and blue sticky traps (37.90 and 31.20 individuals/blue sticky traps) throughout seasons 2017 and 2018, respectively. Subsequently, the predator-sticky trap combination was more appropriate for WFT controlling on pepper plant under greenhouse conditions through using N. barkeri , N. bicaudus , and N. arundonaxi .

For successful management of F. occidentalis on pepper plants under greenhouse conditions, determination of the thrips damages was critical because the pest had a broad resistance range against insecticides for different chemical categories (Demirozer et al. 2012 and Mouden et al. 2017 ).

In the present study, using of blue sticky traps was more suitable for reducing and attracting of WFT individuals. Broughton and Harrison ( 2012 ) reported that F. occidentalis and T. tabaci were attracted to blue, yellow, and white sticky traps than other tested traps, red, black, and green sticky traps, also in which the blue sticky traps caught the thrip individuals more than the yellow traps. However, current recommendations for attracting of thrips were yellow sticky traps and/or flowers (Hardy et al. 2005 ). Introducing both blue and yellow sticky cards above the plant was the main method for scouting and controlling of thrips by used about 10–40 sticky cards (Cloyd 2009 ).

The obtained data reported that the mean reduction percentage of F. occidentalis infestations could be arranged as 56.89, 56.58, 51.05, and 45.38% with N. bicaudus , N. barkeri , N. arundonaxi , and C. negevi , respectively, during the seasons 2017 and 2018. These results were nearly comparable with those findings by Hessien and Parrella ( 1990 ) who stated that releasing of N. barkeri led to reduce F. occidentalis individual up to 41% and releasing N. cucmeris or N. barkeri was successful for suppressing of thrips in flower crops. The releasing process was conducted per plant as nearly similar to that reported by Hessien and Parrella ( 1990 ) who released N. cucmeris and N. barkeri at (2.5 mites/leaf) against the WFT population. However, the better WFT suppression was achieved when N. cucumeris released at 106 individuals/m 2 / biweekly (Van Driesche et al. 2006 ), while weekly releasing of N. cucumeris (180 individuals/m 2 ) was suitable for F. occidentalis controlling (Bennison et al. 2002 ). For intensification biological control, N. bicaudus , N. barkeri , and N. arundonaxi framework was an augmentative progress against WFT infestation on pepper greenhouse.

Fortunately, pepper greenhouse provides the suitable media for WFT development and infestation. The chemical control of this pest was difficult. According to these programs, the combined of chemical pesticide and bio-pesticide altogether was used in all these programs of WFT control. The mean numbers of F. occidentalis recorded a high value on check pepper block (untreated check) (89.14 individuals/10 flowers), followed by the fourth program (70.35 individuals/10 flowers) during the first season 2017, while the other three programs stated insignificant differences among them during 2017 season (57.21, 54.26, and 45.05 individuals/10 flowers for the first, second, and third programs, respectively). Similarly, the same trend of results was obtained during the second season 2018. The fourth program of pesticides was reported as a high value of WFT individuals/10 flowers, but the low value was observed on each of third, first, and second programs (49.08, 50.63, and 55.95 WFT individuals/10 flowers during season 2018, respectively (Fig. 2 )). Finally, the best WFT control management was the third program, in which sequentially spraying of chlorfenapyr, imidacloprid, azadirachtin, and agricultural potassium soap was used. Data in Fig. 2 illustrates a significant difference between the combination of chemical pesticides and biopesticides in the four tested programs against WFT on pepper plant under greenhouse conditions.

Implement of Frankliniella occidentalis managing by sequentially four insecticide programs in pepper greenhouse

The present data was in harmony with those findings by Hanafy ( 2015 ), in which acetamiprid and thiamethoxam gave a significantly high suppression of F. occidentalis , followed by carbosulfan, spinosad, and spinetoram after 14 days from applications. WFT management key by insecticides can be initiated at the low population of F. occidentalis to avoid overlapping of this pest; once it reaches a high population, it is very difficult to control (Cloyd 2009 ). In the present study, nine different insecticides in four programs were tested against adults and nymphs stages, because the most currently recommended insecticides only suppressed or killed both thrips stages, with no activity on both the eggs and pupal stages (Seaton et al. 1997 ). The primary rule to prevent or reduce the WFT resistance from insecticide was rotating insecticides use (Robb and Parrella 1995 ). In the present study, numerous pesticides were rotated against WFT population on pepper plants under greenhouse conditions. For example, WFT populations were recorded to be resistance against carbamate, pyrethroid, and organophosphates (Kontsedalov et al. 1998 ). Finally, releasing of N. bicaudus and N. barkeri in combination with blue sticky cards reduced the WFT by 56.89 and 56.58%, respectively. The application of the third program (sequential spraying of chlorfenapyr, imidacloprid, azadirachtin, and agricultural potassium soap) gave the best results in reducing the (WFT) (47.1 mean numbers of individuals/10 flowers during the two seasons).

In the present study, releasing of N. bicaudus , N. barkeri , N. arundonaxi , and C. negevi in combination with the blue sticky traps reduced F. occidentalis individuals up to 56% and can be recommended for controlling F. occidentalis on pepper plantations in the greenhouses.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable

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Vegetable and Aromatic plant Mites Department, Plant Protection Research Institute, Agricultural Research Center, 12618 Dokii, Giza, Egypt

Ahmad S. Sanad

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Sanad, A.S., Hassan, G.M. Controlling the western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) by releasing the predatory phytoseiid mites and pesticides on pepper in a greenhouse. Egypt J Biol Pest Control 29 , 95 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41938-019-0186-9

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• Frankliniella occidentalis
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• Blue sticky trap
• Biological control

Pest thrips do not set field margins aside: preferred wildflowers sustain pest Frankliniella spp. (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) and their migration in commercial strawberry

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• Published: 05 April 2023
• Volume 17 , pages 327–340, ( 2023 )

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• Morgane Canovas 1 , 2 ,
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Wildflowers in uncultivated field margin are important resources supporting both pest and non-pest thrips populations in agroecosystems. Environmental factors related to wildflowers have never been used as predictors to model pest thrips density in adjacent crops. Wild and cultivated flowers were sampled in strawberry field agroecosystem in Orléans Island, near Quebec City, Canada. Pest flower thrips Frankliniella intonsa and F. tritici had a wide wildflower host range, with preferences toward Leucanthemum vulgare , Trifolium pratense , Sonchus asper , and Cichorium intybus . Regression modeling revealed significant positive relationships between pest thrips density on specific wildflowers ( Vicia cracca , Sinapis arvensis , S. asper , C. intybus , L. vulgare ) and their density in strawberry flowers. Furthermore, thrips density within the crop decreased with distance from uncultivated field margin. Regarding crop management, knowing the associations between thrips pests and preferred wild flora as well as their spatial distribution in strawberry fields is an undeniable advantage.

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Introduction

Flowers host diverse insect species that use them as critical resources during their whole life cycle (Seimandi Corda 2018 ). While flower–insect interactions are well documented through pollination (Hahn and Brühl 2016 ), florivory and flower resources use by phytophagous insect pests remain overlooked (McCall and Irwin 2006 ; Wardbaugh 2015 ).

Thrips (Thysanoptera) are closely associated with flowers, 25% of species being obligate flower feeders and breeding in angiosperm inflorescences (Atakan 2010 ; Mound 1997 , 2005 , 2009 ). Flower-inhabiting thrips are generally considered to be phytophagous opportunists, rarely limited to specific hostplant relationships. They can consume host plants leaves or flowers and exhibit invasive attributes such as high reproductive rate and vagility as adults (Mound and Tuelon 1995 ). Their aggregation behavior on flowers has been frequently reported (Bailey 1933 ; Katayama 2006 ; Northfield et al. 2008 ; Silva et al. 2018 ), including by Charles Darwin during his pollination experiments (Mound 2009 ). Such close associations reflect the essential role of inflorescences as ecological niche for thrips, providing both suitable microclimatic conditions and protection from predators, factors exerting substantial selection pressure on phytophagous insects (Strong et al. 1984 ). Data indicate that flower thrips larvae and adults perform better when feeding on floral rather than leaf tissues regarding larval survival, fecundity, longevity (Milne et al. 1996 ), and reproduction (Wäckers et al. 2007 ). In nature, flower-inhabiting thrips maximal densities yearly peak when flowering weed species are in bloom (Chellemi et al. 1994 ; Atakan and Uygur 2005 ; Silva et al. 2018 ). Besides, the presence of flowers is a significant driver of local colonization by thrips (Yudin et al. 1988 ; Nyasani et al. 2013 ).

Some flower-feeding thrips are major crop pests (Mound 2009 ), so their presence in agroecosystems should be considered in wildflowers naturally occurring in field’s margins as well as in crop plants. In the early 1930s, wildflowers were already recognized as a major component of thrips outbreaks, supporting populations through winter (Bailey 1933 ). They are known as potential resources for pest thrips species, even in desert agroecosystems (Adler et al. 2014 ). Flowering hostplants in field margins both shelter pest thrips when crops are not available (Toapanta et al. 1996 ; Beaudoin and Kennedy 2012 ; Szostek and Schwartz 2015) and sustain their reproduction (Toapanta et al. 1996 ; Paini et al. 2008 ; Ripa et al. 2009 ). Thrips emergence over the season may occur in wild areas before they colonize crops (Pearsall and Myers 2000 ), moving close to ground level in spring but flying higher when temperature increases, and wild vegetation grows taller (Pearsall and Myers 2001 ). Historically, thrips immigration from surrounding wildflowers into crops has largely been neglected, as thrips population growth leading to economic losses was often assumed to be occurring within fields (Mound 1997 ). Identifying thrips’ wildflower host plants is critical to understand their local resources use near crops yet disentangling thrips dynamics between wild and crop flowers is also essential for pest management. Silva et al. ( 2018 ) attributed Thrips tabaci (Lindeman) abundance in cotton fields to its abundance on surrounding wildflowers, based on seasonal abundance patterns and genetic relations between thrips collected on cotton and wild hosts. Pearsall and Myers ( 2001 ) found that nectarine orchard location relative to wild vegetation was the main factor determining colonization by Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande), even over prevailing wind. Despite the acknowledged importance of wildflowers in thrips outbreaks, environmental factors directly related to flowering host plants in field margins (richness, abundance, pest thrips density on a given species) have not been used as predictors of thrips density within crops. Similarly, the spatial extent of wildflowers influence on thrips density within crops has rarely been assessed (Nicholls et al. 2001 ).

Flower-inhabiting thrips are major pests in berry crops (Rhodes and Liburd 2017 ; Rodriguez-Saona et al. 2010 ; Renkema et al. 2018 ), as larvae and adults damage both flowers and fruits (Mound 2009 ). This can reduce flowering and downgrade fruit appearance, resulting in economic losses (Steiner and Goodwin 2005 ; Koike et al. 2009 ). Thrips damage in strawberry production at higher latitudes is predicted to increase due to climate change and warmer conditions (Parikka and Tuovinen 2014 ). Thus, developing monitoring (Marullo et al. 2021 ) and efficient control strategies (Sampson and Kirk 2013 , 2016 ; Sampson et al. 2021 ) of thrips populations in strawberry are real issues. However, in Canada, thrips ecology has been overlooked since the observational study of Chiasson ( 1986 ) involving a survey of thrips–host plant relations covering the whole country.

