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The Seven Voyages of Zheng He: When China Ruled the Seas

In the early 15th century, admiral Zheng He embarked on seven epic voyages, spreading the prestige and influence of Ming China across Southeast Asia, India, Arabia, and even East Africa.

From 1405 to 1433 CE, the Chinese admiral Zheng He led seven great voyages, unmatched in history. The so-called Treasure Fleet traveled to Southeast Asia and India, sailed across the Indian Ocean to Arabia, and even visited the far-flung shores of East Africa.

Zheng He commanded a veritable floating metropolis consisting of 28, 000 men and over 300 vessels, of which 60 were enormous “treasure ships,” nine-masted behemoths over 120 meters (394 foot) long.  Sponsored by the Yongle emperor, the Treasure Fleet was designed to spread the influence of Ming China overseas and establish a tributary system of vassal countries. Although the task was successful, bringing over 30 countries under the nominal control of China, political intrigues at the court, and the Mongol threat on the Empire’s northern border, led to the Treasure Fleet’s destruction. As a result, the Ming emperors shifted their priorities inwards, closing China to the world and leaving the high seas to the European navies of the Age of Exploration.

First Voyage of Zheng He and the Treasure Fleet (1405-1407)

On July 11, 1405, after an offering of prayers to the goddess protector of sailors, Tianfei, the Chinese admiral Zheng He and his Treasure Fleet set out for its maiden voyage. The mighty armada comprised of 317 ships, 62 of them being enormous “treasure ships” ( baochuan ), carrying nearly 28,000 men. The fleet’s first stop was Vietnam, a region recently conquered by the Ming dynasty’s armies. From there, the ships proceeded to Siam (present-day Thailand) and the island of Java before reaching Malacca on the southern tip of the Malaysian peninsula. The local ruler quickly submitted to Ming rule , allowing Zheng He to use Malacca as the main base of operations for his armada. It was the beginning of a renaissance for Malacca, which would become a strategically important port for all shipping between India and Southeast Asia in the following decades.

From Malacca, the fleet continued their voyage eastwards, crossing the Indian Ocean and arriving at the main trading ports on the southwest coast of India, including Ceylon (present-day Sri Lanka) and Calicut. The scene of Zheng He’s 300-vessel armada must have been awe-inspiring to the locals. Unsurprisingly, the local rulers accepted China’s nominal control, exchanged gifts, and their ambassadors boarded the ships, which would take them to China. On their return trip, laden with tribute and envoys, the Treasure Fleet confronted the notorious pirate Chen Zuyi in the Strait of Malacca. Zheng He’s ships destroyed the pirate armada and captured their leader, taking him back to China where he was executed.

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Please check your inbox to activate your subscription, the second and third voyages: gunboat diplomacy (1407-1409 and 1409-1411).

The defeat of the pirate armada and the destruction of their base at Palembang secured the Malacca strait and the valuable trade routes linking Southeast Asia and India. Everything was ready for the second voyage of Zheng He in 1407. This time a smaller fleet of 68 ships sailed to Calicut to attend the inauguration of the new king. On the return trip, the fleet visited Siam (present-day Thailand) and the island of Java, where Zheng He got embroiled in a power struggle between two rival rulers. Although the Treasure Fleet’s main task was diplomacy, Zheng He’s massive ships carried heavy guns and were filled with soldiers. Therefore, the admiral could get involved in local politics.

After the armada returned to China in 1409 with holds full of tribute gifts and carrying new envoys, Zheng He immediately departed for another two-year voyage. Like the first two, this expedition also terminated at Calicut. Once again, Zheng He employed gunboat diplomacy when he intervened in Ceylon. Ming troops defeated the locals, captured their king, and brought him back to China. Although the Yongle emperor released the rebel and returned him home, the Chinese backed another regime as a punishment.

Fourth Voyage: The Treasure Fleet in Arabia (1413-1415)

Following a two-year pause, in 1413, the Treasure Fleet set out again. This time, Zheng He ventured beyond the ports of India, leading his armada consisting of 63 ships all the way to the Arabian peninsula. The fleet reached Hormuz, a key link between the maritime and overland Silk roads . The smaller fleet visited Aden, Muscat, and even entered the Red Sea. As these were predominantly Muslim lands, it must have been essential for the Chinese to have specialists in Islamic religion onboard.

Once again, Zheng He got entangled in a local conflict, this time in Samudera, on the north coast of Sumatra. The Ming forces, skilled in the art of war , defeated a usurper who had murdered the king and brought him to China for execution. The Ming had focused all their efforts on diplomacy, but when it failed, they secured their own interests by employing the mighty Treasure Fleet against potential troublemakers.

Fifth and Sixth Voyages: The Treasures of Africa (1416-1419 and 1421-1422)

In 1417, the Treasure fleet left China on its longest voyage to date. After it returned various foreign dignitaries to Southeast Asia, Zheng He crossed the Indian Ocean and sailed to the coast of East Africa. The armada visited several major ports, exchanged gifts, and established diplomatic relations with the local leaders. Among the vast quantities of tribute brought back to China were many exotic animals — lions, leopards, ostriches, rhinoceroses, and giraffes — some of them seen by the Chinese for the first time. The giraffe, in particular, was the most peculiar, and the Chinese identified it as a qilin — a legendary beast that in ancient Confucian texts epitomized virtue and prosperity.

