do lynx travel in packs

Fact Animal

Facts About Animals

Lynx Profile

There’s a large predator returning to parts of Europe. This 30kg cat can take down prey even larger than itself and likes to sit in ambush before pouncing on its victim, piercing the neck with its teeth.

This is a lynx , and it’s one of the rarest sights to see in the European and American wilderness.

Lynx Facts Overview

Lynx were once found all over Europe and throughout the Rocky mountain of North America . Sadly, numbers have been devastated by hunting for their fur, and it’s only been in recent years that the appropriate protections have come into place to allow their populations to increase.

These are agile, powerful predators who play a very significant role in their ecosystems. They’re well adapted for their rugged terrain, and they seem to do really well for themselves when humans stop trying to kill them.

There are 4 living species of lynx, the Canadian lynx, Iberian lynx, Eurasian lynx, and bobcat .

The largest species if the Eurasian lynx which is distributed in northern, central and eastern Europe, central Asia and Siberia and can grow up to 130cm and weigh 30kg. The smallest species is the bobcat, which ranges from Canada, USA to Mexico, and can grow to 100cm and weigh around 15kg.

Lynx prefer to inhabit high altitude forests and live in dens, often in rock crevices, under ledges or hollowed out trees. They are usually solitary and nocturnal, but do sometimes hunt together, and will mate in late winter. Much like domestic cats, they will mark territory by spaying trees with urine.

They diet on a variety of animals, including deer, reindeer, hares, foxes, birds, fish and other small mammals, amphibians and invertebrates.

Their conservation status is largely fairly healthy for 3 species – the Canadian lynx, Eurasian lynx and bobcat are classified as least concern by the ICUN.

The Iberian lynx is listed as endangered , due to poaching, fragmentation of habitat and the decline of its main prey, the European rabbit (due to rabbit haemorrhagic disease).

Interesting Lynx Facts

1. only half of the offspring survive the first year.

Lynx mothers make dens in steep, rocky outcrops, giving birth to one to three kittens at a time. The den surface is around 1 meter squared and it’s protected by rocks and soil to keep the kittens protected from extremes.

Despite this, around half the offspring don’t make it through the first year. This makes them vulnerable to extinction, something with was a very serious threat until recently. 1

2. They’re a strong case study for reintroduction

The Eurasian Lynx played a critical role in European ecosystems for millennia. They’re the third-largest predator in Europe and the largest of the four lynx species. While they’re not quite as big as a wolf, they’re still listed as top predators and therefore have a significant impact on their environment.

However, until very recently their numbers had dwindled, with many localised populations going totally extinct. They were hunted to this level for their stunning coats, and reduced in number to below 700. Since then, legal protections have helped remaining species recover and other populations have been reintroduced to bring the numbers up to around 10,000 in Europe today.

Still, the vast majority of reintroductions until recently were done with little follow-up and were mostly unsuccessful. It’s only in the last decade or so that conservationists are effectively managing and tracking the subjects of reintroduction programs, and learning why these animals don’t always thrive when released into a new location.

3. Roads hinder their success

As with many animals, the Eurasian lynx is affected by habitat fragmentation. This means, that even with viable populations for genetic diversity, animals are trapped in small pockets and can’t reach one another to breed.

Extensive road systems in Europe represent one of the barriers for these populations, and there are high numbers of mortality in lynx populations that have been reintroduced, with many individuals being hit by cars as they try to travel between habitats.

Conservationists focusing on lynx reintroductions are trying to figure out the best ways to manage these risks. So far, the location of the reintroduction, its timing, and proposals for national wildlife corridors are all strong components of the wildlife management program for lynx in Europe. 2

4. They create an ecology of fear that can fix rivers

Lynx are a keystone species for a number of reasons. As large predator, they keep populations under control, but when ambush predators like this are about, prey animals need to stay on the alert. This leads them to alter their behaviour; staying away from areas in which they could be easily cut off or ambushed.

This rules out a lot of the favourable grazing land of large herbivores, which in turn allows it to succeed from grasslands towards forest, binding the soil with tree roots, and even securing the riverways. New trees bring new insects, which are followed by bats and birds, and within a few generations, the entire ecosystem is transformed as a cascade of effects from the presence of a top predator.

They fit so well into these ecosystems due to a series of specialized adaptations. 3

5. Lynx wear snow shoes

Many lynx habitats face a significant amount of snow in the Winter, and the lynx have adapted well to this. Their feet are webbed and wide, acting as specialized shoes that distribute their weight effectively. This allows them to hunt in deep snow!

6. They have exceptional ears

Lynx are all equipped with little tufts on the tips of their ears.

Aside from making them look cute, they may also function as an advanced hearing aid in snow, though this hasn’t been confirmed.

Regardless, the Lynx has keen hearing and uses it to sneak up on prey it can’t even see.

7. They have phenomenal agility

One thing is certain though, they are excellent acrobats. They can jump well over 2 meters straight up, and can lunge at prey with rapid acceleration. They can also hold onto large prey with their great strength, biting it in the neck to bring it down quickly.

8. They have unsubstantiated eyesight

There’s an unsourced claim going around that a lynx can see a mouse 76m (250ft) away. However, when tested, researchers concluded that they have more or less the same visual acuity as a house cat, and far less than a human, so it’s unlikely to be true.

They do have very shiny eyes, though. It’s possible the word Lynx comes from the Greek word Leukos, meaning bright. They are particularly good at spotting vision and can see in colour. 4

9. Their coat changes color with climate

In colder more northerly climates lynx tend to have light color fur, which is thicker. While the Bobcat in Southwestern US are much darker and shorter haired.

During summer the Eurasian lynx has a short brown-reddish coat, that changes in colour with the season and turns more grey-brown or silver-grey during winter.

10. Lynx have a short stubby tail

Unlike many cats, lynx have a small ‘bobbed’ tail comparatively to their body size. Tails are often used by cats as balance, or even a ‘rudder’ for changing direction quickly when running at pace.

It’s believed that the lynx’s small tail is from a genetic mutation, which hasn’t hampered their survival.

10. Iberian lynx are still endangered, but were listed as critical

The Iberian lynx was the most endangered cat species in the world. However, conservation efforts helped change its status from critically endangered, to endangered.

In 2004, there were thought to be around 100 Iberian lynx in southern Spain and due to efforts from both the Spanish government, and organisations such as WWF, the population is thought to have tripled to over 300 now.

Lynx Fact-File Summary

Scientific classification, fact sources & references.

• Boutros, D., Breitenmoser-Würsten (2007), “ Characterisation of Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx den sites and kitten survival “, Wiley Online Library.
• STEPHANIE KRAMER-SCHADT (2004), “ Fragmented landscapes, road mortality and patch connectivity: modelling influences on the dispersal of Eurasian lynx “, Journal of Applied Ecology.
• “ Diet & Hunting Behaviour Of The Lynx “, Suurpedot.
• L Maffei (1990), “ The visual acuity of the lynx “, National Library of Medicine.

• Show search

Animals We Protect

A mysterious feline, the word “lynx” is derived from a Greek word meaning “to shine,” presumably referring to its reflective eyes.

July 16, 2020

Lynx Fast Facts

Class : Mammalia

Scientific name : Lynx

Conservation status : Endangered (Iberian lynx) and Least concern (Canada and Eurasian lynx, and Bobcat)

Lifespan : 7-17 years

Length : Between 28 to 51 inches (71 -129 cm)

Meet the Bobcat

One of 4 subspecies of lynx.

Meet the Lynx

A relatively small feline predator, male lynx may weigh as much as 48 pounds and grow about 4 feet long. The lynx will hunt prey three or four times its size—like reindeer—but its main prey is smaller animals like hares, rodents, small deer and birds such as grouse. A solitary and nocturnal creature, it stalks its prey alone or lies in wait. A lynx may live up to 17 years in the wild or 24 years in captivity. 

The word “lynx” is derived from a Greek word meaning “to shine,” presumably referring to its reflective eyes. But perhaps the most distinctive features of the lynx are its tufted ears and cheeks and a short tail, only 1.5-3 inches long. Sometimes confused with its smaller cousin, the bobcat, the lynx may be distinguished by the tip of its tail, which is entirely black. Its spotted pattern varies, fluctuating between pronounced and muted throughout its European and Asian range. 

Protecting the Lynx 

Once common in Europe, the lynx was widely extirpated over much of the continent, then reintroduced beginning in the 1970s. The largest European populations are now in north Europe and the Balkans. The largest worldwide population can be found in southern Siberia. 

The IUCN lists the lynx as Near Threatened, estimating the global population to be less than 50,000 breeding individuals. Like many predators, its decline is linked to loss of habitat and prey. In the United States, the lynx is a federally threated species, so TNC is working in many states to work to protect them. 

In Montana, for example, TNC has helped secure the heart of the nearly 40-thousand square miles designated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife as critical habitat for lynx. Recent research suggests that the most important Canada lynx populations in the lower 48 states are on the Crown of the Continent, near Seeley Lake in the Clearwater drainage and in the Garnet Mountains – both the focus of extensive conservation efforts by the Conservancy.

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Despite its striking resemblance to the household cat, the bobcat is a fierce predator that ranges throughout the United States.

Santa Cruz Island Fox

For thousands of years, the Santa Cruz Island fox roamed the island free from predators—until golden eagles from the mainland began nesting on the island in the 1990s. The fox population fell from 1,500 to fewer than 100 animals in less than a decade—a 95 percent reduction of the fox population.

Their ability to run up to 60 miles an hour makes pronghorn second only to cheetahs as the planet’s fastest land animals. It also earned them monikers such as speed goat and sagebrush rocket.

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Science News

Genetic lynx: north american lynx make one huge family, share this:.

By John Pickrell

January 30, 2002 at 9:09 am

A new study of lynx in North America suggests the animals interbreed widely, sometimes with populations thousands of kilometers away. This genetic finding could be a boon for conservationists hoping to secure the cats future.

The Canada lynx has recently been officially designated as a threatened species in the United States, spurring studies of the animals distribution and behavior. Researchers have been squabbling over one thorny issue for decades: Do lynx populations live in isolated pockets or travel long distances to mix with other groups? Lots of long-distance interaction might point toward policies that maintain connections between known lynx habitats.

Researchers have long known that the Canada lynx population in any given area undergoes several-year cycles of boom and bust. Booms follow continentwide patterns, with population explosions starting far inland and fanning toward coastlines like a trail of falling dominoes.