Preliminary 2016–17 surveys (unpublished data) revealed that the exotic Frankliniella intonsa (Trybom) and the endemic Frankliniella tritici (Fitch) are dominant pest thrips species in strawberry agroecosystems of Orléans Island, Québec, Canada. As they were abundant on both strawberry flowers (95% of collected thrips) and surrounding wildflowers (43%) (Canovas et al. 2022 ), those Frankliniella spp. appeared as suitable models to set out the influence of wildflowers and wildflowers’ use by pest thrips on their density in strawberry flowers. Besides, densities of both F. intonsa and F. tritici on strawberry flowers were correlated to their abundance in at least two common wildflower species in field margins of Orléans Island (Canovas et al. 2022). Therefore, the current study aims to 1) measure wildflowers use by Frankliniella spp. in uncultivated margins near strawberry crops and 2) model the effect environmental factors related to wildflowers on Frankliniella spp. density on strawberry flowers and its spatial distribution within fields. We hypothesize that wildflowers in uncultivated margins act as Frankliniella spp. sources, favoring strawberry field colonization by pest thrips. We predicted that biotic environmental factors such as floral species richness, floral abundance, and abundance of Frankliniella spp. on preferred wildflower hosts positively influence thrips density in strawberry flowers. We expected thrips density within fields to gradually decrease with growing distance to wildflowers naturally occurring in margins.

Materials and methods

Study sites and sampling periods.

Sampling was conducted on Orléans Island, near Québec City, Québec, Canada, during the entire 2018 strawberry production season. Samples were collected once a week from mid-July until mid-September in four sites. Each site consisted of a 1-year-old Seascape cultivar open strawberry field (average 72 m long and 73 m wide) and the adjacent uncultivated field margin (average 3.7 m wide), naturally colonized by wildflowers. Sites were distributed among four farms applying conventional strawberry crop management with insecticide (©DELEGATE; active compound Spinetoram; pulverizations not synchronized between farms), which is the main control method for thrips in open fields (Reitz et al. 2020) including in strawberry production (Steiner et al. 2005 ). Partner producers carried out pesticide applications at their discretion, based on the recommendations of their lead agronomists. Before any sampling event, each farm was systematically contacted to ensure that the deadline for returning to the field was respected following potential spraying of insecticides, fungicides, or herbicides. Monitored field margins were selected to standardize their width and vegetation cover and minimize the agricultural disturbances (access roads, material storage, irrigation network). No mowing was done before and during sampling near sampled areas.

The day-neutral Seascape cultivar ( Fragaria  ×  ananassa Duchesne) produces fruits from late spring until autumn, so our sampling season includes both the highest abundance period for flower thrips and the maximum strawberry fruit production. The sampling season was separated in three distinct periods, based upon crop production seasonality and Frankliniella spp. abundance in our system (Fig.  1 ):

July (16 July–30 July 2018), early blooming and fruit harvest, moderate abundance of thrips in strawberry fields (mean 3 ± 0.8 thrips/flower).

August (06 August–20 August), intensive fruit harvest in strawberry fields and Frankliniella spp. abundance peak (mean 20 ± 6 thrips/flower).

September (28 August–17 September), reduced fruit harvest in strawberry fields and Frankliniella spp. abundance decrease (mean 4 ± 1 thrips/flower).

Mean Frankliniella spp. densities variation according to sampling date, periods, and sampling areas. Data presented are mean thrips/10 flowers ± SE ( n  = 4 sites) for a total sampling effort of 48 m 2 (July and August) or 64 m 2 (September) in uncultivated margins and 240 m 2 (July and August) or 320 m 2 (September) in strawberry fields

Furthermore, each of these periods represents a distinct wildflower profile in uncultivated field margins (Table 1 ).

Insect sampling and monitoring of floral resources

In each site, the field side was virtually subdivided crosswise into 10 m wide marked transects including both a strawberry field portion, and its adjacent uncultivated margin naturally colonized by wildflowers. For each sampling event (date) in each site, a single 10 m wide transect was randomly selected for sampling. The strawberry field portion of the selected transect was systematically sampled perpendicularly to the uncultivated margin, at intervals of 2, 7, 11, 15, and 19 m from the margin; those distances are corresponding to odd-number strawberry rows of the field border. At each distance, four non-overlapping 1 m 2 quadrats of strawberry within the 10 m wide transect were randomly selected for sampling. In each quadrat, strawberry flowers in bloom were counted and a maximum of five flowers was collected. Similarly, in the same transect, the abutting margin was sampled for wildflowers in four 1 m 2 quadrats randomly selected within the same transect. The number of flower units in each quadrat was counted for each blooming wildflower species and a maximum of five flower units per species was collected. In the case of plants with compound inflorescences, such as Vetch ( Vicia spp.) or Goldenrod ( Solidago spp.), the entire raceme was collected and considered as one flower unit. During any sampling event in each site, the total vegetation area sampled in the randomly selected transect was 20 m 2 in the strawberry field portion, and 4 m 2 in the adjacent uncultivated field margin.

Thrips and flowers identification

Thrips were extracted from flower units dissected in ethanol. In flower samples containing < 100 adult Thysanoptera, all individuals were identified to species. In those with > 100 or > 200 adult thrips, a fraction (respectively, 50% or 25%) of all individuals were randomly subsampled to be identified. For adult identification, thrips were slide-mounted in ethanol 45% and examined with an Olympus Bx41 compound microscope (Markham, Ontario, Canada). Adults were sexed and identified to species level using morphological keys from Mound and Kibby ( 1998 ), Stannard ( 1968 ) and Hoddle et al. ( 2012 ). Specimens were also sent for identity validation to The Canadian National Collection of Insects, Arachnids, and Nematodes (CNC) of Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. Immature thrips were not identified to species level considering taxonomic difficulties (Skarlinsky and Funderburk 2016 ) . All flowering plants were identified to species level (Clemants and Gracie 2006 ; Data base from Ministère de l’Agriculture, des Pêcheries et de l’Alimentation and Ministère des Forêts, de la Faune et des Parcs 2019).

Statistical analysis

Analyses were performed on R software (version 3.6.0; R Core Team 2022 ). Mixed multiple regressions were independently performed to assess the ability of ‘Floral richness’ (total number of flower species blooming), ‘Floral abundance’ (total flower units number per species blooming), and numbers of F. intonsa or F. tritici on selected wildflowers, to predict F. intonsa or F. tritici densities within strawberry flowers. Data from weekly sampling were pooled for each period and separately analyzed. Wildflower species used in models were the five to six main F. intonsa or F. tritici hosts, based on total thrips abundance for each period (Table 1 ). Only samples with a minimum of 10 thrips were included in models, considering that lower abundances likely reflected accidental visiting. Mixed multiple regressions were also performed to model the effect of ‘Distance’ from the uncultivated margin on thrips density in strawberry fields. An interaction term between ‘Distance’ and ‘Thrips species’ was added to detect any potentially different response from F. intonsa and F. tritici based on deviance analysis. Analyses were performed using the glmer.nb function from R lme4 package (Bates 2015 ), with significance threshold α  = 0.05. In all models, ‘Sites’ and ‘Quadrats’ were included as random effects. Overdispersion in thrips density was handled using Negative Binomial distribution. An offset term was added in all models to consider that systematic sampling of five flowers for each species in a quadrat was not always possible. Pseudo- R 2 was estimated on the fixed part of each model as a goodness-of-fit measure, corresponding to the squared correlation between predicted and observed values. Preliminary analyses were performed to ensure there was no violation of assumptions concerning residuals distribution and absence of collinearity among factors.

A total of 4 360 adult Frankliniella spp. were collected on 6 075 flower units including strawberry flowers. Nearly all phytophagous arthropods found in flowers were thrips and over 96% among all thrips in strawberry were F. intonsa or F. tritici. In wildflowers, they represented over 50% of the adult thrips collected. Among the 39 wildflower species sampled, 29 of them hosted at least one F . intonsa or F. tritici adult specimen and wildflowers not found to be used by them belonged to rarely sampled species (Table 1 ).

Generally, females of both Frankliniella spp. were more frequently collected than males (overall female:male sex ratio is 1:0.44). Generalist thrips predators were anecdotally found in flower samples, totaling 15 Aeolothrips fasciatus (Linnaeus) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) and 50 Orius sp. (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae).

Frankliniella species associations with wildflowers in margin

Thrips differently used wildflower resources depending on the period (Figs.  1 , 2 ), as the availability of blooming wildflowers varied throughout the season both in terms of species composition and abundance (Supplementary material section). Frankliniella intonsa and F.tritici shared most of their wildflower host plant range, with, respectively, 22 and 24 wildflower host species (Table 1 ). Interestingly, F. tritici used Leucanthemum vulgare and Sonchus asper abundantly, despite the low availability of these wildflower species. (Table 1 ; Fig.  2 ).

Mean Frankliniella spp. densities variation according to wildflower species. Flowers relative abundance in percentage (black triangle) is presented on the right axis as a measure of flower availability for thrips. Only main wildflower species hosting more than 10 thrips in each period are illustrated. Data presented are mean thrips/10 flowers ± SE ( n  = 4 sites) for a total sampling effort of 48 m 2 (July and August) or 64 m 2 (September) in 768 uncultivated margins

Overall, the abundances of F. intonsa and F. tritici were not proportional to flower availability (Fig.  2 ). Some wildflower species with low relative abundance hosted high thrips densities, thus appearing as preferred hosts: Linaria vulgaris (Mill) in July, Trifolium pratense (Linnaeus) in August or Vicia cracca (Linnaeus) in September. Contrastingly, only four thrips were found on abundant Silene vulgaris ((Moench) Garcke) flowers, which represented 9% of available wildflowers. Vicia cracca and Sinapis arvensis (Linnaeus) flowers hosted both F. intonsa and F. tritici during all three sampling periods (Table 1 ; Fig.  2 ), suggesting thrips preference. Despite moderate availability, V. cracca , among others, supported the highest F. intonsa and F. tritici total densities: mean > 6 thrips/10 flower units, and hosted relatively high thrips larval densities: 6, 30, and 8 larvae/10 flowers, according to July, August, and September periods, respectively.

Effect of thrips—wildflowers associations on thrips density within strawberry field

Thrips density in margins, particularly F. intonsa and F. tritici on specific wildflowers, positively correlated with their density within strawberry fields (Figs.  3 , 4 , 5 ; Tables 2 , 3 ). These thrips density effects varied with periods, with model respective pseudo- R 2 values of 0.38, 0.26, and 0.63 for F. intonsa ; and 0.70, 0.63, and 0.81 for F. tritici , respectively, for July, August, and September periods. Flower abundance and flower richness variables were found to have mostly insignificant effects on thrips density within the field, but a negative effect of floral richness for F. intonsa in July (Tables 2 , 3 ). Considering F. intonsa , very few wildflower species supported enough individuals to be considered in modeling, and S. arvensis and V. cracca were selected as its major hosts for all three periods. Frankliniella intonsa density on V. cracca in all periods, and on S. arvensis in August and September, had a strong positive correlation with its density in strawberry flowers (Fig.  3 ; Table 2 ). The abundance of F. intonsa on flowers of relatively rare Oenothera biennis in August had no effect. Regarding F. tritici , both S . arvensis and V. cracca also supported sufficient densities to be considered in models during all periods. Frankliniella tritici density on wildflowers correlated positively with its density in the field (Fig.  3 , 4 , 5 ; Table 3 ). Unlike F. intonsa , F. tritici was abundant on other wildflower hosts, which we also retained as predictors (Table 1 ). In July, L. vulgare sustained the highest F. tritici abundance (average 20 adults /10 flowers) and was then by far the best predictor among its wildflower hosts (Table 3 ). However, L. vulgare was unavailable in August and hosted very few F. tritici in September (Table 3 ). In July, Cichorium intybus (Linnaeus) hosted very few thrips (Table 1 ) but later, F. tritici density on this species correlated with F. tritici density in strawberry; this effect is highly significant in August (Table 3 ). Regarding S. asper , F. tritici density on preferred wildflowers within field margins in August and September had a strong effect on its density in strawberry (Table 3 ).

Factors related to wildflowers in field margins that significantly influenced Frankliniella spp. density within strawberry fields during July (16–30 July). Represented ranges in x axis correspond to observed values for a total 48 m 2 sampling effort in uncultivated margins. Data presented are predicted values ± 95% IC, separately calculated for each species ( n  = 4 sites), dots corresponding to observed values. Statistics are shown in Tables 2 and 3

Factors related to wildflowers in field margins that significantly influence Frankliniella spp. density within the field during August (6–20 August). Represented ranges in x axis correspond to observed values for a total 48 m 2 sampling effort in uncultivated margins. Data presented are predicted values ± 95% CI, separately calculated for each species ( n  = 4 sites). Dots are observed values. Statistics are shown in Tables 2 and 3 .