However, while the giraffe could be interpreted as an auspicious sign, the Treasure Fleet was costly to maintain and keep afloat. After Zheng He returned from the sixth expedition in 1422, (which also visited Africa) he discovered that his patron and childhood friend — the Yongle emperor — had died on a military campaign against the Mongols. The new Ming ruler was less welcoming to what many courtiers considered expensive far-flung cruises. In addition, the Mongol threat in the north required vast funds to be diverted for military expenditure and the rebuilding and expansion of the Great Wall . Zheng He retained his position at court, but his naval expeditions were halted for several years. The new emperor lived only a few months and was succeeded by his more adventurous son, the Xuande emperor. Under his leadership, Zheng He would make one last grand voyage.

Seventh Voyage of Zheng He: The End of an Era (1431-1433)

Almost ten years after his last voyage, Zheng He was ready for what would became the Treasure Fleet’s final voyage. The great eunuch admiral was 59 years old, in poor health, but was eager to sail again. So, in the winter of 1431, more than a hundred ships and over 27, 000 men left China, sailing across the Indian Ocean and visiting Arabia and East Africa. The primary purpose of the fleet was to return the foreign envoys home, but it also solidified the tributary relationship between Ming China and over thirty overseas countries.

On the return trip in 1433, Zheng He died and was buried at sea. The death of the great admiral and seafarer reflected the fate of his beloved Treasure Fleet. Faced with a continuous Mongol threat from the north and surrounded by powerful Confucian courtiers who had no love for “wasteful adventures” the emperor ended the naval expeditions for good. He also ordered the dismantlement of the Treasure Fleet. With the eunuch faction defeated, the Confucians sought to erase the memory of Zheng He and his voyages from Chinese history. China was opening a new chapter by closing itself to the outside world. In an ultimate act of irony, Europeans began their voyages only a few decades later. Soon, they dominated the high seas, eventually leading to the European arrival in China as the superior power.

The Mongol Empire Versus China: The Way of War

By Vedran Bileta MA in Late Antique, Byzantine, and Early Modern History, BA in History Vedran is a doctoral researcher, based in Budapest. His main interest is Ancient History, in particular the Late Roman period. When not spending time with the military elites of the Late Roman West, he is sharing his passion for history with those willing to listen. In his free time, Vedran is wargaming and discussing Star Trek.

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Over a period of almost three decades in the early 15th century, Ming China sent out a fleet the likes of which the world had never seen. These enormous treasure junks were commanded by the great admiral, Zheng He . Together, Zheng He and his armada made seven epic voyages from the port at Nanjing to India , Arabia, and even East Africa.

The First Voyage

In 1403, the Yongle Emperor ordered the construction of a huge fleet of ships capable of travel around the Indian Ocean. He put his trusted retainer, the Muslim eunuch Zheng He, in charge of construction. On July 11, 1405, after an offering of prayers to the protective goddess of sailors, Tianfei, the fleet set out for India with the newly-named admiral Zheng He in command.

The Treasure Fleet's first international port of call was Vijaya, the capital of Champa, near modern-day Qui Nhon, Vietnam . From there, they went to the island of Java in what is now Indonesia, carefully avoiding the fleet of pirate Chen Zuyi. The fleet made further stops at Malacca, Semudera (Sumatra), and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

In Ceylon (now Sri Lanka ), Zheng He beat a hasty retreat when he realized that the local ruler was hostile. The Treasure Fleet next went to Calcutta (Calicut) on the west coast of India. Calcutta was one of the world's major trade depots at the time, and the Chinese likely spent some time exchanging gifts with the local rulers.

On the way back to China, laden with tribute and envoys, the Treasure Fleet confronted the pirate Chen Zuyi at Palembang, Indonesia. Chen Zuyi pretended to surrender to Zheng He, but turned upon the Treasure Fleet and tried to plunder it. Zheng He's forces attacked, killing more than 5,000 pirates, sinking ten of their ships and capturing seven more. Chen Zuyi and two of his top associates were captured and taken back to China. They were beheaded on October 2, 1407.

On their return to Ming China, Zheng He and his entire force of officers and sailors received monetary rewards from the Yongle Emperor. The emperor was very pleased with the tribute brought by the foreign emissaries, and with China's increased prestige in the eastern Indian Ocean basin.

The Second and Third Voyages

After presenting their tribute and receiving gifts from the Chinese emperor, the foreign envoys needed to go back to their homes. Therefore, later in 1407, the great fleet set sail once again, going as far as Ceylon with stops in Champa, Java, and Siam (now Thailand). Zheng He's armada returned in 1409 with holds full of fresh tribute and again turned right back for another two-year voyage (1409-1411). This third voyage, like the first, terminated at Calicut.

Zheng He's Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Voyages

After a two-year respite on-shore, in 1413 the Treasure Fleet set out on its most ambitious expedition to date. Zheng, He led his armada all the way to the Arabian Peninsula and the Horn of Africa, making port calls at Hormuz, Aden, Muscat, Mogadishu, and Malindi. He returned to China with exotic goods and creatures, famously including giraffes, which were interpreted as the mythical Chinese creature the qilin , a very auspicious sign indeed.

On the fifth and sixth voyages, the Treasure Fleet followed much the same track to Arabia and East Africa, asserting Chinese prestige and collecting tribute from as many as thirty different states and principalities. The fifth voyage spanned 1416 to 1419, while the sixth took place in 1421 and 1422.

In 1424, Zheng He's friend and sponsor, the Yongle Emperor, died while on a military campaign against the Mongols. His successor, the Hongxi Emperor, ordered an end to the expensive ocean-going voyages. However, the new emperor lived for just nine months after his coronation and was succeeded by his more adventurous son, the Xuande Emperor. Under his leadership, the Treasure Fleet would make one last great voyage.

The Seventh Voyage

On June 29, 1429, the Xuande Emperor ordered preparations for a final voyage of the Treasure Fleet . He appointed Zheng He to command the fleet, even though the great eunuch admiral was 59 years old and in poor health.