A major question for conservation policy is, what lies behind this surge? Some scientists contend that lynx communities are isolated and that the wavelike pattern arises from extrinsic factors such as weather conditions. Others explain the patterns by way of a dispersal mechanism, that is, under crowded conditions, lynx migrate to less populous areas.

New genetic data may help solve this riddle. Michael K. Schwartz at the United States Forestry Service (USFS) Rocky Mountain Research Station in Missoula, Mont., led a team of federal biologists in an examination of lynx DNA derived from 17 populations throughout North America.

Using mathematical models, the researchers compared the DNA samples and found that lynx from Alaska to Wyoming share strikingly similar genetic profiles. The findings suggest that the animals commonly travel far and wide, interbreeding with the populations encountered along the way.

We found evidence of high gene flow . . . which offers a lot of support for the dispersal hypothesis, says Schwartz. His team describes its findings in the Jan. 31 Nature .

Despite evidence for epic lynx journeys, its been difficult to establish whether this behavior is typical and far-flung animals are closely related, says Keith Aubry of the USFS Pacific Northwest Research Station.

The fact that lynx from Alaska to the Rocky Mountains are physically similar enough to be classed as a single subspecies suggested that kind of connectivity, he notes. But the new genetic study confirms it, he says.

The cause of the domino effect during boom times in lynx populations has been difficult to determine by radio tagging and mapping, adds Lisette Waits of the University of Idaho in Moscow. Huge amounts of data from many years of observation are required. However, by using DNA, she says, its possible to rapidly answer many questions regarding behavioral strategies.

The new finding may have far-reaching implications for lynx conservation policy and practice. To ensure a future for the lynx, we must focus efforts on maintaining connectivity between lynx populations, proposes Schwartz.

He notes that the genetic materials used in this study are distinct from the lynx samples in a separate project that were recently the target of fraud allegations. Seven state and federal scientists stand accused of misrepresenting the origin of fur samples submitted for identification to the lab of L. Scott Mills, one of Schwartz collaborators. Officials now are investigating the case.

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Animal Diversity Web

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Additional information.

• Encyclopedia of Life

Lynx lynx Eurasian lynx

Geographic Range

Eurasian lynx are one of the most widely distributed cat species. Their range once extended throughout Russia, Central Asia, and Europe. Today they occupy a range extending from western Europe through the Russian boreal forests and to the Tibetan Plateau and Central Asia. Eurasian lynx distribution is greatly limited by the presence of humans and their activities. They are less frequent in areas with many settlements, roads, railways, and highways as these increase fatality and injury. Also, because they tend to shy away from open areas, lynx distribution is dependent on regions with high forest cover as well as forest connectivity. Deforestation in regions throughout parts of their range limits forest connectivity and hindering dispersal of Lynx lynx throughout Europe and Asia. ( "Eurasian Lynx Online Information System for Europe", 2007 ; "WWF", 2009a ; Niedziałkowska, et al., 2006 ; Schmidt, et al., 2009 ; Schmidt, 2008 )

• Biogeographic Regions

Eurasian lynx live in a variety of habitats. In Europe and Siberia they inhabit forested areas with dense ungulate populations. In Central Asia they are found in open, thinly wooded areas and rocky hills and mountains in desert regions. They are also found in rocky areas and thick woodlands throughout the northern slopes of the Himalayas. ( "IUCN RED LIST", 2009 ; "WWF", 2009b ; Niedziałkowska, et al., 2006 ; Nowell and Jackson, 1996 )

• Habitat Regions
• terrestrial
• Terrestrial Biomes
• desert or dune
• scrub forest
• Other Habitat Features
• agricultural

Physical Description

Of the four lynx species, Eurasian lynx are the largest. They are also one of the largest predators in Europe, third to only brown bears and grey wolves . Their size ranges from 18 to 36 kg, body length is 70 to 130 cm and shoulder height is 60 to 65 cm. Sexual dimorphism is present, with males being larger and more robust. ( "Eurasian Lynx Online Information System for Europe", 2007 ; "WWF", 2009b ; "WWF", 2009a ; Nowell and Jackson, 1996 )

The coat is varied in grey, rusty, or yellow fur. There are three main coat patterns: spotted, striped, and solid. Among those that are spotted, the pattern ranges among large spots, small spots, and rosettes. Patterns vary widely within and among regions. The belly, the front of the neck, the inside of the limbs, and the ears are whitish. The tail is short, with a solid black tip. Eurasian lynx have long legs, sharp retractable claws, a round face, and triangular ears. Characteristic features of Eurasian lynx are black tufts at the tips of the ears and a prominently flared facial ruff. The paws are large and fur-covered, which helps them to navigate in deep snow. ( "Eurasian Lynx Online Information System for Europe", 2007 ; "IUCN RED LIST", 2009 ; "WWF", 2009b ; "WWF", 2009a ; Nowell and Jackson, 1996 )

The skull of Eurasian lynx has characteristics typical of other felids : a short rostrum, rounded top, small M1, and lack of M2. They have features shared by other carnivorans as well: large, well-developed canines, and well-developed carnassial teeth. Unlike most other felids, Eurasian lynx have lost one upper premolar giving them the dental formula: I3/3 C1/1 P2/2 M1/1. ( "Eurasian Lynx Online Information System for Europe", 2007 )

• Other Physical Features
• endothermic
• homoiothermic
• bilateral symmetry
• polymorphic
• Sexual Dimorphism
• male larger
• Range mass 18 to 36 kg 39.65 to 79.30 lb
• Range length 70 to 130 cm 27.56 to 51.18 in

Reproduction

Eurasian lynx mating season takes place from February to April of each year. Each female is fertile only about three days during this time. Once a male and receptive female encounter each other, they follow each other for days, copulating many times a day. Once the female is no longer in estrus, the male will leave to find another mate. Females have only one mate per season. ( "Eurasian Lynx Online Information System for Europe", 2007 ; Nowell and Jackson, 1996 )

• Mating System

Gestation lasts 67 to 74 days, with females giving birth in May. Breeding interval varies, depending on success of previous season. Females without a litter will breed every year, females with a litter will breed about every 3 years. Typically 2 to 3 cubs comprise a litter, although litter size can range from 1 to 5 kittens. Newborn cubs weigh 300 to 350g and are dependent on their mother for food and protection. They are weaned at 4 months and become independent at around 10 months. Females become sexually mature at 2 years of age and can remain so up to 14 years of age, whereas males mature at 3 years of age and can reproduce up to age 17. ( "Eurasian Lynx Online Information System for Europe", 2007 ; "WWF", 2009a ; Nowell and Jackson, 1996 )

• Key Reproductive Features
• iteroparous
• seasonal breeding
• gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
• induced ovulation
• Breeding interval Eurasian lynx males breed once yearly. Females breed once a year when there is no litter, and every three years when they successfully breed.
• Breeding season Eurasian lynx breed from February to April.
• Range number of offspring 1 to 5
• Average number of offspring 2 to 3
• Average number of offspring 2 AnAge
• Range gestation period 67 to 74 days
• Average gestation period 69 days
• Average weaning age 4 months
• Average time to independence 10 months
• Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female) 2 years
• Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female) Sex: female 639 days AnAge
• Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male) 3 years
• Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male) Sex: male 1004 days AnAge

Females find a safe den space for their kittens, as in a hollow log or crevice. Females nurse and protect their young until independence. Once the cubs are old enough to travel they accompany the mother on hunting trips to learn how to hunt for themselves. Males do not contribute to the care of offspring. ( "Eurasian Lynx Online Information System for Europe", 2007 ; Nowell and Jackson, 1996 ; Valdmann, et al., 2004 )

• Parental Investment
• provisioning

Lifespan/Longevity

Eurasian lynx can survive up to 17 years in the wild and 24 years in captivity. Juvenile mortality rate is high. ( "Eurasian Lynx Online Information System for Europe", 2007 ; Nowell and Jackson, 1996 ; Valdmann, et al., 2004 )

• Range lifespan Status: wild 2 to 17 years
• Average lifespan Status: wild 5 years
• Range lifespan Status: captivity 24 (high) years
• Average lifespan Status: captivity 26.8 years Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research

As solitary creatures, the only long lasting relationship formed in Eurasian lynx is between mother and cubs. They are most active during early morning and the evening. When they are not active, they spend their time resting under the cover of thick brush, tall grasses, or in trees. They are mainly terrestrial but are adept at climbing and swimming. ( "Eurasian Lynx Online Information System for Europe", 2007 ; "WWF", 2009b ; Nowell and Jackson, 1996 )

• Key Behaviors
• terricolous
• crepuscular
• territorial
• Range territory size 25 to 2800 km^2
• Average territory size 100-300 km^2

Individual home ranges can range from 25 to 2800 square kilometers, depending on habitat, density, and prey availability. Female territories range from 100 to 200 square kilometers, males occupy ranges of 240 to 280 square kilometers. Female choice of territory is based on prey and habit resources needed to raise offspring. They occupy smaller ranges when they are caring for a litter. Home ranges may overlap greatly with their daughters and slightly with other females. Males choose territories to give them ample access to females and their home ranges will sometimes overlap with 1 or 2 females and her cubs. Home ranges of both sexes tend to be inversely proportional to prey availability, increasing as prey population declines. Ranges are also larger when area of preferred habitat is greater. ( "Eurasian Lynx Online Information System for Europe", 2007 ; Herfindal, et al., 2005 ; Nowell and Jackson, 1996 )

Communication and Perception

Little is known about communication among Eurasian lynx. Their vocalizations are low and not often heard. They have keen eyesight and hearing, mainly used to locate prey and potential mates. Males and females mark their home territories with gland secretions and urine. ( Nowell and Jackson, 1996 )

• Communication Channels
• Other Communication Modes
• scent marks
• Perception Channels

Food Habits

Like other members of the family Felidae , Eurasian lynx are strict carnivores, consuming only meat. Other Lynx species are specialized rabbit and hare hunters. Eurasian lynx prey primarily on ungulates . Small ungulates such as roe deer ( Capreolus capreolus ), musk deer ( g. Moschus species) and chamois ( Rupicapra rupicapra ) comprise most of their diet, but they have been known to prey on ungulates as large as elk and caribou in winter due to the prey’s vulnerability in deep snow. Eurasian lynx also supplement their diet with red foxes , rabbits and hares , rodents and birds. They kill prey up to 3 to 4 times their size and consume 1 to 2 kg of meat per day. Eurasian lynx stalk their prey from the cover of thick vegetation, using stealth to get close without being seen. They then pounce on prey, delivering a fatal bite to the neck or biting down on the snout until the animal suffocates. The kill is then taken to thick cover or fallen logs to be eaten in privacy. Prey that is not eaten right away is cached to be consumed later. ( "Eurasian Lynx Online Information System for Europe", 2007 ; "IUCN RED LIST", 2009 ; "WWF", 2009b ; "WWF", 2009a ; Schmidt, et al., 2009 ; Schmidt, 2008 )