Factors related to wildflowers in field margins that significantly influence Frankliniella spp. density within the field during September ( 28 August–17 September) . Represented ranges in x axis correspond to observed values for a total 64 m 2 sampling effort in uncultivated margins. Data presented are predicted values ± 95% IC, separately calculated for each species ( n  = 4 sites). Dots are observed values. Statistics are shown in Tables 2 and 3

The overall average adult Frankliniella spp. density was about 10 times lower in strawberry flowers (1 ± 1 /10 strawberry flowers) than in wildflowers (10 ± 4 /10 wildflower flowers) (Fig.  1 ). A lesser but similar trend was also observed for unidentified thrips larvae: 5 ± 1 larvae / 10 strawberry flowers, versus 12 ± 2 larvae /10 wildflower flowers. Frankliniella tritici adults were markedly dominant over F. intonsa adults in margins in mid-summer weeks (30 July—20 August) (Fig.  1 ), its density on wildflowers then being much higher than on strawberry flowers. Contrastingly, F. intonsa became dominant over F. tritici on wildflowers in early September (27th August-6th September), and from mid-August onward, its density was substantially higher on wildflowers than strawberry flowers for about five weeks (Fig.  1 ). Frankliniella tritici density in strawberry flowers appeared more stable in time and generally lower than that of F. intonsa, except briefly in late August (Fig.  1 ). From September onwards, both species densities in fields were similarly low, under 3 adults /10 strawberry flowers.

Effect of distance from margins on thrips spatial distribution in strawberry fields

Thrips density in strawberry flowers generally decreased with distance of strawberry rows from the field margins (Fig.  6 ), with pseudo-R 2 values of 0.19, 0.25, and 0.35, respectively, according to periods. This effect was highly significant in August and September (Table 4 ). Deviance analysis revealed no interaction between distance and thrips species explanatory variables in July (df = 1, χ 2  = 1.6978, P  = 0.1926) and August (df = 1, χ 2  = 0.0962, P  = 0.7565) so interaction was removed from final models. In contrast, during September, this interaction was highly significant (df = 1, χ 2  = 20.582, P  < 0.001). In July, thrips species was a significant predictor of thrips density in strawberry, but not distance (Table 4 ). Predicted density of F. intonsa in strawberry flowers was slightly higher than F. tritici density. In August, F. intonsa and F. tritici responded similarly to distance (Table 4 ), their predicted density decreasing by 5% per meter as distance from margin increased (Fig.  6 ). The model predicted that a great majority (85%) of adult thrips present in the field in August would be found between 0 and 15 m from the margins (11th strawberry row). In September, thrips density response to distance was highly significant again, but also varied significantly with thrips species (Fig.  6 ; Table 4 ). Adult F. intonsa density responded more strongly to distance than F. tritici . Predicted F. intonsa density decreased by 12% per meter away from the margin, with a predicted majority (85%) of F. intonsa being found between 0 and 12 m from margins (8th strawberry row). By comparison, there was only a 2% per meter decrease of density with distance for F. tritici, most of them were found between 0 and 15 m from margin (Fig.  6 ).

Effect of ‘Distance’ from field margins in meters on Frankliniella spp. density distribution in strawberry agroecosystem according to periods. Distance 0 m represents the interface between margin (− 0.5 m) and field (1—20 m). Data presented are predicted values ± 95% CI ( n  = 4 sites). Dots are observed values. Statistics are shown in Table 4

Generally, both F. intonsa and F. tritici in strawberry were clearly more abundant close to wildflower resources: 90% of adults and 98% of unidentified larvae were observed between 0 and 15 m within fields during the whole sampling program, while models predicted on average 85% of adults to be caught between 0 and 15 m (11th strawberry row) from uncultivated margins. This corroborates the trend observed during our previous extended sampling 50 m from the margin (preliminary 2016 survey, unpublished data).

Our study illustrates specific Frankliniella spp. preferences among their large wildflower host range in strawberry agroecosystems and the role of specific wildflower species in their use of strawberry fields.

Frankliniella species associations with wildflowers in margins

We recorded F. intonsa and F. tritici from more than twenty local wildflower species, which generally correspond to previous observations for F. tritici (Chellemi et al. 1994 ). To our knowledge, this is the first study of thrips–wildflower use in Québec since the work of Chiasson ( 1986 ). This author reported the presence of F. tritici on S. arvensis but F. intonsa was not recorded presumably because it had not yet established in Québec (Nakahara and Footitt 2007 ). Information about F. intonsa is scarce, regarding both its host range and its geographic origin, presumed to be western Asia (Hoddle et al. 2012 ). Conversely, F. tritici is native to eastern North America (Stannard 1968 ; Hoddle et al. 2012 ) and is abundantly observed in wildflowers (Chiasson 1986 ; Chellemi et al. 1994 ).

The observed tendency of F. intonsa and F. tritici to use wildflower resources beyond their availability illustrates their preference for specific species according to season, for example, L. vulgare or T. pratense (Fig.  2 ). Seasonal host- switching in flower use is likely a response to flowering phenology and the generally ephemeral availability of wildflowers (Northfield et al. 2008 ). Several authors reported higher thrips densities on particular wildflower species within their host range (Chellemi et al. 1994 ; Northfield et al. 2008 ; Silva et al. 2018 ); however, thrips density was not quantitatively related to flower availability. Like our observations for F. intonsa and F. tritici , consistent flower preferences were reported for F. occidentalis (Pergande) in British Columbia, Canada (Pearsall 2000 ). In our system, strawberry flowers supported lower total numbers of F. intonsa and F. tritici than preferred wildflowers in margins. Density-independent flower selection behavior was also observed for F. occidentalis under field conditions (Pearsall 2000 ). Blooming traits often invoked to explain thrips preference include flower openness (Mound 2005 ), color (Funderburk et al. 2015 ), pollen nutritional value (Northfield et al. 2008 ), or scent (Pearsall 2000 ). Mound and Tuelon ( 1995 ) characterized flower-visiting thrips as opportunists; nevertheless, they proposed that under natural conditions, thrips could have adopted an intermediate feeding strategy between polyphagy and monophagy. Thus, thrips tend to have close relationships with some hosts for reproduction, while maintaining lower populations on others (Mound and Tuelon 1995 ). Our observations and those of Pearsall ( 2000 ) could illustrate such a host plant selection strategy.

Sinapis arvensis and V. cracca were consistent hosts for both F. intonsa and F. tritici throughout the three sampling periods (Fig.  2 ). Noticeably, other Vicia species were mentioned as poor hosts for Frankliniella species reproduction and development (Katayama 2006 ; Ripa et al. 2009 ).

As expected, density of F. intonsa and F. tritici on wildflowers in uncultivated margins could predict their density within strawberry fields in periods of high thrips abundance. Wildflowers are a key habitat for pest thrips in agroecosystems, some of them being known to frequently transit through the flowering field margins (Fernandes and Fernandes 2015 ). Therefore, blooming wildflowers can be considered the main source to be screened when monitoring the potential origins of Frankliniella species outbreaks, as suggested by Northfield et al. ( 2008 ).

Our models indicate that thrips density on major wildflower hosts is closely associated with both F. intonsa and F. tritici density in strawberry flowers (Tables 2 , 3 ). This is a strong indicator of thrips dynamics between wildflowers and cultivated strawberry, complementary to other studies based on thrips sticky-cards trapping (Rodriguez-Saona et al. 2010 ) or genetic comparisons (Silva et al. 2018 ) in agroecosystems. Wildflowers such as mustard, vetch, chicory, or thistle are common in disturbed environments (Clemants and Gracie 2006 ). Previous studies already considered them as key hosts in crop colonization by F. occidentalis, T. tabaci, and other pest thrips species (Katayama 2006 ; Atakan 2010 ; Silva et al. 2018 ). In our study, S. arvensis and V. cracca bloomed through all three periods of sampling. They were jointly used by both F. intonsa and F. tritici , suggesting potential resource competition as hinted by the fact that thrips numbers on S. arvensis alternately predicted F. tritici densities in July and F. intonsa in August and September. Notably, F. intonsa and F. tritici are both reported to be involved in interspecific competition with F. occidentalis (Paini et al. 2008 ; Bhuyain and Lim 2019 ), but competitive interaction between F. intonsa and F. tritici has not been evaluated yet. On wildflowers species sustaining thrips numbers that significantly contributed to F. tritici density in strawberry flowers (i.e., L. vulgare , C. intybus and S. asper ), we observed that F. tritici adults were highly aggregated. Population density should be one of the main stimuli driving thrips migration in agroecosystems (Fernandes and Fernandes 2015 ); thus, it is not surprising that thrips density on mostly used wildflowers (see, e.g., Fig.  2 ) was closely associated with thrips density increases in strawberry (Figs.  3 , 4 , 5 ). Both competition and population density pressures could be implicated in Frankliniella spp. emigration from hosts like V. cracca and S. arvensis , which needs further study. Despite their small size, thrips in flight may choose their landing area under favorable conditions (Kirk 1984 ) and use saltation for small-scale movements (Bournier 1983 ). In their studies, Pearsall ( 2000 ) and Pearsall and Myers ( 2001 ) attributed the net movement of F. occidentalis from wild areas toward nectarine orchards to the strong attractive effect of scented nectarine flowers. In strawberry, we speculate that the movement of F. intonsa and F. tritici from margins to the field could be partly due to attraction toward white strawberry flowers, as white color is known to be attractive to Frankliniella spp. (Funderburk et al. 2015 and references therein). White was the predominant color at landscape scale as the Seascape strawberry cultivar continuously produces flowers over an extended area, strawberry flowers thus being a non-negligible visual stimulus compared to isolated wildflowers in margins.

Floral richness and floral abundance explanatory variables generally had no effect on thrips density in strawberry fields, except in July, with F. intonsa density in fields being negatively affected by floral richness in margins. It is known that some F. occidentalis individuals continuously move from crops into nearby wild vegetation (Adler et al. 2014 ) and bi-directional thrips migration between fields and their margins has been reported by Fernandes and Fernandes ( 2015 ). In their study, immigration into margins was attributed to wildflower blooming periodically attracting thrips. Thus, in July, a negative effect of floral richness on F. intonsa density in strawberry might be linked to F. intonsa movement toward margins because of an attractive effect of wildflowers.

Distance from uncultivated margin negatively affected both F. intonsa and F. tritici density distribution within strawberry fields during much of the sampling program. According to our prediction, pest thrips density decreased in the fields as a function of distance from margins. In blueberries, Rodriguez-Saona et al. ( 2010 ) found a significant effect of distance from uncultivated margins on thrips sticky trap counts in blueberry fields and presumed that wild early flowering Vaccinium spp. could have been a thrips source. Contrastingly, wildflower corridors in organic grape production were found to decrease F. occidentalis density in their vicinity, by favoring crop colonization by natural enemies (Nicholls et al. 2001 ). Our results indicate that the activity of thrips natural enemies in strawberry fields of Orléans Island was negligible, as also observed in preliminary surveys in 2016–2017 (unpublished data). A possible explanation is the use of broad-spectrum insecticides in conventional strawberry crop management, which are particularly harmful to predatory thrips (Mautino et al. 2014 ) and anthocorid bugs (Funderburk et al. 2000 ). Nicholls et al. ( 2001 ) in grape found no apparent distance effect on F. occidentalis counts between field margins and field center. In their study, margin vegetation was a riparian forest, with available wildflowers species possibly being less diversified than F. occidentalis’ common host range, typical of dryer disturbed areas. Therefore, forest margins could have been less suitable for thrips establishment, playing a negligible role as a thrips source. In contrast, we observed that F. intonsa and F. tritici may mainly breed in wildflowers and migrate into strawberry fields (Canovas et al. 2022 ). In our study, a vast majority (85%) of adult thrips present in strawberry would stay within 12–15 m from uncultivated margins, with density decrease from margins to fields’ center. Fernandes and Fernandes ( 2015 ) reported such a thrips density gradient in tomato fields. Similarly, in nectarine orchards, F. occidentalis density decreased with distance from uncultivated areas (Pearsall and Myers 2001 ). The expression “edge effect” describes such a pattern of high thrips abundance in a cultivated area close to a thrips source: flying adult thrips leaving an old crop, or a patch of wildflowers, easily reach new cultivated hosts and mainly colonize the first ones encountered (Bournier 1983 ).