This last great voyage took three years and visited at least 17 different ports between Champa and Kenya. On the way back to China, likely in what are now Indonesian waters, Admiral Zheng He died. He was buried at sea, and his men brought a braid of his hair and a pair of his shoes back to be buried in Nanjing.

Legacy of the Treasure Fleet

Faced with the Mongol threat on their northwest border, and the huge financial drain of the expeditions, Ming scholar-officials deplored the extravagant voyages of the Treasure Fleet. Later emperors and scholars sought to erase the memory of these great expeditions from Chinese history.

However, Chinese monuments and artifacts scattered all around the rim of the Indian Ocean, as far as the Kenyan coast, provide solid evidence of Zheng He's passage. In addition, Chinese records of several of the voyages remain, in the writings of such shipmates as Ma Huan, Gong Zhen, and Fei Xin. Thanks to these traces, historians and the public at large can still ponder the amazing tales of these adventures that took place 600 years ago.

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• Was Sinbad the Sailor Real?
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The Ages of Exploration

Age of discovery.

Quick Facts:

Chinese explorer who commanded several treasure fleets – Chinese ships that explored and traded across Asia and Africa. His expeditions greatly expanded China’s trade.

Name : Zheng He [jung] [ha]

Birth/Death : 1371 - 1433

Nationality : Chinese

Birthplace : China

Zheng He Statue

General Zheng He - statue in Sam Po Kong temple, Semarang, Indonesia. (Credit: en.wiki 22Kartika)

Introduction Zheng He was a Chinese explorer who lead seven great voyages on behalf of the Chinese emperor. These voyages traveled through the South China Sea, Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, Red Sea, and along the east coast of Africa. His seven total voyages were diplomatic, military, and trading ventures, and lasted from 1405 – 1433. However, most historians agree their main purpose was to promote the glory of Ming dynasty China. 1

Biography Early Life Zheng He was born to a noble family in 1371 in the Yunnan Province of China. His father was named Haji Ma, and his mother’s maiden name was “Wen”. Ma He had one older brother, and four sisters. 2 His family was Muslim, so when he was born, he was originally named “Ma He.” Ma is the Chinese version of Mohammed, who was the great prophet of the Islamic faith. 3 His father and grandfather were highly respected in their community. Young Ma He was educated as a child, often reading books from great scholars such as Confucius and Mencius. 4 Ma He was curious about the world from a young age. In Islam, Muslim believers are supposed to make a pilgrimage, called a hajj in Arabic, to the Muslim holy city of Mecca (in present day Saudi Arabia). Ma He’s father and grandfather had both made this hajj, so Ma He often them questions of their journey, along with the people and places they encountered. In 1381, when Ma He was about 11 years old, Yunnan was attacked and conquered by soldiers from the Ming army, who were under the rule of Emperor Hong Wu. Ma He, like many children, were taken captive and brought to serve as a eunuch in the Ming Court.

While serving in the royal court, the Emperor had noticed that Ma He was a hardworking boy. Ma He received military training, and soon became a trusted assistant and adviser to the emperor. He also served as a bodyguard protecting the prince Zhu Di during many battles against the Mongols. Shortly after, Zhu Di became emperor of the Ming Dynasty. Having served in the court for many years, Ma He was eventually promoted to Grand Eunuch.This was the highest rank a eunuch could be promoted to. Because of his new and higher position, the Emperor gave Ma He the new name “Zheng” He. 5 With his new title came additional duties Zheng He would be responsible for. He would be in charge of palace construction and repairs, learned more about weapons, and became more knowledgeable in ship construction. 6 His understanding of ships would become very important to his future. In 1403, Zhu Di, ordered the construction of the Treasure Fleet – a fleet of trading ships, warships and support vessels. This fleet was to travel across the South China Sea and Indian Ocean areas. The Emperor chose Zheng He to command this fleet. He would be the official ambassador of the imperial court to foreign countries. This would begin Zheng He’s maritime career, and some of the most impressive exploration journeys in history.

Voyages Principal Voyage Zheng He’s first voyage (1405-1407) began in July 1405. They set sail from Liujiagan Port in Taicang of Jiangsu Province and headed westward. The fleet had about 208 vessels total, including 62 Treasure Ships, and more than 27,800 crewman. 7 They traveled to present day Vietnam. Here, they met with the king and presented him with gifts. The King was pleased with Zheng He and the emperor’s kind gesture, and the visit was a friendly one. After leaving, the fleet traveled to Java, Sumatra; Malacca (the Spice Islands); crossed the Indian Ocean and sailed west to Cochin and Calicut, India. The many stops included trading of spices and other goods, plus visiting royal courts and building relations on behalf of the Chinese emperor. He also saw several new animals, which he told the emperor about upon his return. Zheng He’s first voyage ended when he returned to China in 1407.

Zheng He’s second (1408-1409) and third (1409-1411) voyages followed a similar route to his first. Once again he stopped in places like Java, Sumatra; and visited ports on the coast of Siam (today called Thailand) and the Malay Peninsula. 8 Zheng He’s fourth voyage (1413-1415) would be his most impressive yet. The Chinese Emperor really wanted to display the wealth and power China had to offer. With 63 large ships, and a crew of over 27,000 men, Zheng He set sail. Once more he sailed to the Malay Peninsula, to Sri Lanka, and on to Calicut in India. Instead of staying at Calicut as he had on previous voyages, Zheng He and his fleet also sailed to the Maldive and Laccadive Islands to the Hormuz on the Persian Gulf. 9 Along the way, they traded goods like silk and spices with rulers of other countries. He returned to Nanjing in 1415. He also brought back with him several envoys or representatives of various countries for the emperor to meet with and learn from.