Eurasian lynx occur sympatrically with three other large predators throughout most of their range: grey wolves , brown bears , and wolverines . Brown bears are mainly omnivorous and don't compete strongly with lynx for prey. Where wolves and and Eurasian lynx co-occur, they generally coexist peacefully with neither of the two showing avoidance or attraction. This has been attributed to differences in primary prey selection and hunting styles. Grey wolves are larger than Eurasian lynx and primarily hunt red deer , while Eurasian lynx focus on roe deer and smaller ungulates. Eurasian lynx are solitary hunters, concealing themselves in thick vegetation, fallen logs, and snow to ambush prey. Conversely, grey wolves are pack hunters and found in a wider variety of habitats. Competition between these species may occur in areas where roe deer , red deer , or other ungulate prey is scarce. This may cause changes in hunting behavior and has contributed to sporadic intraguild predation of Eurasian lynx by grey wolves . ( Schmidt, et al., 2009 ; Schmidt, 2008 )

• Primary Diet
• eats terrestrial vertebrates
• Animal Foods
• Foraging Behavior
• stores or caches food

Eurasian lynx have no natural predators, but there have been cases of intermittent killings by tigers, wolves, and wolverines.

• Anti-predator Adaptations
• wolverines ( Gulo gulo )
• grey wolves ( Canis lupus )
• tigers ( Panthera tigris )

Ecosystem Roles

Eurasian lynx are the third largest carnivores throughout most of their range. As such they have the ability to influence the population sizes, distribution, and behaviors of some prey species. Ungulates make up the majority of their diets and they can consume 1 to 2.5 kg of meat per day. In regions where game hunting isn't practiced, Eurasian lynx may play a role in controlling deer populations. They can kill from 10 to 40% of roe deer , red deer , and chamois populations annually. This is highly dependent on lynx density, ungulate density, and other causes of ungulate mortality. The greatest impact is usually seen in roe deer and chamois populations. Eurasian lynx are also affected by numerous internal and external parasites. ( "Eurasian Lynx Online Information System for Europe", 2007 ; Molinari-Jobin, et al., 2002 )

• Diphyllobothrium latum
• Trichinella species
• Taenia laticollis
• Taenia hydatigena
• Taenia taeniaeformis
• Toxocara cati

Economic Importance for Humans: Positive

Eurasian lynx came close to being endangered in the early 1900's as a result of hunting for fur. Currently, commercial hunting is illegal in all countries except Russia and Eurasian lynx are protected in Afghanistan, where all hunting and trading is illegal. However, illegal fur trades occur in some countries. In regions where game hunting isn't practiced, Eurasian lynx may play a role in controlling deer populations. ( "Eurasian Lynx Online Information System for Europe", 2007 ; "IUCN RED LIST", 2009 )

• Positive Impacts
• body parts are source of valuable material

Economic Importance for Humans: Negative

Throughout most of their range, Eurasian lynx are the third largest predators. They typically do not attack humans unless injured, trapped, or ill. Humans sometimes complain that Eurasian lynx reduce game abundance and kill livestock and domestic animals. In most European countries programs have been set up for farmers and herders to compensate them for losses. ( "Eurasian Lynx Online Information System for Europe", 2007 )

Conservation Status

Habitat loss due to deforestation, prey loss due to game hunting, and illegal hunting and trapping for the fur trade are the main threats to Lynx lynx . Commercial hunting is illegal in all countries except Russia and Eurasian lynx are protected in Afghanistan, where all hunting and trading is illegal. In the 1960’s and 70’s, some Eurasian lynx were re-introduced into Germany, France, Austria, and Switzerland. These populations have been successful in some areas. ( "Eurasian Lynx Online Information System for Europe", 2007 ; "IUCN RED LIST", 2009 )

• IUCN Red List Least Concern More information
• US Federal List No special status
• CITES Appendix II
• State of Michigan List No special status

Other Comments

There are many described subspecies of lynx, although there is no agreed upon subspecies classification. Subspecies include:

Lynx lynx lynx , found in Scandinavia, eastern Europe, and western Siberia.

Lynx lynx carpathicus , found in the Carpathian Mountains and central Europe.

Lynx lynx martinoi , found in the Balkans.

Lynx lynx dinniki , found in the Caucasus.

Lynx lynx wardi , found in the Altai mountains.

Lynx lynx wrangeli , found in eastern Siberia.

Lynx lynx isabellinus , found in central Asia.

Lynx lynx kozlovi , found in Central Siberia.

Lynx lynx stroganovi , found in the Amur region. ( "Eurasian Lynx Online Information System for Europe", 2007 )

The name lynx is thought to stem from Lynceus in Greek mythology who was said to be so sharp sighted that he could see through the earth. This is in reference to the keen eyesight of lynxex. Lynx are the national animals of Romania and Macedonia.

Contributors

Harmonie Foster (author), Case Western Reserve University, Darin Croft (editor, instructor), Case Western Reserve University, Tanya Dewey (editor), Animal Diversity Web.

living in the northern part of the Old World. In otherwords, Europe and Asia and northern Africa.

uses sound to communicate

living in landscapes dominated by human agriculture.

young are born in a relatively underdeveloped state; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth/hatching. In birds, naked and helpless after hatching.

having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.

an animal that mainly eats meat

uses smells or other chemicals to communicate

active at dawn and dusk

having markings, coloration, shapes, or other features that cause an animal to be camouflaged in its natural environment; being difficult to see or otherwise detect.

in deserts low (less than 30 cm per year) and unpredictable rainfall results in landscapes dominated by plants and animals adapted to aridity. Vegetation is typically sparse, though spectacular blooms may occur following rain. Deserts can be cold or warm and daily temperates typically fluctuate. In dune areas vegetation is also sparse and conditions are dry. This is because sand does not hold water well so little is available to plants. In dunes near seas and oceans this is compounded by the influence of salt in the air and soil. Salt limits the ability of plants to take up water through their roots.

• active during the day, 2. lasting for one day.

animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature. Endothermy is a synapomorphy of the Mammalia, although it may have arisen in a (now extinct) synapsid ancestor; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities. Convergent in birds.

forest biomes are dominated by trees, otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality.

ovulation is stimulated by the act of copulation (does not occur spontaneously)

offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).

having the capacity to move from one place to another.

This terrestrial biome includes summits of high mountains, either without vegetation or covered by low, tundra-like vegetation.

the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.

active during the night

having more than one female as a mate at one time

"many forms." A species is polymorphic if its individuals can be divided into two or more easily recognized groups, based on structure, color, or other similar characteristics. The term only applies when the distinct groups can be found in the same area; graded or clinal variation throughout the range of a species (e.g. a north-to-south decrease in size) is not polymorphism. Polymorphic characteristics may be inherited because the differences have a genetic basis, or they may be the result of environmental influences. We do not consider sexual differences (i.e. sexual dimorphism), seasonal changes (e.g. change in fur color), or age-related changes to be polymorphic. Polymorphism in a local population can be an adaptation to prevent density-dependent predation, where predators preferentially prey on the most common morph.

communicates by producing scents from special gland(s) and placing them on a surface whether others can smell or taste them

scrub forests develop in areas that experience dry seasons.

breeding is confined to a particular season

remains in the same area

reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female

lives alone

places a food item in a special place to be eaten later. Also called "hoarding"

uses touch to communicate

Coniferous or boreal forest, located in a band across northern North America, Europe, and Asia. This terrestrial biome also occurs at high elevations. Long, cold winters and short, wet summers. Few species of trees are present; these are primarily conifers that grow in dense stands with little undergrowth. Some deciduous trees also may be present.

that region of the Earth between 23.5 degrees North and 60 degrees North (between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle) and between 23.5 degrees South and 60 degrees South (between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle).

Living on the ground.

defends an area within the home range, occupied by a single animals or group of animals of the same species and held through overt defense, display, or advertisement

uses sight to communicate

reproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female.

2007. "Eurasian Lynx Online Information System for Europe" (On-line). Accessed November 19, 2009 at http://www.kora.ch/en/proj/elois/online/index.html .

2009. "IUCN RED LIST" (On-line). Accessed November 08, 2009 at http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/details/12519/0 .

2009. "WWF" (On-line). Accessed November 10, 2009 at http://www.worldwildlife.org/species/finder/eurasianlynx/eurasianlynx.html .

2009. "WWF" (On-line). Accessed November 10, 2009 at http://www.panda.org/about_our_earth/species/eurasian_lynx/ .

Herfindal, I., Linnell, J. Odden, . Birkeland Nilsen, R. Andersen. 2005. Prey density, environmental productivity and home-range size in the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx). Journal of Zoology , 265: 63-71.

Molinari-Jobin, A., . Molinari,, C. Breitenmoser-Würsten, U. Breitenmoser. 2002. Significance of lynx Lynx lynx predation for roe deer Capreolus capreolus and chamois Rupicapra rupicapra mortality in the Swiss Jura Mountains. Widlife Biology , 8/2: 109-115.

Niedziałkowska, M., W. Jedrzejewski, R. Mysłajek, S. Nowak, B. Jedrzejewska. 2006. Environmental correlates of Eurasian lynx occurrence in Poland – Large scale census and GIS mapping. Biological Conservation , 133: 63-60.

Nowell, K., P. Jackson. 1996. Wild Cats: Status survey and conservation action plan . Cambridge, U.K.: IUCN: The Burlington Press.

Schmidt, K. 2008. Factors shaping the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) population in the northeastern Poland. Na t u r e C o n s e r v a t i o n , 65: 3-15.

Schmidt, K., W. Jedrzejewski, H. Okarma, R. Kowalczyk. 2009. Spatial interactions between grey wolves and Eurasian lynx in Białowie_za Primeval Forest, Poland. Ecology Research , 24: 207-214.

Valdmann, H., E. Moks, H. Talvik. 2004. Helminth Fauna of Eurasian Lynx (Lynx lynx) in Estonia. Journal of Wildlife Diseases , 40(2): 356-360.