In July, distance from margin was not a significant predictor of F. intonsa and F. tritici density in strawberry (Table 4 ), so margins may not have been an immigration source of thrips in early summer. However, this is consistent with the putative movement of F. intonsa from strawberry flowers to wildflowers in July, based on the negative effect of floral richness on the density of this thrips species within field (Fig.  3 ). Despite wild floral vegetation being then less developed and less diversified than in August and September (Table 1 ), alimentation and / or reproduction of Frankliniella spp. on beneficial wildflower species may be necessary in early season for thrips populations establishment before thrips density increase in margins could significantly contribute to their migration in strawberry flowers.

Models based on distance from margins satisfyingly explained thrips density variations in strawberry flowers. A “moderate” fit was obtained for two of the three periods (mid- summer, early fall), which is substantial considering a disturbed agroecosystem context. However, despite being significant, distance and thrips species variables explained only 25% (August) to 35% (September) of overall variance, showing that Frankliniella spp. density distribution in strawberry fields was not determined solely by distance from wildflower resources. In spring, thrips populations in fields can originate from two main sources: immigration from outside crops, or from “resident” diapausing adults that survived winter (Rodriguez-Saona et al. 2010 ). Weekly emergence trapping in four sites in Orléans Island in May and June 2018 (Canovas et al. 2022 ) revealed that whereas many adults F. intonsa and F. tritici emerged from the field margins areas, only a few individuals were collected from adjacent strawberry. Thus, adults overwintering within the field negligibly contributed to springtime thrips populations built up in strawberry, which contrasts with F. occidentalis in partly sheltered outdoors strawberry in the United Kingdom (Sampson et al. 2021 ). Another aspect of thrips density patterns in crops is their markedly aggregated distribution (Cho et al. 2000 and references therein), also recorded for some Frankliniella species (Cho et al. 1995 ; Allan and Gillett-Kaufman 2018 ). In Swiss strawberry fields, Linder et al. ( 2006 ) reported high aggregation of a thrips complex including F. intonsa , with scattered groups of adults and larvae. Potential mechanisms to explain thrips aggregative behavior are chemical communication, local abiotic conditions (soil type, fertilization), wind and host flower numbers (Arévalo and Liburd 2007 ).

Our modeling primarily focused on the causal relationship between Frankliniella spp. densities on wildflowers and their densities on strawberry flowers, as previous work suggested that pest thrips' net movement in agroecosystems would be from uncultivated margins toward crops. This is based on trapping (Pearsall and Myers 2001 ; Rodriguez-Saona et al. 2010 ), joint observation of wild and crop host plants (Puche et al. 1995; Atakan and Uygur 2005 ; Silva et al. 2018 ) and genetic sequencing (Silva et al. 2018 ). However, we observed a negative effect of floral richness on F. intonsa density in strawberry in July, and a variable effect of distance on both Frankliniella spp. density within strawberry flowers according to period. Furthermore, F. intonsa density in strawberry flowers was higher in July and August than September and F. tritici density in strawberry was not distinctively higher at the population peak in August than in July or September, despite increasing floral abundance and richness over time in margins. These results hint to more complex migration dynamics than considering wildflowers as a permanent thrips source. Attraction of Frankliniella spp. toward wildflowers in early season may be beneficial for feeding and reproduction, potentially also acting as refuges against chemical sprayings (Beaudoin and Kennedy 2012 ; Cluever et al. 2016 ), or disturbance caused by harvesting in strawberry crops. Thus, the main thrips movement may then be from crops toward uncultivated margins, an “edge effect” being observed later in strawberry flowers when thrips densities on preferred wildflower species exceed a threshold, as illustrated by our models (Figs.  3 , 4 , 5 ). The use of thrips immunolabeling techniques would be an effective way to follow their movements in the environment for several weeks, as well as their use of specific host plants over time (Fernandes and Fernandes 2015 ).

As we monitored strawberry agroecosystems under conventional agricultural management, the influence of pesticide spraying cannot be totally excluded. However, we ensured that applications of insecticide, fungicide, or herbicide did not coincide with any of our samplings. As a delay of several days is necessary before producers can harvest or market the fruits after an application, the use of pesticides by producers tends to be reduced as much as possible. Considering that we monitored margins directly abutting the fields, we assume that interpretation of our results in terms of movement of thrips between wildflowers and strawberry flowers was carried out in closely similar conditions regarding pesticide sprays. To our knowledge, no study has specifically investigated the effect of chemical treatments on the dispersal of thrips between wild vegetation and crops, except Aliakbarpour and Salmah ( 2011 ) in tropical orchards, who concluded that the main effect of insecticide sprays is to promote the aggregation of adult thrips and larvae in protected microhabitats on the crop (mango panicles).

Local management of field margins was attempted on four sites in this study, based on weekly mowing or sowing attractive wildflowers. However, poor seedlings establishment, existence of wildflower seed banks, and mowing synchronization issues created unexpected interferences. We would recommend carrying out such uncultivated margins manipulations on an experimental farm rather than commercial fields, to standardize conditions and avoid pesticide use.

We used data from a single year to model thrips abundance, which limits the possibility for generalizing to other situations in time and space, despite replication of field sites and farms and weekly monitoring over a whole season. However, our 2018 observations regarding Frankliniella spp. are consistent with our unpublished data at lower thrips densities in 2016–2017. Thrips ecology under natural conditions is mediated by numerous biotic and abiotic interactions, difficult to measure in the field (Bournier 1983 ). Some parameters are already known to significantly influence the flight activity as well as the direction of thrips dispersal at the agricultural landscape scale, such as atmospheric conditions (Bournier 1983 ; Lewis 1991; Rodriguez-Saona et al. 2010 ) and crop age (Fernandes and Fernandes 2015 ). Future work is needed to jointly monitor more agroecosystems factors, and model multiannual thrips density variation, especially in the current context of climate change.

Considering crop management, knowing that close association of F. intonsa and F. tritici with specific wildflowers, especially Vicia cracca , Sinapis arvensis or Sonchus asper , forms a basis for future work aiming to reduce thrips damage in strawberry. For now, optimal flowering margins manipulation strategies to control thrips populations remain unclear. Native wildflower planting, as experimented in Northeastern USA strawberry fields (McCabe et al. 2017 ), would potentially decrease thrips population density pressure in margins. However, as Frankliniella species are anthophagous generalists, flower addition could also have undesirable positive donor effects on their density in crops (McCabe et al. 2017 ), possibly even attracting and sustaining more thrips in the system. On the other hand, wild vegetation suppression or sprayings with insecticides for thrips control in margins could lead to thrips dispersion and outbreaks in adjacent crops (Bailey 1933 ; Beaudoin and Kennedy 2012 ). Thus, further studies on thrips–wildflowers interactions are necessary to develop experimentally based margin management strategies for strawberry fields agroecosystems.

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) via a grant from the Research and Cooperative Development program (RCD) No CRDPJ 491223 – 2015 awarded to C. Cloutier. It was co-funded by four partner strawberry producers: farms Onésime Pouliot, François Gosselin, Polyculture Plante and M&P Vaillancourt, that we thank for their collaboration and providing access to strawberry fields. We thank Eric Maw (Canadian National Collection of Insects, Arachnids and Nematodes) and Gaétan Daigle (Mathematics and Statistics department, Laval university), respectively, for thrips identity and statistical validations. We warmly thank Philippe Gagnon, BSc. Biology student, for the help with sampling and sorting thrips. We also thank Pre Line Lapointe (Biology department, Laval university) and Annabelle Firlej (Agro-environmental Research and Development Institute) for helpful comments on this paper.

Funding was provided by Natural Sciences and Engineering Research of Canada (CRDPJ 491223 – 2015).

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Canovas, M., Guay, JF., Fournier, V. et al. Pest thrips do not set field margins aside: preferred wildflowers sustain pest Frankliniella spp. (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) and their migration in commercial strawberry. Arthropod-Plant Interactions 17 , 327–340 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11829-023-09955-y

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Issue Date : June 2023

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Travel Itinerary For One Week in Moscow: The Best of Moscow!

I just got back from one week in Moscow. And, as you might have already guessed, it was a mind-boggling experience. It was not my first trip to the Russian capital. But I hardly ever got enough time to explore this sprawling city. Visiting places for business rarely leaves enough time for sightseeing. I think that if you’ve got one week in Russia, you can also consider splitting your time between its largest cities (i.e. Saint Petersburg ) to get the most out of your trip. Seven days will let you see the majority of the main sights and go beyond just scratching the surface. In this post, I’m going to share with you my idea of the perfect travel itinerary for one week in Moscow.

Moscow is perhaps both the business and cultural hub of Russia. There is a lot more to see here than just the Kremlin and Saint Basil’s Cathedral. Centuries-old churches with onion-shaped domes dotted around the city are in stark contrast with newly completed impressive skyscrapers of Moscow City dominating the skyline. I spent a lot of time thinking about my Moscow itinerary before I left. And this city lived up to all of my expectations.

Travel Itinerary For One Week in Moscow

Day 1 – red square and the kremlin.

Metro Station: Okhotny Ryad on Red Line.

No trip to Moscow would be complete without seeing its main attraction. The Red Square is just a stone’s throw away from several metro stations. It is home to some of the most impressive architectural masterpieces in the city. The first thing you’ll probably notice after entering it and passing vendors selling weird fur hats is the fairytale-like looking Saint Basil’s Cathedral. It was built to commemorate one of the major victories of Ivan the Terrible. I once spent 20 minutes gazing at it, trying to find the perfect angle to snap it. It was easier said than done because of the hordes of locals and tourists.

As you continue strolling around Red Square, there’s no way you can miss Gum. It was widely known as the main department store during the Soviet Era. Now this large (yet historic) shopping mall is filled with expensive boutiques, pricey eateries, etc. During my trip to Moscow, I was on a tight budget. So I only took a retro-style stroll in Gum to get a rare glimpse of a place where Soviet leaders used to grocery shop and buy their stuff. In case you want some modern shopping experience, head to the Okhotny Ryad Shopping Center with stores like New Yorker, Zara, and Adidas.

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To continue this Moscow itinerary, next you may want to go inside the Kremlin walls. This is the center of Russian political power and the president’s official residence. If you’re planning to pay Kremlin a visit do your best to visit Ivan the Great Bell Tower as well. Go there as early as possible to avoid crowds and get an incredible bird’s-eye view. There are a couple of museums that are available during designated visiting hours. Make sure to book your ticket online and avoid lines.

Day 2 – Cathedral of Christ the Saviour, the Tretyakov Gallery, and the Arbat Street

Metro Station: Kropotkinskaya on Red Line

As soon as you start creating a Moscow itinerary for your second day, you’ll discover that there are plenty of metro stations that are much closer to certain sites. Depending on your route, take a closer look at the metro map to pick the closest.

The white marble walls of Christ the Saviour Cathedral are awe-inspiring. As you approach this tallest Orthodox Christian church, you may notice the bronze sculptures, magnificent arches, and cupolas that were created to commemorate Russia’s victory against Napoleon.

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Unfortunately, the current Cathedral is a replica, since original was blown to bits in 1931 by the Soviet government. The new cathedral basically follows the original design, but they have added some new elements such as marble high reliefs.