Subsequent Voyages By 1417, the Yongle Emperor ordered Zheng He to return the envoys home. Once more back on the seas, Zheng He and his large fleet set sail for his fifth expedition (1417-1419). He stopped in many of the same places, including Java, Sumatra, and also brought letters and riches to the different rulers Zheng He met. On this trip, Zheng He sailed into new waters, to the Somali coast and down to Kenya, both in Africa. He returned back to China in 1419. Zheng He’s sixth voyage (1421-1422) was his shortest of them all. He was authorized to return the remaining envoy’s to their home countries. Not only did he revist many of the ports he’d been to many times, but also went back to the Mogadishu region of Somalia. He also visited Thailand, before making his way back to China in September 1422. By the time he returned, the emperor had died. The new emperor suspended all expeditions. Zheng He remained in the royal court working for the new emperor, helping with the construction of a large temple. But would be almost another 10 years before Zheng He went on his seventh and final voyage.

Later Years and Death It was not until 1431 that Zheng He found himself in command of the large Treasure Fleet for his seventh voyage (1431-1433). They sailed to Java, Sumatra and several other Asian ports before arriving in Calicut, India. During this trip, Zheng He temporarily split from the fleet and made his hajj to the Muslim holy city of Mecca. 10 At some point, Zheng He fell ill, and died in 1433. It is not known whether or not he made it back to China, or died on his final great voyage.

Legacy Zheng He’s voyages to western oceans expanded China’s political influence in the world. He was able to expand new, friendly ties with other nations, while developing relations between the east-west trade opportunities. Unfortunately, the official imperial records of his voyages were destroyed. The exact purpose of his voyages, the routes taken, and the size of his fleets are heavily debated because of their unique nature. 11 Nonetheless, his leadership and principles have remained known over the centuries in Chinese history. July 11 is celebrated as China’s National Maritime Day commemorating his first voyage.

• Leo Suryadinata, ed., Admiral Zheng He & Southeast China (Pasir Panjang, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2005), 44.
• Hum Sin Hoon, Zheng He’s Art of Collaboration: Understanding the Legendary Chinese Admiral from a Management Perspective (Pasir Panjang, Singapore: ISEAS Publishing, 2012), 6.
• Hoon, Zheng He’s Art of Collaboration, 6.
• Hoon, Zheng He’s Art of Collaboration, 7.
• Information Office of the People’s Government of Fujian Province, Zheng He’s Voyages Down the Western Seas (China: China Intercontinental Press, 2005), 8.
• Shih-shan Henry Tsai, The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996), 157.
• Information Office of the People’s Government of Fujian Province, Zheng He’s Voyages Down the Western Seas, 22.
• Brian Fagan, Beyond the Blue Horizon: How the Earliest Mariners Unlocked the Secrets of the Oceans (New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2012), 157.
• Fagan, Beyond the Blue Horizon, 158.
• Fagan, Beyond the Blue Horizon, 162.
• Richard E. Bohlander, ed., World Explorers and Discoverers (New York: MacMillan Publishing Company, 1992), 466.

Bibliography

Bohlander, Richard E., ed. World Explorers and Discoverers. New York: MacMillan Publishing Company, 1992.

Fagan, Brian. Beyond the Blue Horizon: How the Earliest Mariners Unlocked the Secrets of the Oceans. New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2012.

Hoon, Hum Sin. Zheng He’s Art of Collaboration: Understanding the Legendary Chinese Admiral from a Management Perspective. Pasir Panjang, Singapore: ISEAS Publishing, 2012.

Information Office of the People’s Government of Fujian Province, Zheng He’s Voyages Down the Western Seas. China: China Intercontinental Press, 2005.

Suryadinata, Leo ed. Admiral Zheng He & Southeast China. Pasir Panjang, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2005.

Tsai, Shih-shan Henry. The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996.

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China’s greatest naval explorer sailed his treasure fleets as far as East Africa

Spreading Chinese goods and prestige, Zheng He commanded seven voyages that established China as Asia's strongest naval power in the 1400s.

Perhaps it is odd that China’s greatest seafarer was raised in the mountains. The future admiral Zheng He was born around 1371 to a family of prosperous Muslims. Then known as Ma He, he spent his childhood in Mongol-controlled, landlocked Yunnan Province, located several months’ journey from the closest port. When Ma He was about 10 years old, Chinese forces invaded and overthrew the Mongols ; his father was killed, and Ma He was taken prisoner. It marked the beginning of a remarkable journey of shifting identities that this remarkable man would navigate.

Many young boys taken from the province were ritually castrated and then brought to serve in the court of Zhu Di, the future Ming emperor or Yongle. Over the next decade, Ma He would distinguish himself in the prince’s service and rise to become one of his most trusted advisers. Skilled in the arts of war, strategy, and diplomacy, the young man cut an imposing figure: Some described him as seven feet tall with a deep, booming voice. Ma He burnished his reputation as a military commander with his feats at the battle of Zhenglunba, near Beijing. After Zhu Di became the Yongle emperor in 1402, Ma He was renamed Zheng He in honor of that battle. He continued to serve alongside the emperor and became the commander of China’s most important asset: its great naval fleet, which he would command seven times.

China on the high seas

Zheng He’s voyages followed in the wake of many centuries of Chinese seamanship. Chinese ships had set sail from the ports near present-day Shanghai, crossing the East China Sea, bound for Japan. The vessels’ cargo included material goods, such as rice, tea, and bronze, as well as intellectual ones: a writing system, the art of calligraphy, Confucianism , and Buddhism.