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Rising number of lynx sightings surprises expert

Population numbers hinge on numbers of snowshoe hares: u of m's jim roth.

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Sarah Lazaruk was on her way home from a weekend away at the cabin when she saw what some wildlife enthusiasts wait decades to see: a pack of Canadian lynx in the wild.

It was just before sundown when she was travelling on provincial road 309 near the Whiteshell when she turned a corner and found four lynx sitting in the middle of the road.

"They kind of looked at the vehicle and as we got closer, they started making their way into the bush. Their paws are so large that they don't sink in the snow," Lazaruk said.

She was surprised to see more than one of them together. Three of the cats had a smaller build, and Lazaruk thinks it was a mother and her cubs.

"We didn't think that they travelled in packs, but doing further research, it looks like they travel in packs when they're still young," Lazaruk said. 

Last year, around the same date, time and location on the road, Lazaruk caught a glimpse of a lynx for the first time, but the rarity of seeing several of them together made this week's sighting extra special.

Second sighting in a week

Harry Thiessen and his wife, Allison, had a similar encounter a few days earlier about 35 kilometres north of Lazaruk's sighting.

While driving around Betula Lake, Harry caught a glimpse of a lynx in the corner of his eye. He stopped the truck, and the couple watched three more, smaller lynx come out of the bush.

They crossed the road in front of the car, seemingly unbothered by its presence.

Both Lazaruk and the couple saw the cats up close, within 15 metres.

Thiessen and his wife own Nutimik Lodge, and have heard from guests that they've seen lynx and other wildlife while out on the trails this year. 

Lynx population can fluctuate dramatically

Jim Roth, an associate professor at the University of Manitoba who has studied lynx population dynamics and diets, was fascinated to hear that Manitobans are seeing lynx more frequently. 

"They're one of these species that some years, they are very abundant, and other years, they're not," Roth said.

Lynx population numbers tend to follow the population numbers of snowshoe hares, their primary food source. Both animals follow what Roth says is a "classic population cycle."

"They fluctuate dramatically in abundance, and about every ten years they'll hit a peak. And then snowshoe hare numbers start to drop, and then lynx [population] drops ."

The lynx's reliance on the snowshoe hare also explains why Lazaruk noticed their paws don't sink into the snow: It's an adaptation to allow them to hunt the hares.

"Both of these species have really large feet to reduce the front load, so they can walk across things just like snow — like humans who put on snowshoes so they can travel across the snow," Roth said.

While there's no way to know for sure that Lazaruk and Thiessen's sightings are the same family, Roth says he wouldn't be surprised if they were. Lynx can be territorial and defend areas from other lynx.

Because they are rarely seen by people, especially up close, Roth doesn't think they pose a large threat to humans.

Four lynx out for a stroll in the Whiteshell

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Tracking the Elusive Lynx

Rare and maddeningly elusive, the “ghost cat” tries to give scientists the slip high in the mountains of Montana

Abigail Tucker

In the Garnet Mountains of Montana, the lynx is the king of winter. Grizzlies, which rule the wilderness all summer, are asleep. Mountain lions, which sometimes crush lynx skulls out of spite, have followed the deer and elk down into the foothills. But the lynx—with its ultralight frame and tremendous webbed feet—can tread on top of the six-foot snowpack and pursue its singular passion: snowshoe hares, prey that constitutes 96 percent of its winter diet.

Which is why a frozen white bunny is lashed to the back of one of our snowmobiles, alongside a deer leg sporting a dainty black hoof. The bright yellow Bombardier Ski-Doos look shocking against the hushed backdrop of snow, shadows and evergreens. Lynx ( Lynx canadensis ) live on the slopes of these mountains, a part of the Rockies, and the machines are our ticket up. We slide and grind on a winding trail through a forest shaggy with lichen; a bald eagle wheels above, and the piney air is so pure and cold it hurts my nose. “Lean into the mountain,” advises John Squires, the leader of the U.S. Forest Service’s lynx study at the Rocky Mountain Research Station in Missoula. I gladly oblige, as this means leaning away from the sheer cliff on our other side.

The chances that we’ll trap and collar a lynx today are slim. The ghost cats are incredibly scarce in the continental United States, the southern extent of their range. Luckily for Squires and his field technicians, the cats are also helplessly curious. The study’s secret weapon is a trick borrowed from old-time trappers, who hung mirrors from tree branches to attract lynx. The scientists use shiny blank CDs instead, dabbed with beaver scent and suspended with fishing line near chicken-wire traps. The discs are like lynx disco balls, glittering and irresistible, drawing the cats in for a closer look. Scientists also hang grouse wings, which the lynx swat with their mammoth paws, shredding them like flimsy pet store toys.

If a lynx is enticed into a trap, the door falls and the animal is left to gnaw the bunny bait, chew the snow packed in the corners and contemplate its folly until the scientists arrive. The lynx is then injected with a sedative from a needle attached to a pole, wrapped in a sleeping bag with plenty of Hot Hands (packets of chemicals that heat up when exposed to the air), pricked for a blood sample that will yield DNA, weighed and measured and, most important, collared with a GPS device and VHF radio transmitter that will record its location every half-hour. “We let the lynx tell us where they go,” Squires says. They’ve trapped 140 animals over the years—84 males and 56 females, which are shrewder and harder to capture yet more essential to the project, because they lead the scientists to springtime dens.

As we career up Elevation Mountain, Squires nods at signs in the snow: grouse tracks, footprints of hares. He stops when he comes to a long cat track.

“Mountain lion,” he says after a moment. It’s only the second time he’s seen the lynx’s great enemy this high up in late winter. But the weather has been warm and the snow is only half its usual depth, allowing the lions to infiltrate. “That’s a bad deal for the lynx,” he says.

The lynx themselves are nowhere to be found. Trap after trap is empty, the bait nibbled by weasels too light to trip the mechanism. Deer fur from old bait is scattered like gray confetti on the ground.

Finally, in the last trap in the series, something stirs—we can see it from the trail. Megan Kosterman and Scott Eggeman, technicians on the project, trudge off to investigate, and Kosterman flashes a triumphant thumbs up. But then she returns with bad news. “It’s just M-120,” she says, disgusted. M-120—beefy, audacious and apparently smart enough to spot a free lunch—is perhaps the world’s least elusive lynx: the scientists catch him several times a year.

Because this glutton was probably the only lynx I’d ever get to see, however, I waded into the woods.

The creature hunched in a far corner of the cage was more yeti than cat, with a thick beard and ears tufted into savage points. His gray face, frosted with white fur, was the very countenance of winter. He paced on gangly legs, making throaty noises like a goat’s nickering, broth-yellow eyes full of loathing.

As we approached, he began hurling himself against the mesh door. “Yup, he knows the drill,” Squires said, yanking it open. The lynx flashed past, his fuzzy rear vanishing into the trees, though he did pause to throw one gloating look over his shoulder.

The lynx team hopped back up on the snowmobiles for another tailbone-busting ride: they were off to a new trapline on the next mountain range over, and there was no time to waste. Squires ends the field research every year in mid- to late March, around when grizzlies usually wake up, hungry for an elk calf or other protein feast. Before long the huckleberries would be out, Cassin’s finches and dark-eyed juncos would sing in the trees, glacier lilies would cover the avalanche slopes. Lately, summer has been coming to the mountains earlier than ever.

Squires, who has blue eyes, a whittled-down woodsman’s frame and a gliding stride that doesn’t slow as a hill steepens, had never seen a lynx before starting his study in 1997. Prior to joining the Forest Service he had been a raptor specialist with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Once, when he was holding a golden eagle he’d caught in a trap, its talon seized Squires by the collar of his denim jacket, close to his jugular vein. A few inches more and Squires would have expired alone in the Wyoming sagebrush. He relates this story with a boyish trilling laugh.

Like raptors, lynx also can fly, or so it has sometimes seemed to Squires. During hunts the cats leap so far that trackers have to look hard to spot where they land. Squires has watched a lynx at the top of one tree sail into the branches of another “like a flying squirrel, like Superman—perfect form.”

Lynx weigh about 30 pounds, a bit more than an overfed house cat, but their paws are the size of a mountain lion’s, functioning like snowshoes. They inhabit forest where the snow reaches up to the pine boughs, creating dense cover. They spend hours at a time resting in the snow, creating ice-encrusted depressions called daybeds, where they digest meals or scan for fresh prey. When hares are scarce, lynx also eat deer as well as red squirrels, though such small animals often hide or hibernate beneath the snowpack in winter. Hares—whose feet are as outsize as the lynx’s—are among the few on the surface.

Sometimes lynx leap into tree wells, depressions at the base of trees where little snow accumulates, hoping to flush a hare. Chases are usually over in a few bounds: the lynx’s feet spread even wider when the cat accelerates, letting it push harder off the snow. The cat may cuff the hare before delivering the fatal bite to the head or neck. Often only the intestines and a pair of long white ears remain.

Lynx used to be more widespread in the United States than they are today—nearly half of the states have historical records of them, though some of those animals could have been just passing through. There have been population spikes in the recent past—the 1970s brought a veritable lynx bonanza to Montana and Wyoming, possibly thanks to an overflow of lynx from Canada—but heavy fur trapping likely reduced those numbers. Plus, the habitat that lynx prefer has become fragmented from fires, insect invasions and logging. In 2000, lynx were listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act.

Squires began his project in anticipation of the listing, which freed up federal funding for lynx research. At the time, scientists knew almost nothing about the U.S. populations. Montana was thought to be home to about 3,000 animals, but it has become clear that the number is closer to 300. “The stronghold is not a stronghold,” Squires says. “They are much rarer than we thought.” Hundreds more are scattered across Wyoming, Washington, Minnesota and Maine. Wildlife biologists have reintroduced lynx in Colorado, but another reintroduction effort in New York’s Adirondack Mountains fizzled; the animals just could not seem to get a foothold. Bobcats and mountain lions—culinary opportunists not overly dependent on a single prey species—are much more common in the lower 48.

In the vast northern boreal forests, lynx are relatively numerous; the population is densest in Alberta, British Columbia and the Yukon, and there are plenty in Alaska. Those lynx are among the most fecund cats in the world, able to double their numbers in a year if conditions are good. Adult females, which have an average life expectancy of 6 to 10 years (the upper limit is 16), can produce two to five kittens per spring. Many yearlings are able to bear offspring, and kitten survival rates are high.