Home to some precious collection of artworks, in Tretyakov Gallery you can find more than 150,000 of works spanning centuries of artistic endeavor. Originally a privately owned gallery, it now has become one of the largest museums in Russia. The Gallery is often considered essential to visit. But I have encountered a lot of locals who have never been there.

Famous for its souvenirs, musicians, and theaters, Arbat street is among the few in Moscow that were turned into pedestrian zones. Arbat street is usually very busy with tourists and locals alike. My local friend once called it the oldest street in Moscow dating back to 1493. It is a kilometer long walking street filled with fancy gift shops, small cozy restaurants, lots of cute cafes, and street artists. It is closed to any vehicular traffic, so you can easily stroll it with kids.

Day 3 – Moscow River Boat Ride, Poklonnaya Hill Victory Park, the Moscow City

Metro Station: Kievskaya and Park Pobedy on Dark Blue Line / Vystavochnaya on Light Blue Line

Voyaging along the Moscow River is definitely one of the best ways to catch a glimpse of the city and see the attractions from a bit different perspective. Depending on your Moscow itinerary, travel budget and the time of the year, there are various types of boats available. In the summer there is no shortage of boats, and you’ll be spoiled for choice.

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If you find yourself in Moscow during the winter months, I’d recommend going with Radisson boat cruise. These are often more expensive (yet comfy). They offer refreshments like tea, coffee, hot chocolate, and, of course, alcoholic drinks. Prices may vary but mostly depend on your food and drink selection. Find their main pier near the opulent Ukraine hotel . The hotel is one of the “Seven Sisters”, so if you’re into the charm of Stalinist architecture don’t miss a chance to stay there.

The area near Poklonnaya Hill has the closest relation to the country’s recent past. The memorial complex was completed in the mid-1990s to commemorate the Victory and WW2 casualties. Also known as the Great Patriotic War Museum, activities here include indoor attractions while the grounds around host an open-air museum with old tanks and other vehicles used on the battlefield.

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The hallmark of the memorial complex and the first thing you see as you exit metro is the statue of Nike mounted to its column. This is a very impressive Obelisk with a statue of Saint George slaying the dragon at its base.

Maybe not as impressive as Shanghai’s Oriental Pearl Tower , the skyscrapers of the Moscow City (otherwise known as Moscow International Business Center) are so drastically different from dull Soviet architecture. With 239 meters and 60 floors, the Empire Tower is the seventh highest building in the business district.

The observation deck occupies 56 floor from where you have some panoramic views of the city. I loved the view in the direction of Moscow State University and Luzhniki stadium as well to the other side with residential quarters. The entrance fee is pricey, but if you’re want to get a bird’s eye view, the skyscraper is one of the best places for doing just that.

Day 4 – VDNKh, Worker and Collective Farm Woman Monument, The Ostankino TV Tower

Metro Station: VDNKh on Orange Line

VDNKh is one of my favorite attractions in Moscow. The weird abbreviation actually stands for Russian vystavka dostizheniy narodnogo khozyaystva (Exhibition of Achievements of the National Economy). With more than 200 buildings and 30 pavilions on the grounds, VDNKh serves as an open-air museum. You can easily spend a full day here since the park occupies a very large area.

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First, there are pavilions that used to showcase different cultures the USSR was made of. Additionally, there is a number of shopping pavilions, as well as Moskvarium (an Oceanarium) that features a variety of marine species. VDNKh is a popular venue for events and fairs. There is always something going on, so I’d recommend checking their website if you want to see some particular exhibition.

A stone’s throw away from VDNKh there is a very distinctive 25-meters high monument. Originally built in 1937 for the world fair in Paris, the hulking figures of men and women holding a hammer and a sickle represent the Soviet idea of united workers and farmers. It doesn’t take much time to see the monument, but visiting it gives some idea of the Soviet Union’s grandiose aspirations.

I have a thing for tall buildings. So to continue my travel itinerary for one week in Moscow I decided to climb the fourth highest TV tower in the world. This iconic 540m tower is a fixture of the skyline. You can see it virtually from everywhere in Moscow, and this is where you can get the best panoramic views (yep, even better than Empire skyscraper).

Parts of the floor are made of tempered glass, so it can be quite scary to exit the elevator. But trust me, as you start observing buildings and cars below, you won’t want to leave. There is only a limited number of tickets per day, so you may want to book online. Insider tip: the first tour is cheaper, you can save up to $10 if go there early.

Day 5 – A Tour To Moscow Manor Houses

Metro Station: Kolomenskoye, Tsaritsyno on Dark Green Line / Kuskovo on Purple Line

I love visiting the manor houses and palaces in Moscow. These opulent buildings were generally built to house Russian aristocratic families and monarchs. Houses tend to be rather grand affairs with impressive architecture. And, depending on the whims of the owners, some form of a landscaped garden.

During the early part of the 20th century though, many of Russia’s aristocratic families (including the family of the last emperor) ended up being killed or moving abroad . Their manor houses were nationalized. Some time later (after the fall of the USSR) these were open to the public. It means that today a great many of Moscow’s finest manor houses and palaces are open for touring.

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There are 20 manor houses scattered throughout the city and more than 25 in the area around. But not all of them easily accessible and exploring them often takes a lot of time. I’d recommend focusing on three most popular estates in Moscow that are some 30-minute metro ride away from Kremlin.

Sandwiched between the Moscow River and the Andropov Avenue, Kolomenskoye is a UNESCO site that became a public park in the 1920’s. Once a former royal estate, now it is one of the most tranquil parks in the city with gorgeous views. The Ascension Church, The White Column, and the grounds are a truly grand place to visit.

You could easily spend a full day here, exploring a traditional Russian village (that is, in fact, a market), picnicking by the river, enjoying the Eastern Orthodox church architecture, hiking the grounds as well as and wandering the park and gardens with wildflower meadows, apple orchards, and birch and maple groves. The estate museum showcases Russian nature at its finest year-round.

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If my travel itinerary for one week in Moscow was a family tree, Tsaritsyno Park would probably be the crazy uncle that no-one talks about. It’s a large park in the south of the city of mind-boggling proportions, unbelievable in so many ways, and yet most travelers have never heard of it.

The palace was supposed to be a summer home for Empress Catherine the Great. But since the construction didn’t meet with her approval the palace was abandoned. Since the early 1990’s the palace, the pond, and the grounds have been undergoing renovations. The entire complex is now looking brighter and more elaborately decorated than at possibly any other time during its history. Like most parks in Moscow, you can visit Tsaritsyno free of charge, but there is a small fee if you want to visit the palace.

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Last, but by no means least on my Moscow itinerary is Kuskovo Park . This is definitely an off-the-beaten-path place. While it is not easily accessible, you will be rewarded with a lack of crowds. This 18th-century summer country house of the Sheremetev family was one of the first summer country estates of the Russian nobility. And when you visit you’ll quickly realize why locals love this park.

Like many other estates, Kuskovo has just been renovated. So there are lovely French formal garden, a grotto, and the Dutch house to explore. Make sure to plan your itinerary well because the estate is some way from a metro station.

Day 6 – Explore the Golden Ring

Creating the Moscow itinerary may keep you busy for days with the seemingly endless amount of things to do. Visiting the so-called Golden Ring is like stepping back in time. Golden Ring is a “theme route” devised by promotion-minded journalist and writer Yuri Bychkov.

Having started in Moscow the route will take you through a number of historical cities. It now includes Suzdal, Vladimir, Kostroma, Yaroslavl and Sergiev Posad. All these awe-inspiring towns have their own smaller kremlins and feature dramatic churches with onion-shaped domes, tranquil residential areas, and other architectural landmarks.

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I only visited two out of eight cities included on the route. It is a no-brainer that Sergiev Posad is the nearest and the easiest city to see on a day trip from Moscow. That being said, you can explore its main attractions in just one day. Located some 70 km north-east of the Russian capital, this tiny and overlooked town is home to Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius, UNESCO Site.

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Sergiev Posad is often described as being at the heart of Russian spiritual life. So it is uncommon to see the crowds of Russian pilgrims showing a deep reverence for their religion. If you’re traveling independently and using public transport, you can reach Sergiev Posad by bus (departs from VDNKh) or by suburban commuter train from Yaroslavskaya Railway Station (Bahnhof). It takes about one and a half hours to reach the town.

Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius is a great place to get a glimpse of filling and warming Russian lunch, specifically at the “ Gostevaya Izba ” restaurant. Try the duck breast, hearty potato and vegetables, and the awesome Napoleon cake.

Day 7 – Gorky Park, Izmailovo Kremlin, Patriarch’s Ponds

Metro Station: Park Kultury or Oktyabrskaya on Circle Line / Partizanskaya on Dark Blue Line / Pushkinskaya on Dark Green Line

Gorky Park is in the heart of Moscow. It offers many different types of outdoor activities, such as dancing, cycling, skateboarding, walking, jogging, and anything else you can do in a park. Named after Maxim Gorky, this sprawling and lovely park is where locals go on a picnic, relax and enjoy free yoga classes. It’s a popular place to bike around, and there is a Muzeon Art Park not far from here. A dynamic location with a younger vibe. There is also a pier, so you can take a cruise along the river too.

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The Kremlin in Izmailovo is by no means like the one you can find near the Red Square. Originally built for decorative purposes, it now features the Vernissage flea market and a number of frequent fairs, exhibitions, and conferences. Every weekend, there’s a giant flea market in Izmailovo, where dozens of stalls sell Soviet propaganda crap, Russian nesting dolls, vinyl records, jewelry and just about any object you can imagine. Go early in the morning if you want to beat the crowds.

All the Bulgakov’s fans should pay a visit to Patriarch’s Ponds (yup, that is plural). With a lovely small city park and the only one (!) pond in the middle, the location is where the opening scene of Bulgakov’s novel Master and Margarita was set. The novel is centered around a visit by Devil to the atheistic Soviet Union is considered by many critics to be one of the best novels of the 20th century. I spent great two hours strolling the nearby streets and having lunch in the hipster cafe.

Conclusion and Recommendations

To conclude, Moscow is a safe city to visit. I have never had a problem with getting around and most locals are really friendly once they know you’re a foreigner. Moscow has undergone some serious reconstruction over the last few years. So you can expect some places to be completely different. I hope my one week Moscow itinerary was helpful! If you have less time, say 4 days or 5 days, I would cut out day 6 and day 7. You could save the Golden Ring for a separate trip entirely as there’s lots to see!

What are your thoughts on this one week Moscow itinerary? Are you excited about your first time in the city? Let me know in the comments below!

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24 comments.

Ann Snook-Moreau

Moscow looks so beautiful and historic! Thanks for including public transit information for those of us who don’t like to rent cars.

MindTheTravel

Yup, that is me 🙂 Rarely rent + stick to the metro = Full wallet!

Mariella Blago

Looks like you had loads of fun! Well done. Also great value post for travel lovers.

Thanks, Mariella!

I have always wanted to go to Russia, especially Moscow. These sights look absolutely beautiful to see and there is so much history there!

Agree! Moscow is a thousand-year-old city and there is definitely something for everyone.

Tara Pittman

Those are amazing buildings. Looks like a place that would be amazing to visit.

Adriana Lopez

Never been to Moscow or Russia but my family has. Many great spots and a lot of culture. Your itinerary sounds fantastic and covers a lot despite it is only a short period of time.

What was their favourite thing about Russia?

Gladys Parker

I know very little about Moscow or Russia for the\at matter. I do know I would have to see the Red Square and all of its exquisite architectural masterpieces. Also the CATHEDRAL OF CHRIST THE SAVIOUR. Thanks for shedding some light on visiting Moscow.

Thanks for swinging by! The Red Square is a great starting point, but there way too many places and things to discover aside from it!

Ruthy @ Percolate Kitchen

You are making me so jealous!! I’ve always wanted to see Russia.

Moscow is in my bucket list, I don’t know when I can visit there, your post is really useful. As a culture rich place we need to spend at least week.

DANA GUTKOWSKI

Looks like you had a great trip! Thanks for all the great info! I’ve never been in to Russia, but this post makes me wanna go now!