As far back as the 11th century, multi-sailed Chinese junks boasted fixed rudders and watertight compartments—an innovation that allowed partially damaged ships to be repaired at sea. Chinese sailors were using compasses to navigate their way across the South China Sea. Setting off from the coast of eastern China with colossal cargoes, they soon ventured farther afield, crossing the Strait of Malacca while seeking to rival the Arab ships that dominated the trade routes in luxury goods across the Indian Ocean—or the Western Ocean, as the Chinese called it.

While a well-equipped navy had been built up during the early years of the Song dynasty (960- 1279), it was in the 12th century that the Chinese became a truly formidable naval power. The Song lost control of northern China in 1127, and with it, access to the Silk Road and the wealth of Persia and the Islamic world. The forced withdrawal to the south prompted a new capital to be established at Hangzhou, a port strategically situated at the mouth of the Qiantang River, and which Marco Polo described in the course of his famous adventures in the 1200s. ( See pictures from along Marco Polo's journey through Asia. )

For centuries, the Song had been embroiled in battles along inland waterways and had become indisputable masters of river navigation. Now, they applied their experience to building up a naval fleet. Alas, the Song’s newfound naval mastery was not enough to withstand the invasion of the mighty Mongol emperor Kublai Khan. ( Kublai Khan achieved what Genghis could not: conquering China .)

Kublai Khan kamikazed

Kublai Khan built an empire for the Mongols in the 13th century, conquering China in 1279. He also had his sights set on Japan and tried to invade, not once, but twice: first in 1274 and again in 1281. Chroniclers of the time report that he sent thousands of Chinese and Korean ships and as many as 140,000 men to seize the islands of Japan. Twice his massive forces sailed across the Korea Strait, and twice his fleet was turned away; legend says that two kamikazes, massive typhoons whose name means “divine wind,” were summoned by the Japanese emperor to sink the invading vessels. Historians believed the stories to be legendary, but recent archaeological finds support the story of giant storms saving Japan.

The Mongols and the Ming

Having toppled the Song and ascended to the Chinese imperial throne in 1279, Kublai built up a truly fearsome naval force. Millions of trees were planted and new shipyards created. Soon, Kublai commanded a force numbering thousands of ships, which he deployed to attack Japan, Vietnam, and Java. And while these naval offensives failed to gain territory, China did win control over the sea-lanes from Japan to Southeast Asia. The Mongols gave a new preeminence to merchants, and maritime trade flourished as never before.

For Hungry Minds

On land, however, they failed to establish a settled form of government and win the allegiance of the peoples they had conquered. In 1368, after decades of internal rebellion throughout China, the Mongol dynasty fell and was replaced by the Ming (meaning “bright”) dynasty. Its first emperor, Hongwu, was as determined as the Mongol and Song emperors before him to maintain China as a naval power. However, the new emperor limited overseas contact to naval ambassadors who were charged with securing tribute from an increasingly long list of China’s vassal states, among them, Brunei, Cambodia, Korea, Vietnam, and the Philippines, thus ensuring that lucrative profits did not fall into private hands. Hongwu also decreed that no oceangoing vessels could have more than three masts, a dictate punishable by death. ( The Ming Dynasty built the Great Wall. Find out if it worked. )

Yongle was the third Ming emperor, and he took this restrictive maritime policy even further, banning private trade while pushing hard for Chinese control of the southern seas and the Indian Ocean. The beginning of his reign saw the conquest of Vietnam and the foundation of Malacca as a new sultanate controlling the entry point to the Indian Ocean, a supremely strategic location for China to control. In order to dominate the trade routes that united China with Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean, the emperor decided to assemble an impressive fleet, whose huge treasure ships could have as many masts as necessary. The man he chose as its commander was Zheng He.

Epic voyages

Although he is often described as an explorer, Zheng He did not set out primarily on voyages of discovery. During the Song dynasty, the Chinese had already reached as far as India, the Persian Gulf, and Africa. Rather, his voyages were designed as a display of Chinese might, as well as a way of rekindling trade with vassal states and guaranteeing the flow of vital provisions, including medicines, pepper, sulfur, tin, and horses.

The fleets that Zheng He commanded on his seven great expeditions between 1405 and 1433 were suitably ostentatious. On the first voyage, the fleet numbered 255 ships, 62 of which were vast treasure ships, or baochuan. There were also mid-size ships such as the machuan, used for transporting horses, and a multitude of other vessels carrying soldiers, sailors, and assorted personnel. Some 600 officials made the voyage, among them doctors, astrologers, and cartographers.

The ships left Nanjing (Nanking), Hangzhou, and other major ports, from there veering south to Fujian, where they swelled their crews with expert sailors. They then made a show of force by anchoring in Quy Nhon, Vietnam , which China had recently conquered. None of the seven expeditions headed north; most made their way to Java and Sumatra, resting for a spell in Malacca, where they waited for the winter monsoon winds that blow toward the west.

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They then proceeded to Ceylon (present-day Sri Lanka) and Calicut in southern India, where the first three expeditions terminated. The fourth expedition reached Hormuz in the Persian Gulf, and the final voyages expanded westward, entering the waters of the Red Sea, then turning and sailing as far as Kenya, and perhaps farther still. A caption on a copy of the Fra Mauro map —the original, now lost, was completed in Venice in 1459, more than 25 years after Zheng He’s final voyage—implies that Chinese ships rounded the Cape of Good Hope in 1420 before being forced to turn back for lack of wind.

Treasure ships were the largest vessels in Zheng He’s fleet. A description of them appears in adventure novel by Luo Maodeng, The Three-Treasure Eunuch’s Travels to the Western Ocean (1597). The author writes that the ships had nine masts and measured 460 feet long and 180 feet wide. It is hard to believe that the ships would have been quite so vast. Authorities on Zheng He’s maritime expeditions believe the vessels more likely had five or six masts and measured 250 to 300 feet long.