The northern lynx population rises and falls according to the snowshoe hare’s boom-and-bust cycle. The hare population grows dramatically when there is plenty of vegetation, then crashes as the food thins out and predators (goshawks, bears, fox, coyotes and other animals besides lynx) become superabundant. The cycle repeats every ten years or so. The other predators can move on to different prey, but of course the lynx, the naturalist Ernest Thompson Seton wrote in 1911, “lives on Rabbits, follows the Rabbits, thinks Rabbits, tastes like Rabbits, increases with them, and on their failure dies of starvation in the unrabbited woods.” Science has borne him out. One study in a remote area of Canada showed that during the peak of the hare cycle, there were 30 lynx per every 40 square miles; at the low point, just three lynx survived.

The southern lynx and hare populations, though small, don’t fluctuate as much as those in the north. Because the forests are naturally patchier, the timber harvest is heavier and other predators are more common, hares tend to die off before reaching boom levels. In Montana, the cats are always just eking out a living, with much lower fertility rates. They prowl for hares across huge home ranges of 60 square miles or more (roughly double the typical range size in Canada when the living is easy) and occasionally wander far beyond their own territories, possibly in search of food or mates. Squires kept tabs on one magnificent male that traveled more than 450 miles in the summer of 2001, from the Wyoming Range, south of Jackson, over to West Yellowstone, Montana, and then back again. “Try to appreciate all the challenges that animal confronted in that huge walkabout. Highways, rivers, huge areas,” Squires says. The male starved to death that winter.

Of the animals that died while Squires was tracking them, about a third perished from human-related causes, such as poaching or vehicle collisions; another third were killed by other animals (mostly mountain lions); and the rest starved.

The lynx’s future depends in part on the climate. A recent analysis of 100 years of data showed that Montana now has fewer frigid days and three times as many scorching ones, and the cold weather ends weeks earlier, while the hot weather begins sooner. The trend is likely the result of human-induced climate change, and the mountains are expected to continue heating up as more greenhouse gases accumulate in the atmosphere. This climate shift could devastate lynx and their favorite prey. To blend in with the ground cover, the hare’s coat changes from brown in summer to snowy white in early winter, a camouflage switch that (in Montana) typically happens in October, as daylight grows dramatically shorter. But hares are now sometimes white against a snowless brown background, possibly making them targets for other predators and leaving fewer for lynx, one of the most specialized carnivores. “Specialization has led to success for them,” says L. Scott Mills, a University of Montana wildlife biologist who studies hares. “But might that specialization become a trap as conditions change?”

The lynx’s precarious status makes even slight climate changes worrisome. “It’s surprising to me how consistently low their productivity is over time and how they persist,” Squires says. “They’re living right on the edge.”

To follow the cats into the folds of the Rockies, Squires employs a research team of former trappers and the hardiest grad students—men and women who don’t mind camping in snow, harvesting roadkill for bait, hauling supply sleds on cross-country skis and snowshoeing through valleys where the voices of wolves reverberate.

In the early days of the study, the scientists retrieved the data-packed GPS collars by treeing lynx with hounds; after a chase across hills and ravines, a luckless technician would don climbing spurs and safety ropes, scale a neighboring tree and shoot a sedation dart at the lynx, a firefighter’s net spread below in case the cat tumbled out. (There was no net for the researcher.) Now that the collars are programmed to fall off automatically every August, the most “aerobic” (Squires’ euphemism for backbreaking) aspect of the research is hunting for kittens in the spring. Thrillingly pretty, with eyes blue as the big Montana sky, the kittens are practically impossible to locate in the deep woods, even with the aid of tracking devices attached to their mothers. But the litters must be found, because they indicate the population’s overall health.

Squires’ research has shown time and again how particular lynx are. “Cats are picky and this cat’s pickier than most,” Squires said. They tend to stick to older stands of forest in the winter and venture to younger areas in the summer. In Montana, they almost exclusively colonize portions of woods dominated by Engelmann spruce, with its peeling, fish-scale bark, and sub-alpine fir. They avoid forest that has recently been logged or burned.

Such data are instrumental for forest managers, highway planners and everyone else obligated by the Endangered Species Act to protect lynx habitat. The findings have also helped inform the Nature Conservancy’s recent efforts to buy 310,000 acres of Montana mountains, including one of Squires’ longtime study areas, from a timber company, one of the biggest conservation deals in the country’s history. “I knew there were lynx but didn’t appreciate until I started working with John [Squires] the particular importance of these parcels of land for lynx,” says Maria Mantas, the Conservancy’s western Montana director of science.

Squires’ goal is to map the lynx’s entire range in the state, combining GPS data from collared cats in the remotest areas with aerial photography and satellite images to identify prime habitat. Using computer models of how climate change is progressing, Squires will predict how the lynx’s forest will change and identify the best management strategies to protect it.

The day after our run-in with M-120, the technicians and I drove west three hours across the shortgrass prairie, parallel to the front of the Rockies, to set traps in a rugged unstudied zone along the Teton River, in Lewis and Clark National Forest. The foothills were zigzagged with the trails of bighorn sheep, the high peaks plumed with blowing snow. Gray rock faces grimaced down at us. The vastness of the area and the cunning of our quarry made the task at hand seem suddenly impossible.

The grizzlies were “probably” still slumbering, we were assured at the ranger station, but there wasn’t much snow on the ground. We unhitched the snowmobiles from their trailers and eased the machines over melting roads toward a drafty cabin where we spent the night.

The next morning, Eggeman and Kosterman zoomed off on their snowmobiles to set the traps in hidden spots off the trail, twisting wire with chapped hands to secure the bait, dangling CDs and filing the trap doors so they fell smoothly. The surrounding snow was full of saucer-size lynx tracks.

On our way out of the park, we were flagged down by a man on the side of the road wearing a purple bandanna and a flannel vest.

“Whatchya doing up there?” he asked, his eyes sliding over the research truck. “See any lions? Wolverines?” He waggled his eyebrows significantly. “Lynx?”

Kosterman didn’t answer.

“I take my dogs here to run cats sometimes,” he confided. Chasing mountain lions is a pastime for some local outdoorsmen, and the dogs can’t typically distinguish between lions—which are legal to hunt and, during certain seasons, kill—and the protected lynx, many of which have been shot over the years, either by accident or on purpose.The scientists worry about what would happen if an unscrupulous hunter stumbled on a trapped lynx.

The man in flannel continued to question Kosterman, who said little and regarded him with quiet eyes. There’s no point in learning a lynx’s secrets if you can’t keep them.

Back in the garnets the next morning, Squires was delighted: snow had fallen overnight, and the mountains felt muffled and snug.

His good mood didn’t last long. When we set out to check the trapline, he saw that a lynx had paced around one trap and then thought better of entering despite the bunny lashed to the side. The cat was a coveted female, judging from the small size of the retreating tracks.

“What a drag,” Squires said. “She checked it out and said, ‘Nope.’ Flat-out rejected it!” He sounded like a jilted bridegroom. He turned to the technicians with uncharacteristic sternness: “The hare’s all wadded up—stretch it out so it looks like a hare! We need feathers in that trap. Wings!”

Later that day, we drove back hundreds of miles to check the newly set traps in the Lewis and Clark National Forest.

They were empty.

By lantern light in the cabin that night, Squires talked of shutting down the new trapline. There were too many miles to cover between the Garnet and Lewis and Clark sites, he said. It was too much work for a small crew.

In the morning, though, the air was fresh and chilly. The mud-encrusted truck was covered with smudges where deer had licked off road salt in the night. New snow lay smooth as rolled dough, with lynx prints as neat as if stamped with a cookie cutter.

Squires was reborn. “Oh, I’d like to trap that cat!” he cried for what must have been the thousandth time that season, blue eyes blazing.

The traplines stayed open.

Staff writer Abigail Tucker last wrote about the artist Arcimboldo. Ted Wood is a nature photographer in Boulder, Colorado.

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Abigail Tucker | READ MORE

A frequent contributor to Smithsonian , Abigail Tucker is the author of The Lion in the Living Room: How House Cats Tamed Us and Took Over the World and Mom Genes: Inside the New Science of Our Ancient Maternal Instinct . More information is available at her website: abigailtucker.com

Facts About Bobcats & Other Lynx

Lynx are cats that are related to tigers, lions, domestic cats, jaguars and other members of the Felidae family, according to the Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS) .  There are four species of lynx, including the bobcat. What distinguishes these cats from their relatives are their compact legs, stubby tail and erect ears topped with pointed, black tufts of fur. 

Lynx are small cats when compared with tigers and lions. From their head to their rump, they are about 32 to 40 inches (80 to 100 centimeters) long. Their tails add another 4 to 8 inches (10 to 20 cm) to their length, on average. Lynx weigh as much as a small child — about 22 to 44 lbs. (10 to 20 kilograms). 

Lynx species that live in Asia and Europe are larger than the species living in North America. The largest lynx is the Eurasian lynx, according to  Big Cat Rescue . It is 31 to 43 inches (80 to 110 cm) long and weighs 33 to 64 lbs. (15 to 29 kg). The shortest lynx is the bobcat, which is 26 to 41 inches (65 to 105 cm) long. The lightest lynx is the Canadian lynx, which weighs 11 to 37 lbs. (5 to 17 kg).

These cats live in the cooler areas of northern Europe, North America and Asia. Most lynx are built for the cold, with thick fur coats and special paws. When it takes a step, the lynx's paws spread out, making it easier for it to walk on snow. It is like having built-in snowshoes. These paws are also covered in thick fur for added protection.

The bobcat differs from other lynx. They have smaller feet and don't have furry soles. Bobcats generally don't live in areas with a lot of snow, according to the  San Diego Zoo . They live in a variety of areas, including forests, swamps and deserts. They also like rocky areas that provide hiding places.

Lynx like to roam alone and are very territorial. Sometimes, after leaving their mother, siblings will stick together for a while. They eventually go their separate ways, though. 

Lynx hunt at night and sleep during the day. They make their beds in caves, rock crevices and brush.

Lynx, like other cats, are carnivores, which means they only eat meat. They leap at their prey and kill it with a bite to the neck or head. 

The Canadian lynx relies on the snowshoe hare as its main source of food. When there are fewer snowshoe hares, the Canadian lynx's population will also decrease, according to the San Diego Zoo. They will also eat squirrels, mice and birds. 

The Eurasian lynx is bigger than the Canadian lynx and will prey on large game, such as deer. They also eat smaller animals, such as rodents and birds.