Wow this is amazing! Moscow is on my bucket list – such an amazing place to visit I can imagine! I can’t wait to go there one day!

The building on the second picture looks familiar. I keep seeing that on TV.

Reesa Lewandowski

What beautiful moments! I always wish I had the personality to travel more like this!

Perfect itinerary for spending a week in Moscow! So many places to visit and it looks like you had a wonderful time. I would love to climb that tower. The views I am sure must have been amazing!

I was lucky enough to see the skyline of Moscow from this TV Tower and it is definitely mind-blowing.

Chelsea Pearl

Moscow is definitely up there on my travel bucket list. So much history and iconic architecture!

Thumbs up! 🙂

Blair Villanueva

OMG I dream to visit Moscow someday! Hope the visa processing would be okay (and become more affordable) so I could pursue my dream trip!

Yup, visa processing is the major downside! Agree! Time and the money consuming process…

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• Moscow Travel and City Excursions

Our 20 Best Moscow Day Tours of 2022

See all that Moscow has to offer by choosing one or more of our incredible Moscow day tours. Visit Red Square , St. Basil’s , the Kremlin or perhaps a vodka museum and the fantastic Moscow metro system , we have it all. Our expert, informative and fun guides will help you get to know Europe’s largest city. Please click on the day tour details to learn more or contact us for more information about our Moscow tours using the form at the side of the page.  You can also schedule a call with one of our Russian travel specialists to learn more.

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Panoramic City Tour. This Moscow tour is a great start to your trip and the best way to get acquainted with many of the city’s major highlights. Our professional guide will escort you on a route that includes Vorobyevi...

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The tour begins with a drive or walk down Tverskaya Street – a Soviet masterpiece. In the years of Soviet power, Tverskaya began to undergo a transformation: it was widened to two and a half times its original size,...

This is a very interesting and insightful tour. You will visit places connected with Stalin’s terror - a time of great repression and fear. You will be shown monuments to the victims of the repression. You will then...

You will be told of the street’s interesting history and view the street’s artisan culture. You will also have the opportunity to view and purchase souvenirs from the street’s many craftsmen....

The Kremlin is truly a fascinating structure, at the same time it is an ancient tower, the city’s former military fortification, a palace, an armory, the sovereign treasury and the workplace of the Russian President....

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The Moscow Metro is one of the largest and most grandly built metro systems in the world. It was meant to be a showcase of the Soviet Union’s achievements for both the Russians themselves and for visitors from abroad....

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Considered by some to be the Russian Vatican, Sergiev Posad is the temporary residence of the Patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church. The Trinity St. Sergius Monastery (Lavra) was built in the first half of the 1340s by...

The Tsaritsyno Estate is located in the southern part of Moscow. The estate was constructed for Catherine the Great by the Russian architects Bazhenov and Kazakov in a romantic gothic style. The complex includes a landscape...

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The Kuskovo Estate often called the Moscow Versailles due to its perfectly preserved French park, is an example of an 18th century, luxurious Moscow summer residence. Its history dates back to 1715, when the village of Kuskovo...

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Vodka is an important component of Russian life, an element of national identity and everyday culture. We invite you to visit the Vodka Museum and feel the atmosphere of long-gone centuries. You will get to know the story...

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Take this opportunity to learn more about the Russian writer Lev Tolstoy. During the visit to the museum you will see part of a vast collection of exhibits connected to Tolstoy and his family including books and personal...

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This apartment museum located close to Patriarch Ponds became the prototype of the "bad apartment" described in the novel "The Master and Margarita." Currently the museum's collection includes more than three thousand...

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Express to Russia specializes in Moscow city excursions, an essential part of your Moscow travel itinerary. We offer a large variety of day excursions throughout Moscow and its suburbs. From  Red Square  and the  Kremlin  to a city tour of Moscow’s  Old Arbat Street  or the  Moscow metro , an excursion specializing in Stalin and the KGB and much more. No travel to Moscow is complete without taking a few of our day tours that most meet your interest in Russia.

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Home » Europe » Moscow

EPIC MOSCOW Itinerary! (2024)

Moscow is the heart of Mother Russia. Just the mention of this city conjures images of colorful bulbous pointed domes, crisp temperatures, and a uniquely original spirit!

Moscow has an incredibly turbulent history, a seemingly resilient culture, and a unique enchantment that pulls countless tourists to the city each year! Although the warmer months make exploring Moscow’s attractions more favorable, there’s just something about a fresh snowfall that only enhances the appearance of the city’s iconic sites!

If you’re a first-time visitor to Moscow, or simply wanting to see as much of the city as possible, this Moscow itinerary will help you do just that!

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Best Time To Visit Moscow

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Here is a quick look at the seasons so you can decide when to visit Moscow!

The summer months (June-August) are a great time to travel to Moscow to take advantage of the enjoyable mild temperatures. This is considered peak travel season. Bear in mind that hotel prices rise along with the temperatures!

If you’re planning a trip to Moscow during fall (September-November) try to plan for early fall. This way the temperatures will still be pleasant and winter won’t be threatening.

Russian winters (December-February) are not for the faint of heart as Napoleon learned to his peril. Some days the sun will be out for less than an hour, and snow is guaranteed. Although winters are exceptionally cold, this is when you’ll get a true glimpse of the Moscow experience!

The best time to visit Moscow is during spring  (March-May). The temperatures will begin to creep up and the sun begins to shine for significant portions of the day. Hotel rates will also have yet to skyrocket into peak ranges!

With a Moscow City Pass , you can experience the best of Moscow at the CHEAPEST prices. Discounts, attractions, tickets, and even public transport are all standards in any good city pass – be sure invest now and save them $$$ when you arrive!

Moscow is a large city with many accommodation options to choose from. Staying in a location that fits with your travel plans will only enhance your Moscow itinerary. Here is a brief introduction to a few great areas of the city we recommend checking out!

The best place to stay in Moscow to be close to all the action is Kitay-Gorod. This charming neighborhood will put you within walking distance to Moscow’s famous Red Square, thus cutting down on travel time. This will allow you to see more of the city in a shorter amount of time!

It’s surrounded by restaurants, cafes, bars, and shops. If you’re a first-time visitor to Moscow, or just planning a quick weekend in Moscow, then this area is perfect for you!

Another great area to consider is the Zamoskvorechye district. This area of the city offers a blend of new and old Moscow. It has an artsy vibe and there are plenty of fun sites you can explore outside of the main touristy areas of Moscow.

Of course, as in all areas of Moscow, it’s close to public transportation that will quickly connect you with the rest of the city and make your Moscow itinerary super accessible!

Best Airbnb in Moscow – Exclusive Apartment in Old Moscow

Modern and cozy, this apartment is in the heart of Old Moscow. Bordering the Basmanny and Kitay-Gorod districts, this two-bedroom flat is walking distance to the Kremlin and Red Square. Safe, quiet, and comfortable, this is the best Airbnb in Moscow, no question!

Best Budget Hotel in Moscow – Izmailovo Alfa Hotel

The Izmailovo Alfa Hotel is a very highly rated accommodation that provides all the components necessary for a comfortable trip to Moscow. There is an on-site restaurant, bar, fitness center, and an airport shuttle service. The rooms are modern and spacious and are equipped with a TV, heating/air conditioning, minibar, and more!

Best Luxury Hotel in Moscow – Crowne Plaza Moscow World Trade Centre

If you’re touring Moscow in luxury, the Crowne Plaza Moscow World Trade Centre is the hotel for you! Elegantly furnished rooms are equipped with a minibar, flat-screen TV,  in-room safes, as well as tea and coffee making facilities! Bathrooms come with bathrobes, slippers, and free toiletries. There is also an onsite restaurant, bar, and fitness center.

Best Hostel in Moscow – Godzillas Hostel

Godzillas Hostel is located in the center of Moscow, just a short walk from all the major tourist attractions and the metro station. Guests will enjoy all the usual hostel perks such as self-catering facilities, 24-hour reception, Free Wi-Fi, and security lockers. This is one of the best hostels in Moscow and its wonderful social atmosphere and will make your vacation in Moscow extra special!

An important aspect of planning any trip is figuring out the transportation situation. You’re probably wondering how you’re going to get to all of your Moscow points of interest right? Luckily, this sprawling city has an excellent network of public transportation that will make traveling a breeze!

The underground metro system is the quickest and most efficient way to travel around Moscow. Most visitors rely exclusively on this super-efficient transportation system, which allows you to get to pretty much anywhere in the city! It’s also a great option if you’re planning a Moscow itinerary during the colder months, as you’ll be sheltered from the snow and freezing temperatures!

If you prefer above-ground transportation, buses, trams, and trolleybuses, run throughout the city and provide a rather comfortable alternative to the metro.

Moscow’s metro, buses, trams, and trolleybuses are all accessible with a ‘Troika’ card. This card can be topped up with any sum of money at a metro cash desk. The ticket is simple, convenient, and even refundable upon return to a cashier!

No matter which method you choose, you’ll never find yourself without an easy means of getting from point A to point B!

Red Square | Moscow Kremlin | Lenin’s Mausoleum | St. Basil’s Cathedral  | GUM Department Store

Spend the first day of your itinerary taking your own self guided Moscow walking tour around the historic Red Square! This is Moscow’s compact city center and every stop on this list is within easy walking distance to the next! Get ready to see all of the top Moscow landmarks!

Day 1 / Stop 1 – The Red Square

• Why it’s awesome: The Red Square is the most recognizable area in Moscow, it has mesmerizing architecture and centuries worth of history attached to its name.
• Cost: Free to walk around, individual attractions in the square have separate fees. 
• Food nearby: Check out Bar BQ Cafe for friendly service and good food in a great location! The atmosphere is upbeat and they’re open 24/7!

The Red Square is Moscow’s historic fortress and the center of the Russian government. The origins of the square date back to the late 15th century, when Ivan the Great decided to expand the Kremlin to reflect Moscow’s growing power and prestige!

During the 20th century, the square became famous as the site for demonstrations designed to showcase Soviet strength. Visiting the Red Square today, you’ll find it teeming with tourists, who come to witness its magical architecture up close!

The square is the picture postcard of Russian tourism, so make sure to bring your camera when you visit! No matter the season, or the time of day, it’s delightfully photogenic! 

It’s also home to some of Russia’s most distinguishing and important landmarks, which we’ve made sure to include further down in this itinerary. It’s an important center of Russia’s cultural life and one of the top places to visit in Moscow!

In 1990, UNESCO designated Russia’s Red Square as a World Heritage site. Visiting this historic site is a true bucket-list event and essential addition to your itinerary for Moscow!

Day 1 / Stop 2 – The Moscow Kremlin

• Why it’s awesome: The Moscow Kremlin complex includes several palaces and cathedrals and is surrounded by the Kremlin wall. It also houses the principal museum of Russia (the Kremlin Armory).
• Cost: USD $15.00
• Food nearby: Bosco Cafe is a charming place to grat a casual bite to eat. They have excellent coffee and wonderful views of the Red Square and the Moscow Kremlin!

The iconic Moscow Kremlin , also known as the Kremlin museum complex, sits on Borovitsky Hill, rising above the Moscow River. It is a fortified complex in the center of the city, overlooking several iconic buildings in the Red Square!

It’s the best known of the Russian Kremlins – citadels or fortress’ protecting and dominating a city. During the early decades of the Soviet era, the Kremlin was a private enclave where the state’s governing elite lived and worked.

The Kremlin is outlined by an irregularly shaped triangular wall that encloses an area of 68 acres! The existing walls and towers were built from 1485 to 1495. Inside the Kremlin museum complex, there are five palaces, four cathedrals, and the enclosing Kremlin Wall with Kremlin towers.

The Armoury Chamber is a part of the Grand Kremlin Palace’s complex and is one of the oldest museums of Moscow, established in 1851. It showcases Russian history and displays many cherished relics. Definitely make sure to check out this museum while you’re here!