Chinese ships had always been noted for their size. More than a century before Zheng He, explorer Marco Polo described their awesome dimensions: Between four and six masts, a crew of up to 300 sailors, 60 cabins, and a deck for the merchants. Chinese vessels with five masts are shown on the 14th-century “Catalan Atlas” from the island of Mallorca. Still, claims in a 1597 adventure tale that Zheng He’s treasure ships reached 460 feet long do sound exaggerated. Most marine archaeological finds suggest that Chinese ships of the 14th and 15th centuries usually were not longer than 100 feet. Even so, a recent discovery by archaeologists of a 36-foot-long rudder raises the possibility that some ships may have been as large as claimed. (A 1,200-year-old shipwreck reveals how the world traded with China.)

Ma Huan's true tall tales

Of the three chroniclers who recorded Zheng He’s voyages, Ma Huan was perhaps the most reliable. Of humble origins, Ma Huan converted to Islam as a young man and studied Arabic and Persian. At age 23 he served as an interpreter for the fourth expedition. He served on the sixth and seventh voyages as well. In East Africa Ma Huan first saw what he called a qilin —the Chinese word for a unicorn-like creature—evidently a giraffe: ”The head is carried on a long neck over 16 feet long,” he noted, with some exaggeration. “On its head it has two fleshy horns. It has the tail of an ox and the body of a deer...and it eats unhusked rice, beans and flour cakes.”

End of an odyssey

Zheng He’s voyages ended abruptly in 1433 on the command of Emperor Xuande. Historians have long speculated as to why the Ming would have abandoned the naval power that China had nurtured since the Song. The problems were certainly not economic: China was collecting enormous tax revenues, and the voyages likely cost a fraction of that income.

The problem, it seems, was political. The Ming victory over the Mongols caused the empire’s focus to shift from the ports of the south to deal with tensions in the north. The voyages were also viewed with suspicion by the very powerful bureaucratic class, who worried about the influence of the military. This fear had reared its head before: In 1424, between the sixth and seventh voyages, the expedition program was briefly suspended, and Zheng He was temporarily appointed defender of the co-capital Nanjing, where he oversaw construction of the famous Bao’en Pagoda, built with porcelain bricks.

The great admiral died either during, or shortly after, the seventh and last of the historic expeditions, and with the great mariner’s death his fleet was largely dismantled. China’s naval power would recede until the 21st century. With the nation’s current resurgence, it is no surprise that the figure of Zheng He stands once again at the center of China’s maritime ambitions. Today the country’s highly disputed “nine-dash line”— which China claims demarcates its control of the South China Sea—almost exactly maps the route taken six centuries ago by Zheng He and his remarkable fleet.

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Chinese Admiral in the Indian Ocean

The seven voyages, inscribing his adventures.

[We have] traversed over a hundred thousand li of vast ocean [and have] beheld great ocean waves, rising as high as the sky and swelling and swelling endlessly. Whether in dense fog and drizzling rain or in wind-driven waves rising like mountains, no matter what the sudden changes in sea conditions, we spread our cloudlike sails aloft and sailed by the stars day and night. [Had we] not trusted her [Heavenly Princess’s] divine merit, how could we have done this in peace and safety? When we met danger, once we invoked the divine name, her answer to our prayer was like an echo; suddenly there was a divine lamp which illuminated the masts and sails, and once this miraculous light appeared, then apprehension turned to calm. The personnel of the fleet were then at rest, and all trusted they had nothing to fear. This is the general outline of the goddess’s merit... When we arrived at the foreign countries, barbarian kings who resisted transformation and were not respectful we captured alive, and bandit soldiers who looted and plundered recklessly we exterminated. Because of this the sea routes became pure and peaceful and the foreign peoples could rely upon them and pursue their occupations in safety. All of this was due to the aid of the goddess.

If men serve their prince with utmost loyalty, there is nothing they cannot do, and if they worship the gods with utmost sincerity there is no prayer that will not be answered... We, [Zheng] He and the rest, have been favored with a gracious commission from our Sacred Prince to convey to the distant barbarians the favor [earned by their] respectfulness and good faith. While in command of the personnel of the fleet, and [responsible for the great] amount of money and valuables [our] one concern while facing the violence of the winds and the dangers of the nights was that we would not succeed. Would we then have served the nation with utmost loyalty and worshipped the divine intelligence with utmost sincerity? None of us could doubt that this was the source of aid and safety for the fleet in its comings and goings. Therefore we have made manifest the virtue of the goddess with this inscription on stone, which records the years and months of our going to and returning from the foreign [countries] so that they may be remembered forever.

The Legacy of Zheng He’s Adventures

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Zhen He's Voyages to the West

Zheng He (or Ma Sanbao) (1371-1433 AD) was a court eunuch, marine explorer and fleet admiral, born into an adventurous Muslim family in Kunyang of Yunnan Province. His grandfather was a noble from the Mongolian tribe and once made a pilgrimage to Mecca. Ma Sanbao had an elder brother and two sisters. His parental family was greatly respected in Kunyang for its pious religious beliefs.

The Ming Army attacked Yunnan in 1381, and the eleven-year old Ma Sanbao was captured, castrated and brought to the palace of the Prince of Yan (later the Yongle Emperor) to serve as a eunuch.

In the battle of Zhengzhou (presently Renqiu of Hebei Province), Ma helped the Prince of Yan, Zhu Di, to seize the throne of Emperor Jianwen. As a reward after ascending the throne, Zhu Di bestowed the imperial surname "Zheng" on Ma Sanbao; hence the name Zheng He.