A male lynx becomes mature at about 2.5 years old. Females mature a little bit more quickly and are ready to mate at 2 years old. Lynxes mate in early spring or late winter. The female is pregnant for 62 to 73 days before she gives birth. A group of baby lynx is called a litter; individual cats in the litter are called kittens. A litter usually consists of one to eight kittens. Newborn kittens weigh 6 to 14 ounces (175 to 400 g). 

The kittens nurse for four to five months. At 10 months, they become independent, but they don't leave their mothers until they are 1 year old.

Classification/taxonomy 

The taxonomy of lynx, according to ITIS, is:

• Kingdom : Animalia
• Phylum : Chordata
• Class : Mammalia               
• Order : Carnivora 
• Family : Felidae 
• Subfamily : Felinae 
• Genus :  Lynx
• Species : Lynx canadensis  (Canada lynx or Canadian lynx), Lynx lynx  (Eurasian lynx), Lynx pardinus  (Spanish lynx or Iberian lynx) and Lynx rufus (bobcat)

Conservation status

The Iberian lynx is categorized as critically endangered on the International Union for Conservation of Nature's Red List . It is believed that there are only 143 of these animals left in the wild. Climate change is a huge threat. Drier climates caused by global warming may kill the cat's food source, according to a study in the journal Natural Climate Change . 

Other lynx species are considered to have stable populations and are not endangered, according to the IUCN.

Other facts

Lynx have amazing hearing and sight. The long hairs on their ears help lynx hear prey more clearly. A lynx's eyes are so keen that they can spot a mouse 250 feet (75 meters) away, according to National Geographic .

It is believed that the lynx's name may have come from Greek word  leukos , which means bright. This may have been a reference to how the lynx's eyes shine when light hits them, according to the San Diego Zoo.

These big cats purr, just like house cats. A mother will often purr while taking care of her kittens.

Nina Sen contributed to this article.

Other resources

• San Diego Zoo: Lynx
• National Geographic: Lynx
• BBC Nature: Lynx

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Lynx take epic, 2,000-mile treks—but why is a mystery

In the last five years, scientists have tracked the Arctic wildcats on journeys longer and more challenging than ever thought possible.

A Canada lynx blends into snow-covered willows in southern Yukon Territory, Canada.

Anchorage, Alaska — In Alaska , where wildlife is never far away, most residents can ramble off a long list of animal sightings, from moose to brown bear to fox. But the Canada lynx is in a category of its own. Encounters with this striking feline, with tufted ears and mitten-like feet, are usually rare.

Until recently. In Anchorage, Alaska’s most populous city, the normally elusive cats are making regular appearances.

“If you look at the NextDoor app and Facebook posts, people are seeing lynx everywhere” in Anchorage, Alaska’s most populous city, says David Saalfeld, a wildlife biologist with the Alaska Department of Fish & Game . Many people, he adds, are surprised at how similar the 20- to 30-pound feline is to their own pets. When hunting, Canada lynx pounce in the same way, and their playful kittens are delightful to watch .

“We get so many reports of them being on people’s porches looking in the windows. That’s just like a house cat,” Saalfeld says.

Biologists have been studying lynx in Yukon's Kluane National Park (pictured, Kathleen Lake) for four decades.

Lynx run-ins are likely on the rise because populations of their favorite prey, the snowshoe hare , are at their peak. Hares experience a natural boom-and-bust population cycle that can last between eight to 11 years, and when hares are plentiful—as is the case now—so are lynx.

These wildcats don’t just hang out in Anchorage, though—they’re found all over Alaska, across northern Canada, and even into parts of the lower 48. Not so long ago, scientists weren’t sure how far one lynx could travel. But in the last five years, researchers with the Northwest Boreal Lynx Project have documented the cats taking epic journeys, longer and more challenging than ever thought possible.

One of the project’s star travelers, nicknamed Hobo, was radio-collared in Alaska’s Tetlin National Wildlife Refuge in March 2017, just over the border from the Yukon. The lynx took off from his home range in June 2017, and, by July 2018 had traveled a whopping 2,174 miles, across mountains and often powerful rivers.

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“That was the first one that really took off. We had inklings of this, but we didn’t really know too much about it,” says Knut Kielland, a professor of ecology at the University of Alaska Fairbanks’ Institute of Arctic Biology. It “was pretty exciting.”

Lynx kittens snuggle together in Alaska in spring 2019. Scientists are finding larger litter sizes than expected.

To date, project scientists have collared more than 170 male and female lynx at four wildlife refuges as well as Gates of the Arctic National Park, tracking the animals as they venture across Alaska into Canada’s Yukon Territory and Northwest Territories . ( Learn about the little-known wildcats you’ve likely never seen .)

But a mystery remains: Why are the cats making such long treks? The scientists speculate that they’re hunting snowshoe hare, and, once they find pockets of new prey, establishing a new home territory. In time, researchers hope to gain enough information about these journeys to really understand why the animals range so far.

Meanwhile, these data are key for helping researchers understand what lynx need to keep thriving in Alaska and across northern Canada . For instance, knowing what types of habitat lynx pass through on their lengthy migrations can inform land use decisions, such as creating habitat corridors that allow the wildcats to roam freely.

Peripatetic felines

In the winter of 1999 to 2000, during the last peak of the snowshoe hare population, a trapper known only as Jack R. reported catching almost a hundred Canada lynx on his trapline in Alaska’s Brooks Range. Lynx trapping is legal with a license in Alaska, and there are no limits to how many a person can harvest.

Lynx often den under fallen trees, known as deadfall, in the boreal forests of Alaska and Canada.

A snowshoe hare hides in the brush. The small mammals experience boom-and-bust cycles that can last up to 11 years.

Surprised, he asked Kielland (who was also a trapper years ago), how that could happen, considering the small territory his trapline covered.

Previously, scientists believed male lynx roamed territories of about 20 square miles, and Jack R.’s trapline was 77 square miles—suggesting that the trapped animals had been venturing beyond their territories.

Thus the lynx project, a collaboration between the University of Alaska Fairbanks Bonanza Creek Long-Term Ecological Research Program ; the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; the U.S. National Park Service; and Environment Yukon, a Canadian government agency, was born.

Each spring since 2015, scientists have been trapping adult lynx using two humane, pain-free strategies—modified foot-snare devices and box traps—and outfitting them with GPS-enabled collars.

A scientist with the University of Alaska Fairbanks examines a lynx kitten in Alaska in spring 2019.

The team also searches for lynx dens, often hidden near fallen logs and surrounding vegetation. When they find kittens inside a den, they weigh each one and attach a tag to one of its ears. It's essential to tag kittens, Kielland says, so researchers can identify the animals later, providing data about how far they travel from their birthplace, as well as which ones stick together as adults, says Kielland.

Male kittens tend to leave home earlier than females, he adds. Once grown, females remain relatively close to their mothers while males establish their new home territory farther away. ( Listen to the sounds of male lynx fighting over a female .)

In addition to Hobo, the team has tracked some exceptional journeys, including an adult male lynx, tag number #700594—“no nickname for this chap,” says Kielland—collared near Bettles, Alaska, in February 2019. Three months later he trekked 248 miles to the Arctic coast before heading east as far as the Sagavanirktok River, and then south into the Nigu River in the Brooks Range. As of July, he’s still going, and, just as important, his collar is still working. (Some tracking journeys end when batteries die or collars fall off.) His trip so far: nearly 2,000 miles.

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In 2011, two collared lynx went back and forth across the main channel of the glacial Tanana River, the Yukon River’s largest tributary, as late as November, when the average minimum daily air temperature was a frigid -16 degrees Fahrenheit.

Why the long journeys?

The quest for hare and other prey doesn’t fully explain these incredible treks, Saalfeld says.

This past spring, when hares were abundant, a male lynx collared in Anchorage as part of a separate study by the Alaska Department of Fish & Game traveled all the way to Kluane National Park in southwestern Yukon Territory, a distance of some 600 miles.

Before the study, scientists thought lynx maintained territories of about 20 square miles.

“The food is here,” says Saalfeld. “Not sure why a decent-sized male would decide to up and leave an area that has plenty of prey.”

Karen Hodges , a professor of conservation ecology at the University of British Columbia who has studied lynx, says the Northwest Boreal Lynx Project data squares with existing, less complete information about their dispersals, and that the team is using better technology and tracking tools to tell the story.

“Without question this is spectacular—that is a lot of movement,” says Hodges, who isn’t involved with the project.

All of that movement does make clear why Canada lynx all tend to be genetically similar. “Across North America, a lynx is a lynx is a lynx. They are moving, they are mixing. And we’re not getting localized pockets of weird genetics.”

‘Fascinating and wonderful’

The lynx project is also “revealing more secrets about their lives than ever,” Kielland says.

For instance, the scientists are finding dens with seven to eight kittens, a larger litter size for Canada lynx than thought—though the fecundity may be tied to the snowshoe hares’ boom cycle.

The team has also found evidence that the cats are not as solitary as believed: Collared male and female pairs spend time together when it’s not mating season, and there were even a few cases of two female lynx hunting together for long periods of time—possibly mother-adult daughter pairs, says Kielland. ( See photos of our favorite felines .)

Though questions persist, Kielland says the research is as fulfilling as it is intriguing.

“They’re fellow creatures, and we are fascinated by the kinds of things that we see these animals are engaging in,” he says. “That is just, on a personal level, intriguing, fascinating, and wonderful.”

Peter Mather is a Canadian photographer focused on stories in the Arctic. Follow him on Instagram and Twitter .  

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• BOREAL FORESTS
• POLAR REGIONS
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Canada Lynx

Canada lynx look similar to bobcats, but there are some distinguishing features: bobcats have shorter tufts on their ears, the tip of their tail is black on top and white underneath, and bobcats have shorter legs and smaller feet than lynx.

Perhaps the biggest distinction is that lynx mostly occur only in northern states along the Canadian border or in mountainous regions, while bobcats range across almost the entire Lower 48 states. Lynx, like other forest hunters, play an important ecological role. As a mid-size carnivore, lynx target smaller prey species that reproduce relatively quickly. They also require a mixed habitat that includes younger forests with thick vegetation for hunting small prey, and older forests with a full canopy and good cover for denning.

In 2000, in response to Defenders’ petition and litigation, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) listed the lynx as “threatened” under the Endangered Species Act (ESA). This listing provided lynx with many protections and much needed attention, helped support research and monitoring of lynx populations across the lower 48 states, and stopped lynx trapping in Montana.