The churches inside the Moscow Kremlin are the Cathedral of the Dormition, Church of the Archangel, Church of the Annunciation, and the bell tower of Ivan Veliki (a church tower).

The five-domed Cathedral of the Dormition is considered the most famous. It was built from 1475–1479 by an Italian architect and has served as a wedding and coronation place for great princes, tsars, and emperors of Russia. Church services are given in the Kremlin’s numerous cathedrals on a regular basis.

The Grand Kremlin Palace was the former Tsar’s Moscow residence and today it serves as the official workplace of the President of the Russian Federation (Vladimir Putin seems to have bagged that title for life) .

Insider Tip: The Kremlin is closed every Thursday! Make sure to plan this stop on your Moscow itinerary for any other day of the week!

Day 1 / Stop 3 – Lenin’s Mausoleum

• Why it’s awesome: The mausoleum displays the preserved body of Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin .
• Cost: Free!
• Food nearby: Khinkal’naya is a charming Georgian restaurant with vaulted ceilings and exposed brick. It’s a popular place with locals and right next to the Red Square!

Lenin’s Mausoleum, also known as Lenin’s Tomb, is the modernist mausoleum for the revolutionary leader Vladimir Lenin. It’s located within the Red Square and serves as the resting place for the Soviet leader! His preserved body has been on public display since shortly after his death in 1924.

It’s located just a few steps away from the Kremlin Wall and is one of the most controversial yet popular Moscow attractions!

Admission is free for everyone, you’ll only need to pay if you need to check a bag. Before visitors are allowed to enter the mausoleum, they have to go through a metal detector first. No metal objects, liquids, or large bags are allowed in the mausoleum!

Expect a line to enter the building, and while you’re inside the building, you’ll be constantly moving in line with other visitors. This means you won’t be able to spend as long as you’d like viewing the mausoleum, but you’ll still be able to get a good look. Pictures and filming while inside the building are strictly prohibited, and security guards will stop you if they see you breaking this rule.

The mausoleum is only open on Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, and Saturday – unless it’s a public holiday or a day scheduled for maintenance. The hours it’s open for each day are limited, make sure to check online before you visit to make sure you can fit this into your Moscow itinerary for that day!

Insider Tip: The Lenin’s Museum is there for people to pay their respect; remember to keep silent and move along quickly, it’s not intended for people to congregate around. Also, men are not allowed to wear hats and everyone must take their hands out of their pockets when inside the building.

Day 1 / Stop 4 – St. Basil’s Cathedral

• Why it’s awesome: A dazzling designed cathedral that showcases Russia’s unique architecture. This cathedral is one of the most recognizable symbols of the country!
• Cost: USD $8.00
• Food nearby: Moskovskiy Chaynyy Klub is a cozy cafe serving food items and pipping hot tea; it’s the perfect place to go if you’re visiting Moscow during the winter months!

Located in the Red Square, the ornate 16th-century St. Basil’s Cathedral is probably the building you picture when you think of Moscow’s unique architecture. Its colorful onion-shaped domes tower over the Moscow skyline!

The cathedral was built from 1555-1561 by order of Tsar Ivan the Terrible. It was designed with an iconic onion dome facade and enchanting colors that captivate all who see it. Fun fact: If you’re wondering why Russian churches have onion domes, they are popularly believed to symbolize burning candles!

This iconic cathedral has become a symbol of Russia due to its distinguishing architecture and prominent position inside the Red Square. It’s one of the most beautiful, wonderful, and mesmerizing historical cathedrals in the world!

The interior of the church surprises most people when they visit. In contrast to the large exterior, the inside is not so much one large area, but rather a collection of smaller areas, with many corridors and small rooms. There are 9 small chapels and one mausoleum grouped around a central tower.

Visiting the inside is like walking through a maze, there are even small signs all around the cathedral tracing where to walk, and pointing you in the right direction! The walls are meticulously decorated and painted with intricate floral designs and religious themes.

The church rarely holds service and is instead a museum open for the public to visit.

Insider Tip: During the summer months the line to go inside the cathedral can get quite long! Make sure to arrive early or reserve your tickets online to guarantee quick access into the cathedral!

Day 1 / Stop 5 – GUM Department Store

• Why it’s awesome: This is Russia’s most famous shopping mall! It’s designed with elegant and opulent architecture and provides a real sense of nostalgia!
• Cost: Free to enter
• Food nearby: Stolovaya 57 is a cafeteria-style restaurant with a variety of inexpensive Russian cuisine menu items including soups, salads, meat dishes, and desserts. It’s also located inside the GUM department store, making it very easily accessible when you’re shopping!

The enormous GUM Department Store is located within the historic Red Square. It has a whimsical enchantment to it that sets it apart from your typical department store.

A massive domed glass ceiling lines the top of the building and fills the interior with natural sunlight. There are live plants and flowers placed throughout the mall that give the shopping complex a lively and cheerful feel! A playful fountain sits in the center, further adding to the malls inviting a sense of wonder and amusement!

The GUM department store opened on December 2, 1893. Today, it includes local and luxury stores, including Fendi, Louis Vuitton, Prada, and many more! There are numerous cafes, restaurants, and even a movie theater inside!

For a special treat, head into Gastronom 1. This 1950s-style shop sells gourmet food items, like wine, freshly-baked pastries, cheese, Russian chocolate, and of course, vodka! Also, be on the lookout for a bicycle pedaling ice cream truck with an employing selling ice cream!

The ambiance is simply amazing, a trip to this idyllic shopping mall is an absolute must on any Moscow itinerary!

Insider Tip: Make sure to carry some small change on you in case you need to use the restroom, you’ll need to pay 50 rubles – or about USD $0.80 to use the bathroom in GUM.

Wanna know how to pack like a pro? Well for a start you need the right gear….

These are packing cubes for the globetrotters and compression sacks for the  real adventurers – these babies are a traveller’s best kept secret. They organise yo’ packing and minimise volume too so you can pack MORE.

Or, y’know… you can stick to just chucking it all in your backpack…

Novodevichy Convent | Gorky Park | State Tretyakov Gallery | All-Russian Exhibition Center | Bolshoi Theater

On your 2 day itinerary in Moscow, you’ll have a chance to use the city’s excellent public transportation service! You’ll explore a few more of Moscow’s historic highlight as well as some modern attractions. These sites are a little more spread out, but still very easily accessible thanks to the metro!

Day 2 / Stop 1 – Novodevichy Convent

• Why it’s awesome: The Novodevichy Convent is rich in imperial Russian history and contains some of Russia’s best examples of classical architecture!
• Cost: USD $5.00
• Food nearby: Culinary Shop Karavaevs Brothers is a cozy and simple place to have a quick bite, they also have vegetarian options!

The Novodevichy Convent is the best-known and most popular cloister of Moscow. The convent complex is contained within high walls, and there are many attractions this site is known for! 

The six-pillared five-domed Smolensk Cathedral is the main attraction. It was built to resemble the Kremlin’s Assumption Cathedral and its facade boasts beautiful snowy white walls and a pristine golden onion dome as its centerpiece. It’s the oldest structure in the convent, built from 1524 -1525, and is situated in the center of the complex between the two entrance gates.

There are other churches inside the convent as well, all dating back from many centuries past. The convent is filled with an abundance of 16th and 17th-century religious artworks, including numerous large and extravagant frescos!

Just outside the convent’s grounds lies the Novodevichy Cemetery. Here, you can visit the graves of famous Russians, including esteemed authors, composers, and politicians. Probably the most intriguing gravestone belongs to Russian politician Nikita Khruschev!

The Novodevichy Convent is located near the Moscow River and offers a peaceful retreat from the busy city. In 2004, it was proclaimed a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The convent remains remarkably well-preserved and is an outstanding example of Moscow Baroque architecture! 

Insider Tip: To enter the cathedrals inside the complex, women are advised to cover their heads and shoulders, while men should wear long pants.

Day 2 / Stop 2 – Gorky Central Park of Culture and Leisure

• Why it’s awesome: A large amusement area in the heart of the city offering many attractions!
• Cost: Free! 
• Food nearby: Check out Mepkato, located inside Gorky Central Park for a casual meal in a cozy setting. There are indoor and outdoor seating options and the restaurant is child-friendly!

Gorky Central Park of Culture and Leisure is a large green space in the heart of Moscow. The park opened in 1928, and it stretches along the scenic embankment of the Moskva River. It covers an area of 300-acres and offers a lovely contrast from the compact city center.

You’ll find all sorts of wonderful attractions, from boat rides to bike rentals to tennis courts and ping-pong tables, and much more! there are an open-air cinema and festive events and concerts scheduled in the summer months.  A wide selection of free fitness classes is also offered on a regular basis, including jogging, roller skating, and dancing!

Although many of the options you’ll find here are more suited for outdoor leisure during the summer, you’ll also a selection of winter attractions, including one of Europe’s largest ice rinks for ice-skating!

If you’re trying to decide what to do in Moscow with kids, the park also offers several venues designed specifically for kids. Check out the year-round Green School which offers hands-on classes in gardening and art! You can also feed the squirrels and birds at the Golitsinsky Ponds!

The park is very well maintained and kept clean and the entrance is free of charge, although most individual attractions cost money. There is also Wi-Fi available throughout the park.

With so many attractions, you could easily spend all day here! If you’re only planning a 2 day itinerary in Moscow, make sure to plan your time accordingly and map out all the areas you want to see beforehand!

Day 2 / Stop 3 – The State Tretyakov Gallery

• Why it’s awesome: The gallery’s collection consists entirely of Russian art made by Russian artists!
• Food nearby : Brothers Tretyakovs is located right across the street from the gallery. It’s a wonderfully atmospheric restaurant serving top quality food and drinks!

The State Tretyakov Gallery was founded in 1856 by influential merchant and collector Pavel Tretyakov.  The gallery is a national treasury of Russian fine art and one of the most important museums in Russia!

It houses the world’s best collection of Russian art and contains more than 130, 000 paintings, sculptures, and graphics! These works have been created throughout the centuries by generations of Russia’s most talented artists!

The exhibits range from mysterious 12th-century images to politically charged canvases. The collection is rich and revealing and offers great insight into the history and attitudes of this long-suffering yet inspired people!

All pictures are also labeled in English. If you plan to take your time and see everything inside the museum it will take a good 3-4 hours, so make sure to plan your Moscow trip itinerary accordingly! This gallery is a must-see stop for art lovers, or anyone wanting to explore the local culture and history of Russia in a creative and insightful manner! 

Insider Tip: When planning your 2 days in Moscow itinerary, keep in mind that most museums in Moscow are closed on Mondays, this includes The State Tretyakov Gallery!

Day 2 / Stop 4 – All-Russian Exhibition Center

• Why it’s awesome: This large exhibition center showcases the achievements of the Soviet Union in several different spheres. 
• Food nearby: Varenichnaya No. 1 serves authentic and homestyle Russian cuisine in an intimate and casual setting.

The All-Russian Exhibition Center is a massive park that presents the glory of the Soviet era! It pays homage to the achievements of Soviet Russia with its many different sites found on the property.

The center was officially opened in 1939 to exhibit the achievements of the Soviet Union. It’s a huge complex of buildings and the largest exhibition center in Moscow. There are several exhibition halls dedicated to different achievements and every year there are more than one hundred and fifty specialized exhibitions!

The Peoples Friendship Fountain was constructed in 1954 and is a highlight of the park. The stunning gold fountain features 16 gilded statues of girls, each representing the former Soviet Union republics. 

The Stone Flower Fountain was also built in 1954 and is worth checking out. The centerpiece of this large fountain is a flower carved from stones from the Ural Mountains! Along the side of the fountain are various bronze sculptures.

You will find many people zipping around on rollerblades and bicycles across the large area that the venue covers. It’s also home to amusement rides and carousels, making it the perfect place to stop with kids on your Moscow itinerary! Make sure to wear comfortable shoes and allow a few hours to explore all the areas that interest you!