Between 1405 and 1433 , under Emperor's orders, Zheng He led seven expeditionary ocean voyages to western countries . This was a great feat in the history of Chinese marine navigation, in recognition of which the title Sanbao Eunuch (Three-Protection Eunuch) was conferred on Zheng in 1431.

Preconditions of Zheng He's Marine Voyages

• The shipbuilding industry prospered during the Tang (618–907 AD) and Song (960–1279 AD) dynasties, making long-distance oceanic exploration possible.
• The development of compasses and gunpowder provided reassurance for oceanic exploration, in regard to security.
• The Yongle Emperor was showing off marine prowess for political reasons.
• Ocean trade prospered during the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368 AD). The Yuan Empire boasted the strongest army and largest fleet in the world, laying a good foundation economically and militarily for marine exploration.
• Sailors, soldiers and translators worked together to accomplish the task of exploration.

Zheng He's Seven Voyages to the West

Zheng He left on his 1st voyage in 1405 with a fleet of 240 ships and visited over 30 states along the coasts of the West Atlantic and Indian Oceans. His visits helped to strengthen relations between China and countries in Southeast Asia and East Africa. Zheng's 7th voyage was cut short in 1433 owing to his death at Guli in India. He and his crewmen had traveled as far as the Red Sea and the East African coast.

The First Voyage

On June 15th, 1405, Zheng He set sail from Longjiang Harbor in Nanjing , and returned on September 2nd, 1407. According to records, more than 27,800 crewmen participated in the voyage. During this first voyage, Zheng visited Champa (presently Vietnam), Java Island, Malacca, Aru, Samudera, Qiulon, Kollam, Cochin (presently South West India) and Calicut (presently South India).

The Second Voyage

On September 13th, 1407, only 11 days after his return from the first voyage, Zheng left with his fleet for a second time. During this trip he visited Champa, Java Island, Siam (presently Thailand), Malacca, Cochin, Ceylon (presently Sri Lanka) and Calicut.

In July 1409, on his return voyage, Zheng made a special trip to Ceylon and erected a monument at Mt. Ceylon Temple to commemorate the voyage. It was estimated that over 27,000 crewmen had joined in the voyage.

The Third Voyage

In September 1409, Zheng left with a fleet of 48 ships from Liujiagang, Suzhou in Jiangsu Province, on a third voyage to the West. This time he visited Champa, Java, Malacca, Semudera, Ceylon, Quilon, Cochin, Calicut, Siam, Lambri and Kayal (namely, present-day Vietnam), Indonesia, Malaysia and India. On July 9th, 1411, Zheng was presented with relics from the Buddha via Ceylon, while on his way home.

The Fourth Voyage

Over 27,670 crewmen were enrolled on Zheng He's fourth journey to the West, which departed in November 1413. They made a detour round the Arabian Peninsula and sailed as far as Mogadishu and Malindi (presently in Kenya). On July 8th, 1415, Zheng and his fleet returned home. At that time, an envoy from Malindi presented giraffes to the Ming emperor.

The Fifth Voyage

Zheng's fifth voyage to the West started at Quanzhou (presently in Guangdong Province) in May 1417 and ended at Ma Lam (an ancient kingdom in an East African country) via Champa and Java Island. Zheng sailed home on July 17th, 1419. On his return, the Aden Kingdom presented unicorns, Maldive lions and Barawa ostriches to the Ming emperor.

The Sixth Voyage

On September 30th, 1421, Zheng left China with a fleet of ships to escort foreign envoys home. He passed through Champa, Bengal, Ceylon, Calicut, Cochin, Maldives, Hormuz, Djofar, Aden, Mogadishu and Brava. The fleet returned home on August 18th, 1422, with more envoys from Siam, Samudera and Aden.

In the 22nd year of the Yongle period (1426), the Yongle Emperor passed away, and Zhu Gaozhi (later known as the Renzong Emperor) ascended the throne. Zhu stopped Zheng's voyages to the West, owing to bankruptcy.

The Seventh Voyage

On December 6th, 1431, Zheng He set sail towards the West for a 7th time, from Longjiangguan (presently Xiaguan in Nanjing, Jiangsu Province). He died from overwork in 1433, on the homeward voyage. The fleet was then led by another eunuch, Wang Jinghong, and returned to Nanjing on July 7th, 1433. The number of crewmen on that voyage was 27,550.

Zheng He's Contribution to Global Ocean Exploration

Zheng He's travels to the West were unprecedented in their scale and scope. Zheng made a great contribution to friendly relations between China and the rest of the world in the spheres of politics, economy and culture.

Zheng's travels to the West turned a new page in the history of world marine navigation, 87 years before Christopher Columbus discovered America, 92 years before Vasco da Gama discovered the Cape of Good Hope and 114 years before Magellan sailed around the globe.

In China, Zheng He is regarded as an outstanding diplomat and navigator. His travels to the West made a great impact on world history, for which he is justifiably renowned.

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Statue of Zheng He

The routes of Zheng He’s seven voyages (National Geographic Magazine)

About Zheng He

In China’s maritime story Zheng He (1371-1433) is an almost mythic figure. He was a Muslim by birth, born in Yunnan in 1371 shortly after the fall of the Yuan Dynasty. 

Over the next 24 years Zheng He had a successful career as an influential eunuch, before being appointed to lead the great voyages.

Zheng He was a senior diplomat leading a large entourage of officials, scholars and soldiers on diplomatic and fact-finding missions. The maritime side of this massive expression of Chinese influence, with its many ships, sailors, boatmen, helmsmen, anchormen, blacksmiths, and caulkers was merely one part of a civilian and military expedition of enormous size and complexity.