Defenders also supported the Colorado Division of Wildlife as they reintroduced lynx to core habitat in the southern Rocky Mountains.

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The lynx’s most important requirements — snow, space, hares, and habitat connectivity — are threatened by climate change and various human activities.

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Do your part to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and fight climate change. Support Defenders work in the lower 48 .

Lynx are generally found in moist, boreal forests that have cold, snowy winters and a high density of their favorite prey: the snowshoe hare. Lynx can be found throughout much of the boreal forest of Alaska and Canada. Today, in the Lower 48 they are known to have sustained breeding populations in Montana, Washington, Maine, and Minnesota and have been reintroduced to Colorado. 

It is difficult to have an accurate estimate, but in the lower 48, lynx populations can currently be generalized as quite low and substantially reduced from historical levels.

Generally solitary animals, lynx usually hunt and travel alone, and are slightly more active at night than by day. Lynx hunt by actively walking, flushing and chasing prey, and by using resting or hunting beds to wait for prey to come close, and then giving chase.

Lynx do not create a den site – they locate their kittens under an existing feature, such as a downed log, root system, or simple ground depression surrounded by dense vegetation. Kittens stay with their mother for the first year while they learn to hunt. Yearling females may give birth during periods when hares are abundant. While mothers have an average of 4 kittens when there is a periodic abundance of snowshoe hares, they have smaller litters the rest of the time, when fewer hares are available. Mating Season: March and April Gestation: 63-70 days Litter Size: 1 - 5 kittens

Lynx are specialized hunters that target snowshoe hare, which make up the bulk of their diet. Lynx are also known to occasionally eat mice, voles, grouse, ptarmigan, red squirrel and carrion.

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8 Fascinating Facts About Bobcats

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The bobcat ( Lynx rufus ) is the most common wildcat in North America. The IUCN estimates the bobcat population to be between 2.3 million and 3.5 million. They are found in Mexico, five Canadian provinces, and every contiguous U.S. state other than Delaware. However, bobcats are elusive and are rarely seen across their range. This is due to their preference for finding cover wherever they live, whether that's scrubland, forests, swamps, or even residential areas.

Bobcats are most easily identified by the tail that gives them their name. It has a cut or "bobbed" look and only measures 4.3 to 7.5 inches long.

1. They Are The Smallest Lynx

These medium-sized cats are similar to their cousin, the lynx, but are a bit smaller. Ranging anywhere from 8 to 33 pounds, these cats are about the size of a cocker spaniel. The bobcat is 25 to 42 inches long, not including the tail, and males are larger than females. Bobcats in more northern climates tend to grow larger than ones in the south.

2. They Are Frequently Misidentified

Bobcats are often erroneously identified as other animals. Sometimes they are mistaken for domestic cats or stray kittens. In other cases, people believe they see a Florida panther, Canada lynx, or mountain lion .

Even biologists sometimes have difficulty telling the Canada lynx and bobcat apart if they can't see a paw print. The Canada lynx has massive, very hairy feet that act as snowshoes.

3. They Mainly Eat Small Prey

While bobcats can tackle large prey such as deer, they subsist mostly on rodents and rabbits. Despite their reputation for eating household pets, they rarely choose them as prey. That said, they do occasionally take advantage of unsecured chickens or domestic pets. Bobcats will even eat sharks or fish.

Bobcats are crepuscular hunters , preferring to hunt at dusk and dawn. Depending on prey availability, they sometimes keep a more nocturnal hunting schedule. They are stealthy hunters and can pounce 10 feet in one leap.

4. They Are Territorial

Bobcats primarily live a solitary life. Their range size varies widely depending on the availability of suitable prey. Females typically have territories of around 6 square miles, while males' territories span about 25 square miles and may overlap with one or more female bobcats' home ranges.

Bobcats don't usually share territories with another cat of the same sex. They keep other bobcats out of their territory through scent marking with urine, feces, and anal gland secretions.

5. They Don't Stick to a Single Den

Bobcats have various dens in their territory. The main one, called a natal den, is usually a cave or rock shelter. They sometimes choose hollowed-out trees, fallen trees, or take over abandoned beaver lodges and earthen burrows.

Bobcats keep auxiliary dens scattered across their territory, using them for cover or to keep kittens close by while hunting. These dens may consist of rock ledges, brush piles, and even stumps. Bobcats spray urine at the entrances of shelters to ward off intruders.

6. Bobcat Mothers Teach Their Young to Hunt

Female bobcats deliver litters of one to six kittens, with younger bobcats producing fewer kittens. After birth, the young stay in the den for the first two months. The mother starts bringing prey to the kittens at the end of the first month. Once kittens emerge from the den, she shows them how to hunt while still providing them with food. By 11 months of age, the kittens are kicked out of mom's territory.

7. Some Bobcats Are in Trouble

Bobcat populations plummeted during the early 20th century because of the popularity of their fur. Since then, successful conservation measures led to the IUCN listing them as a species of least concern. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service classifies the Mexican bobcat as endangered, but it is not currently on the IUCN register.

Bobcats remain on the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) index and, as such, are under trade restrictions. However, 38 states, seven Canadian provinces, and Mexico allow for some types of bobcat hunts. Thousands of bobcats are harvested for the fur industry each year, invasive pythons in Florida are decreasing their numbers in the Sunshine State, and rodenticides kill bobcats as they consume targeted species.

8. They Can Run Very Fast

Bobcats run at speeds of up to 30 mph. They are more sprinters than distance runners, as they only run for short distances when attempting to capture prey. Their hunting running gait is another way that a bobcat lives up to its name: they sometimes run like a rabbit, placing their hind feet in the same place as their front feet. This style of running creates a bobbing appearance when they run.

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• Support bobcat research and conservation organizations.

Kelly, M. et al. " Lynx rufus ."  IUCN Red List , 2016, e.T12521A50655874., doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T12521A50655874.en

Rockhill, Aimee P. et al. " The Effect of Illumination and Time of Day on Movements of Bobcats ( Lynx rufus ) ." PLoS ONE , vol. 8, no. 7, 2013, p. e69213., doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0069213

" Mexican Bobcat ."  U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service: Environmental Conservation Online System.

" Furbearers ."  U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service: International Affairs.

Bale, Rachael. " Trapping Bobcats for Fur in the U.S. is Going Strong-And It's Grisly ." National Geographic . Published January 15, 2016.

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Rewilding: should we bring the lynx back to Britain?

Reintroducing the big cats could control deer numbers and enrich ecosystems but farmers and the public need reassurance, say experts

T he maverick rewilder Derek Gow is wearing an extremely small pair of coral pink shorts as he introduces his three new Eurasian lynxes. He looks like Tiger King’s Joe Exotic on the wrong side of the Atlantic.

The shy new arrivals are joining a menagerie of animals at his rewilding project in Devon. They are in a large pen with a four-metre-high fence but Gow, like a growing number of conservationists, wants to see lynxes prowling freely in the countryside.

Surrounded by buttercups, thistles and long grass, it is hard to believe these exotic-looking cats are native to the UK and lived here for thousands of years. The black lines around their green eyes give them the air of an Egyptian pharaoh. In the two hours spent watching them, one climbs a willow tree, kills a blackbird, then eats it in the long grass. They squawk like crows, play in the water and are a delight to watch.

Gow does not want to let these specific cats out. They are from a UK zoo and far too tame, he says. Instead, he wants people to come and learn about them. “This is about starting conversations that might actually go somewhere. Because I’m done with talking for the sake of fucking talking,” he says. Gow thought he was getting three females but “two arrived with testicles”, he says with characteristic frankness.

Lynxes, known as Britain’s little lions, survived in Yorkshire until the sixth century AD. Their bones have been found in caves all over the country yet the Shropshire village of Lostford (“ford of the lynx” in Old English) is believed to be the only lynx-associated name in the country. Europe’s two largest predators, bears and wolves, appear frequently in folklore and fairytales. Yet the third largest predator, the lynx, is missing.

This is because they are solitary, shy creatures that ambush their prey, unlike wolves, which hunt in packs. People rarely saw them, and it turns out they survived in Britain in secret for thousands of years longer than previously thought . Britain’s lynxes disappeared because of habitat loss and persecution by humans and many think we have a moral obligation to correct that. On the other side of the argument are those concerned that the lynx would be a deadly threat to livestock and pets.

Reintroducing a wild cat into an environment 500 years after it became extinct is complex. Giving people good-quality, reliable information about the species is a precursor to a successful reintroduction, and so far the debate has been impassioned and polarised, says David Hetherington, author of The Lynx and Us, and an ecologist working in the Cairngorms national park.

“I think it’s important to gauge public feeling rather than putting out garish newspaper headlines about how they’re going to do it all tomorrow,” he says.

Where do Europe’s lynxes live?

Like wolves, Eurasian lynx populations are naturally returning all over Europe since becoming a protected species after centuries of persecution by humans and clearance of their woodland habitat. During the 1950s there were just 700 in Europe; now there are about 9,000.

In the 1960s, environmentalists started to recognise the importance of the lynx in forested landscapes, according to Hetherington’s book. They have naturally recolonised territories in Scandinavia, the Baltic states, western Russia and the Carpathian mountains thanks to acceptance by local people, an increase in forest cover and growing populations of deer (their main food source).

In central and western Europe, landscapes are more fragmented and heavily farmed, crisscrossed with roads and urban areas that have hindered natural recolonisation by the lynx. Recognising this, conservationists started reintroductions in the 1970s, establishing populations in Switzerland, Slovenia, the Czech Republic and France. The lynxes then naturally spread into Italy, Austria, Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina. Reintroducing lynxes is less problematic than reintroducing wolves because they do not hunt in packs and like to stay hidden in woodland.

Projects in Germany and Austria failed mainly because of illegal hunting, which remains a problem, even in countries that have successfully reintroduced the lynx.

What is the argument for reintroducing lynxes to the UK?

One way lynxes enrich forest ecosystems is by increasing the availability of carcasses. They mainly hunt deer but they cannot eat a whole animal in one go. They eat a bit and then hide it, often burying it under leaves or snow. It can take up to a week to eat the entire carcass.

In the meantime, wolves, wolverines, bears, foxes, badgers, pine martens, polecats, wild boar and wildcats will feast on it, keeping clear of the lynx usually lurking a few hundred metres away. Raptors such as white-tailed eagles, buzzards and kites also benefit. Research in Poland found that birds and mammals scavenged 80% of carcasses buried by lynxes.