Day 2 / Stop 5 – Bolshoi Theater

• Why it’s awesome: The Bolshoi Theater is a historic venue that hosts world-class ballet and opera performances!
• Cost: Prices vary largely between USD $2.00 –  USD $228.00 based on seat location.
• Food nearby: Head to the Russian restaurant, Bolshoi for high-quality food and drinks and excellent service!

The Bolshoi Theater is among the oldest and most renowned ballet and opera companies in the world! It also boasts the world’s biggest ballet company, with more than 200 dancers!

The theater has been rebuilt and renovated several times during its long history. In 2011 it finished its most recent renovation after an extensive six-year restoration that started in 2005. The renovation included an improvement in acoustics and the restoration of the original Imperial decor.

The Bolshoi Theater has put on many of the world’s most famous ballet acts! Tchaikovsky’s ballet Swan Lake premiered at the theater in 1877 and other notable performances of the Bolshoi repertoire include Tchaikovsky’s The Sleeping Beauty and The Nutcracker!

Today, when you visit the theater, you can expect a magical performance from skilled singers, dancers, and musicians with the highest level of technique!

If you don’t have time to see a show, the theater also provides guided tours on select days of the week. Tours are given in both Russian and English and will provide visitors with a more intimate look at the different areas of the theater!

The stage of this iconic Russian theater has seen many outstanding performances. If you’re a fan of the performing arts, the Bolshoi Theater is one of the greatest and oldest ballet and opera companies in the world, making it a must-see attraction on your Moscow itinerary!

Godzillas Hostel

Godzillas Hostel is located in the center of Moscow, just a short walk from all the major tourist attractions and the metro station.

• Towels Included

Cosmonautics Museum | Alexander Garden | Ostankino Tower | Izmaylovo District | Soviet Arcade Museum

Now that we’ve covered what to do in Moscow in 2 days, if you’re able to spend more time in the city you’re going to need more attractions to fill your time. Here are a few more really cool things to do in Moscow we recommend!

Memorial Museum of Cosmonautics

• Hear the timeline of the ‘space race’ from the Russian perspective
• This museum is fun for both adults and children!
• Admission is USD $4.00

The Memorial Museum of Cosmonautics is a museum dedicated to space exploration! The museum explores the history of flight, astronomy, space exploration, space technology, and space in the arts. It houses a large assortment of Soviet and Russian space-related exhibits, and the museum’s collection holds approximately 85,000 different items!

The museum does an excellent job of telling the full story of the exciting space race between the USSR and the US! It highlights the brightest moments in Russian history and humanity and is very interesting and fun for all ages!

If you’re a fan of space or just curious about gaining insight into Russia’s fascinating history of space exploration, make sure to add this to your 3 day itinerary in Moscow!

The Alexander Garden

• A tranquil place to relax near the Red Square
• Green lawns dotted with sculptures and lovely water features
• The park is open every day and has no entrance fee

The Alexander Garden was one of the first urban public parks in Moscow! The garden premiered in 1821 and was built to celebrate Russia’s victory over Napoleon’s forces in 1812!

The park is beautiful and well maintained with paths to walk on and benches to rest on. The park contains three separate gardens: the upper garden, middle garden, and lower garden.

Located in the upper garden, towards the main entrance to the park is the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier with its eternal flame. This monument was created in 1967 and contains the body of a soldier who fell during the Great Patriotic War!

The park stretches along all the length of the western Kremlin wall for about half a mile. Due to its central location in the city, it’ll be easily accessible when you’re out exploring The Red Square.

It provides a bit of relief from the city’s high-energy city streets. Bring a picnic lunch, go for a walk, or just sit and people watch, this is one of the best Moscow sites to wind-down and relax!

Ostankino Television Tower

• Television and radio tower in Moscow
• Currently the tallest free-standing structure in Europe
• Make sure you bring your passport when you visit, you can’t go up without it!

For spectacular views of the city, make sure to add the Ostankino Television Tower to your itinerary for Moscow! This impressive free-standing structure provides stunning views of the city in every direction. The glass floor at the top also provides great alternative views of the city!

It takes just 58 seconds for visitors to reach the Tower’s observation deck by super fast elevator. The tower is open every day for long hours and is a great site in Moscow to check out! There is even a restaurant at the top where you can enjoy rotating views of the city while you dine on traditional Russian cuisine or European cuisine!

The tower is somewhat of an architectural surprise in a city that is not known for skyscrapers! To see the city from a new perspective, make sure to add this stop to your Moscow itinerary!

Izmaylovo District

• The most popular attractions in this district are the kremlin and the flea market
• Outside of the city center and easy to reach via metro
• Most popular during the summer and on weekends

Travel outside the city center and discover a unique area of the city! The Izmaylovo District is a popular destination for locals and tourists alike, and one of the coolest places to see in Moscow! The two main attractions we recommend checking out are the Kremlin and the flea market.

The Izmailovo Kremlin was established as a cultural center and molded after traditional Russian architecture. This colorful complex is home to several single-subject museums, including a Russian folk art museum and a vodka museum!

Next to the Kremlin is the Izmailovo open-air market, which dates back to the 17th century! The market is connected to the Izmailovo Kremlin by a wooden bridge. Pick up all your Russian souvenirs here, including traditional handicrafts, paintings, books, retro toys, and Soviet memorabilia!

You will find many hand-made and hand-painted options available at higher prices, as well as mass-produced souvenir options at lower prices!

Museum of Soviet Arcade Games

• Closed on Mondays
• Filled with old arcade games that visitors get to try out!
• The museum also includes a small cafe and burger shop

For something a little different, check out the Museum of Soviet Arcade Games! The museum features roughly 60 machines from the Soviet era, including video games, pinball machines, and collaborative hockey foosball! The machines inside the museum were produced in the USSR in the mid-1970s.

The best part is, most of the games are still playable! Purchase tickets and try the games out for yourself! The museum also has a neat little screening room that plays old Soviet cartoons and an area with Soviet magazines! This unique attraction is a fun addition to a 3 day itinerary in Moscow, and an attraction that all ages will enjoy! 

Whether you’re spending one day in Moscow, or more, safety is an important thing to keep in mind when traveling to a big city! Overall, Moscow is a very safe place to visit. However, it is always recommended that tourists take certain precautions when traveling to a new destination!

The police in Moscow is extremely effective at making the city a safe place to visit and do their best to patrol all of the top Moscow, Russia tourist attractions. However, tourists can still be a target for pickpockets and scammers.

Moscow has a huge flow of tourists, therefore there is a risk for pickpocketing. Simple precautions will help eliminate your chances of being robbed. Stay vigilant, keep your items close to you at all times, and don’t flash your valuables!

If you’re planning a solo Moscow itinerary, you should have no need to worry, as the city is also considered safe for solo travelers, even women. Stay in the populated areas, try and not travel alone late at night, and never accept rides from strangers or taxis without a meter and correct signage.

The threat of natural disasters in Moscow is low, with the exception of severe winters when the temperature can dip below freezing! Bring a good, warm jacket if you visit in Winter.

However, please note that Russian views on homsexuality are far less accepting than those in Western Europe. Likewise, Non-Caucasian travellers may sadly encounter racism in Russia .

Don’t Forget Your Travel Insurance for Moscow

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Now that we’ve covered all the top things to see in Moscow, we thought we’d include some exciting day trips to other areas of the country!

Sergiev Posad (Golden Ring)

On this 7-hour guided tour, you’ll visit several scenic and historic areas of Russia. Start your day with hotel pick-up as you’re transferred by a comfortable car or minivan to Sergiev Posad. Admire the charming Russian countryside on your drive and enjoy a quick stop to visit the Russian village, Rudonezh!

You’ll see the majestic Saint Spring and the Church of Sergiev Radonezh. You’ll also visit the UNESCO World Heritage Site, Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius, one of the most famous Orthodox sites in Russia!

Lastly, you’ll swing by the local Matreshka market and enjoy a break in a nice Russian restaurant before returning to Moscow!

Day Trip to Vladimir and Suzdal

On this 13-hour trip, you’ll discover old Russia, with its picturesque landscapes and white-stoned beautiful churches! You’ll visit the main towns of the famous Golden Ring of Russia – the name for several cities and smaller towns north-east of Moscow.

Your first stop will be in the town of Vladimir, the ancient capital of all Russian principalities. The city dates back to the 11th century and is one of the oldest and the most important towns along the Ring! Next, you’ll visit Suzdal, a calm ancient Russian town north of Vladimir with only 13,000 inhabitants!

The old-style architecture and buildings of Suzdal are kept wonderfully intact. If you’re spending three days in Moscow, or more, this is a great option for exploring the charming areas outside the city!

Zvenigorod Day Trip and Russian Countryside

On this 9-hour private tour, you’ll explore the ancient town of Zvenigorod, one of the oldest towns in the Moscow region! As you leave Moscow you’ll enjoy the stunning scenery along the Moscow River, and make a few stops at old churches along the way to Zvenigorod.

Upon arrival, you’ll explore the medieval center, including the 14th-century Savvino-Storozhevsky Monastery. Next, you’ll take a break for lunch (own expense) where you’ll have the chance to try out the Russian cuisine! Next, you’ll visit the Museum of Russian Dessert and sip on tea at a Russian tea ceremony.

The final stop of the day is at the Ershovo Estate, a gorgeous place to walk around and enjoy nature!

Day Trip to St Petersburg by Train visiting Hermitage & Faberge

On this full-day tour, you’ll enjoy a a full round trip to St Petersburg where you’ll spend an exciting day exploring another popular Russian city! You’ll be picked up from your hotel in Moscow and be transferred to the train station where you’ll ride the high-speed train ‘Sapsan’ to St Petersburg.

Upon arrival, you’ll start the day by touring the Hermitage Museum and the Winter Palace. Next, you’ll visit the Faberge Museum, where you’ll explore the impressive collection of rare Faberge Eggs! In the afternoon, enjoy a sightseeing boat ride and a traditional 3-course Russian lunch.

If you’re spending 3 days in Moscow, or more, this is an excellent trip to take!

Trip to Kolomna – Authentic Cultural Experience from Moscow

On this 10-hour tour, you’ll escape the city and travel to the historic town of Kolomna! First, you’ll visit the 14th-century Kolomna Kremlin, home to the Assumption Cathedral and an abundance of museums!

Next, enjoy lunch at a local cafe (own expense) before embarking on a tour of the Marshmallow Museum – of course, a marshmallow tasting is provided!  Your final stop is the Museum of Forging Settlements, where displays include armor and accessories for fishing and hunting.

Discover this beautiful Russian fairytale city on a private trip, where all of the planning is taken care of for you!

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Find out what people want to know when planning their Moscow itinerary.

How many days you need in Moscow?

We recommend that you spend at least two or three days in Moscow to take it all in.

What’s the best month to visit Moscow?

The best time to visit Moscow is over the spring, from March to May as temperatures are mild, crowds are thin and prices are reasonable.

What are some unusual things to do in Moscow?

I mean, queuing up to see an almost 100 year old corpse is pretty unsual! Check out Lenin’s Mausoleum if you fancy it!

What are some fun things to do in Moscow?

The Memorial Museum of Cosmonautics is a fun place to explore the famous space race from the perspective of the ‘other side’!

We hope you enjoyed our Moscow itinerary! We’ve made sure to cover all the Moscow must-sees as well as some unique attractions in the city! Our addition of insider tips, favorite food stops, and day trips from Moscow is an added bonus and will guarantee you make the most out of your exciting Russian vacation!

Immerse yourself in the modern and traditional Russian lifestyle! Get lost in museums, witness awe-inspiring architecture, and indulge in Russian cuisine! Spend the day strolling through all of the charming sites of Moscow, admiring the beautiful scenery and discovering the city’s fairytale-like enchantment!

And for transparency’s sake, please know that some of the links in our content are affiliate links . That means that if you book your accommodation, buy your gear, or sort your insurance through our link, we earn a small commission (at no extra cost to you). That said, we only link to the gear we trust and never recommend services we don’t believe are up to scratch. Again, thank you!

Alya and Campbell

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