Animals further down the pecking order, such as small woodland mammals and birds, also get a piece of the prize before the remains rot, which in turn enriches ecosystems in the soil.

In Scotland, vast numbers of deer are causing widespread ecological damage . A report last year said Scottish Forestry spent £4.7m a year on reducing the impacts of deer on woodland – more than three times the £1.5m that Scottish Natural Heritage spends on deer management annually. Reintroducing lynxes could help reduce deer populations, which would increase natural woodland regeneration.

But while lynxes are a keystone species, they will not radically change landscapes as beavers do , and would not be suited to living in all parts of the country. They are solitary ambush hunters. Each animal generally has a territory of at least 100 sq km and cats of the same sex do not like to share territories. Landscapes cannot support a high density of them.

Why wouldn’t we want lynxes?

The lynx’s dietary preferences can get it into trouble – their appetite for sheep is a serious concern for farmers. However, evidence from countries with landscapes similar to the UK suggests that the number of sheep casualties would be relatively small. Sheep in Europe mostly graze in open pasture where lynxes do not generally hunt.

Switzerland, for example, is home to about 300 lynxes, which kill between 20 and 50 sheep a year, and about 12,500 roe deer and chamois. Licences are given out to kill problematic lynxes, but there have been none issued since 2003. The last lynx killed was from poaching five years ago.

One country where rates are significantly higher is Norway. This is because as many as 2.5 million sheep graze freely in woodlands during the summer months and there are relatively few deer, Hetherington found. Farmers claim compensation for up to 10,000 sheep deaths a year , though an independent assessment by scientists suggests lynxes could not possibly be responsible for all of them.

“Although the UK has the biggest sheep population in Europe, the vast majority of sheep are raised in open pasture,” says Hetherington, who did his PhD on the feasibility of reintroducing lynxes to Scotland . “Most forests contain no sheep but they have lots of deer. All of which would suggest we would have a relationship with lynx that is most likely to replicate what we see in Switzerland.”

Where could they be reintroduced in the UK?

Lynx UK Trust believes Kielder forest in Northumberland is the most suitable place to reintroduce lynxes because it is a large forested area, has few roads and lots of deer. However, local people are divided over this contentious issue and at the end of 2018 a trial application was turned down by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs after advice from Natural England raised concerns.

In January, in a separate project, conservationists launched a year-long study, Lynx to Scotland , to ask farmers, landowners and local communities what they thought about reintroducing lynxes. If they respond positively, a pilot project could be launched, with up to 40 lynx released in five years around forested Highland estates in the Cairngorms. If the public is not keen, organisers say the project will be dropped.

Hetherington believes southern Scotland and Kielder forest could support about 50 lynxes in total, and the Highlands could support 400. His research suggests Scotland has more than 20,000 sq km of suitable habitat for lynxes. The less-populated parts of the UK are better suited to lynxes because roads are a significant cause of mortality and affect a population’s ability to colonise new landscapes.

In Northumberland , James Copeland, the National Farmers’ Union (NFU) north-east environment adviser, says the Lynx UK Trust has not taken into account the concerns of farmers and local people in Kielder forest, many of whom are anxious about the thought of lynxes prowling around the countryside.

“The evidence and information presented to [our members] hasn’t given them any level of assurance, so they’re left with a position that they can only object. If further activity and further assurances were presented to them, we would take another sounding from our members,” says Copeland.

Concerns include the risk of livestock being killed by lynxes, how to stop them escaping from a trial release site, and also an exit strategy, with proper financing, if it all went wrong. NFU members also want a special lynx taskforce to be created by Natural England so farming communities can easily raise any worries they may have.

During lockdown, discussions have taken place online. But, says Copeland, NFU member have been unable to join in the debate because rural broadband is so poor. “Certainly there are ways of doing consultation events to ensure that you raise awareness and local buy-in, and as of yet, we haven’t seen anything that has demonstrated that.”

Paul O’Donoghue, director of Lynx UK Trust, declined to comment.

NFU Scotland president Martin Kennedy says that in the past three to four years rewilders have made “a long line of brazen and presumptuous claims”.

“Any proposals to reintroduce predators such as lynx, wolves or bears would be wholly unacceptable to Scottish farmers and crofters,” he argues.

Successful reintroductions of lynxes rely strongly on them being accepted into the landscape by the humans they share it with. Making space for the lynx in the UK is more a question of attitude than habitat availability. The Swiss reintroduction is a cautionary tale. It was resisted by many people and the illegal killing of lynxes continues to be a serious problem, threatening the long-term viability of the population.

Hetherington says lynxes could be reintroduced in five to 10 years. Gow does not want to give a date and is more cautious, saying lots of people in the UK remain strongly against it. But both agree that there are risks as well as opportunities to reintroducing lynxes, and winning over those people with reasonable doubts should be a priority.

Natural England confirmed there were currently no applications to reintroduce lynxes to the wild. Any plan for reintroduction would consider the socio-economic effects as well as the impact on the animals themselves.

Find more age of extinction coverage here , and follow biodiversity reporters Phoebe Weston and Patrick Greenfield on Twitter for all the latest news and features

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Minnesota education department official testifies in feeding our future trial about fraud concerns.

A state employee who suspected fraud in federal meal programs and reported it to the FBI took the stand Tuesday in the high-profile trial connected to Feeding Our Future, saying she had concerns just one month into the COVID-19 pandemic, when rules were loosened.

Emily Honer, a nutrition program supervisor at the Minnesota Department of Education, said she noticed a pattern of newly established restaurants signing on to distribute food to kids in need across Minnesota. Honer, the first witness to testify in the trial, said that restaurants like Empire Cuisine & Market — the Shakopee restaurant at the center of the trial — quickly grew to submit millions of dollars in federal reimbursement requests.

"I was concerned that a brand-new restaurant had that capacity for meals," she said. "I had never seen payments of that magnitude before."

In the first trial to take place since the FBI's massive fraud investigation into the meal programs was revealed more than two years ago , Honer was called by prosecutors in the case, which accuses seven defendants of defrauding the government by pocketing money meant to feed children in need.

Prosecutors have said that the more than $250 million fraud is one of the biggest cases of its kind in Minnesota history and one of the largest pandemic-related fraud cases in the country.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture-funded programs reimburse schools, nonprofits and day cares for feeding low-income children after school or during the summer. The programs are administered by the Education Department, which reported the possible fraud to the FBI in early 2021 after it said the USDA didn't take its concerns seriously . Republican lawmakers have criticized the agency for not doing enough to stop the alleged fraud sooner .

On Tuesday, the second day of the trial, defense attorney Fred Goetz pointed out that the agency continued to approve Feeding Our Future food sites in 2021 and 2022 despite having concerns in April 2020. If there were invalid claims of $250 million, couldn't the USDA claw back its $250 million from the state, Goetz asked Honer. She confirmed they could.

"Have they done it?"

"They have not," she said.

Prosecutors allege that defendants stole millions of dollars from the meal programs to buy luxury houses, cars and trips, and engaged in a system of kickbacks and bribes . Since the first charges were filed in September 2022 , 70 people have been charged or indicted and, of those, 18 have pleaded guilty .

Defense attorneys for the seven defendants said Tuesday to the jury that they'll present evidence that "real food" was served to kids and their clients didn't steal any money, making a fair profit. The defendants — Abdiaziz Shafii Farah, Mohamed Jama Ismail, Abdimajid Mohamed Nur, Said Shafii Farah, Abdiwahab Maalim Aftin, Mukhtar Mohamed Shariff and Hayat Mohamed Nur — have been charged with wire fraud and money laundering, among other charges.

They all have ties to Empire Cuisine & Market, which enrolled in the meal program in April 2020 after the pandemic started. Empire quickly grew the number of claims it submitted for reimbursements, receiving an amount similar to the $17 million that Minneapolis Public Schools got for feeding about 40,000 students across 55 sites, Honer said.

"It didn't seem reasonable," she added.

A St. Paul nonprofit, Partners in Nutrition , operating as Partners in Quality Care, oversaw Empire's paperwork and reimbursements. Partners in Nutrition was started in 2015 by Christine Twait and Aimee Bock , who was later fired and left to lead Feeding Our Future, another sponsor of the programs. Bock, who has been charged, has denied wrongdoing and pleaded not guilty. No one associated with Partners has been charged.

In early 2020, Honer said, Partners in Nutrition contacted the Education Department to ask if restaurants could participate in the meal program; they hadn't been allowed to previously, but it was among the relaxed rules the USDA signed off on to disperse food to kids when schools shuttered in the pandemic.

By summer 2020, Honer said, she was concerned that more and more site applications were coming from just-formed restaurants sponsored by both Partners and Feeding Our Future. One food site that served thousands of meals, she said, was allegedly at a Circle Pines park closed for construction.

In 2021, Feeding Our Future received nearly $200 million, up from $3.4 million in 2019, while Partners in Nutrition received more than $200 million in 2021, up from $5.6 million in 2019.

Defense attorneys argued that defendants followed the loosened rules, which included giving out "meal packs" containing seven days' worth of food, which rapidly increased the amount of food distributed.

Federal waivers were constantly changing the rules, added defense attorney Patrick Cotter, who represents Ismail.

"The buck stopped with you," he told Honer. If it was difficult for her department to track all the changes, he asked, wouldn't it be difficult for sponsors and food sites? "This was complicated stuff, wasn't it?"

Honer testified for nearly seven hours Monday and Tuesday, saying she notified Partners in Nutrition in October 2020 that restaurants couldn't continue to participate based on new direction from the USDA that the sites weren't complying with the rules. Empire continued to work as a vendor for a growing number of food sites, she said.

Honer said she contacted the USDA about her concerns in the spike in reimbursements and her team stopped payments, but Feeding Our Future, which had sued the department in 2020, took it to court and accused the agency of racism and discrimination for denying applications to an organization working mostly with East African groups.

The judge in that case told the Education Department he saw no regulations giving the state authority to stop payments then, and it restarted payments to Feeding Our Future. Instead, because the state agency didn't have investigative authority, Honer said, she reported concerns to the FBI.

Kelly Smith  covers nonprofits/philanthropy for the Star Tribune and is based in Minneapolis. Since 2010, she’s covered Greater Minnesota on the state/region team, Hennepin County government, west metro suburban government and west metro K-12 education.

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