Voyages of Unprecedented Size and Scope

The first voyage, with its 27,000 embarked personnel, mostly soldiers, returned in October 1407 after visiting today’s Vietnam, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka and India. Six voyages followed in 1407-1409, 1409-1411, 1413-1415, 1416-1419, 1421-1422 and 1430-1433, on the last of which it is thought that Zheng He died at sea.

The 4th-7th voyages ranged as far west as Jiddah in the Red Sea and Malindi in East Africa. Their squadrons visited at least 30 contemporary kingdoms

Zheng He bronze bell in the San Qing Hall, Tian Feil Palace, Majiang, Fujian

Evidence is strong that Zheng He’s voyages compared favourably with any contemporary or previous maritime ventures. They sailed further, in more ships, with great sophistication and logistical skills. 

Zheng He's voyages formalized the vast extent of Chinese geographical understanding that had been building since Song Dynasty traders first ventured on major overseas navigational practices.

Tomb of Zhenghe, at Niushoushan, Nanjing

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The Astonishing Voyages of Zheng He

The monumental voyages of Zheng He redefined the parameters of exploration in the early fifteenth century. Regarded as one of the world’s greatest explorers, admiral Zheng He established Chinese influence around the globe and set a high bar for maritime expeditions for hundreds of years. This is the remarkable story of Zheng He.

Decades before renowned European explorers like Christopher Columbus, Amerigo Vespucci, Bartolomeu Dias, and Pedro Álvares Cabral embarked on their famed voyages during the Age of Discovery, admiral Zheng He had already set out on some of the most daring and extensive maritime expeditions in history.

Between 1405 and 1433, Zheng He led seven epic voyages across the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean. These expeditions, involving hundreds of ships and tens of thousands of men, were virtually unparalleled in scale and ambition.

The Zheng He voyages showcased the technological, navigational, and diplomatic achievements of China’s Ming dynasty, and they significantly impacted global trade patterns and cultural exchanges. His journeys laid the groundwork for the interconnected global trade system that developed in the centuries to follow.

The story of Zheng He and the Chinese treasure ship is legendary in China – he is widely celebrated as the most distinguished explorer and adventurer in the annals of Chinese maritime history. This is the remarkable story of the voyages of Zheng He.

The Early Life of Zheng He

A modern wall painting of Zheng He (Credit: Pictures from History / Contributor via Getty Images)

Originally named Ma He, Zheng He was born in 1371 in the southwestern Chinese province of Yunnan. His early life was marked by significant upheaval. At the age of ten, during the Ming Dynasty’s military campaign in Yunnan, he was captured and subsequently entered into imperial service. Despite these early challenges, Zheng He rose through the ranks, demonstrating remarkable intelligence and loyalty. Crucially, he made influential friends while in the service of Zhu Di, who became the Yongle Emperor, the third emperor of the Ming dynasty. It was these connections which eventually led to him becoming one of the most famous maritime explorers in Chinese history.

Zheng He & Yongle

When Zhu Di successfully took the throne and became Emperor Yongle in 1402, Zheng He’s position in the court was set. The emperor, eager to assert Ming China’s power and prestige, initiated a series of ambitious naval expeditions and appointed Zheng He to lead these voyages. This decision marked a significant turning point, transitioning the young man from a court advisor to Admiral Zheng He, the commander of what would become some of history’s most extensive and far-reaching maritime expeditions.

Under Yongle’s patronage, Zheng He led seven grand voyages between 1405 and 1433, reaching far beyond the traditional routes of commerce, developing diplomatic relationships, permanently reshaping Chinese life, and establishing Zheng He as a legendary figure in the annals of exploration.

The Seven Voyages of Zheng He

A giraffe brought to the court of Emperor Yongle (Credit: Pictures from History / Contributor via Getty Images)

Each of the Zheng He voyages was a complex undertaking, involving not just exploration but also diplomatic missions, trade, and the demonstration of Chinese naval might. They were also a way for the emperor to legitimise his position in the international political arena.

These expeditions were unprecedented for their scale and impact. They greatly enhanced the Ming dynasty’s influence across the Indian Ocean and established China as a major maritime power.

Full-sized replica of one of Admiral Zheng He's ships (Credit: ROSLAN RAHMAN / Staff via Getty Images)

There remains some debate as to the size of Zheng He’s ships. The Chinese treasure ship described by Chinese chroniclers was believed to be 127 metres long and 52 metres wide. It is thought it could carry somewhere between 500 and 1,000 people. This would have been double the length of any contemporary wooden ship, and in fact bigger than later ships such as the HMS Victory, launched in the eighteenth century. Indeed it would have therefore been similar in size to nineteenth century iron-hulled steamers.

Yet some scholars doubt the veracity of these claims – written three centuries later – suggesting they were probably no more than 70m in length.

In addition to the famous Chinese treasure ship, the Zheng He voyages also included equine ships carrying horses and repair materials, supply ships carrying food and medical supplies, transport ships, and warships.

The First Voyage: 1405-1407

Believed to have consisted of over 300 ships and almost 28,000 men, the cargo, according to a contemporary writer, included ‘ imperial letters to the countries of the Western Ocean and with gifts to their kings of gold brocade, patterned silks, and coloured silk gauze, according to their status ’. The first of the voyages of Zheng He took him through Southeast Asia, the Horn of Africa and parts of the Arabian Peninsula. It was largely used to establish a Chinese presence, show off the might of their naval power, and to create tributary relationships.

The Second & Third Voyages: 1407/8-1409 and 1409-1411

The second and third voyages of Zheng He were similar in size and purpose to that of the first. The fleet stopped in places like Java and the coastal cities of Siam (modern-day Thailand), India’s Malabar Coast and the Malay Peninsula. They were, like the first voyage, designed to develop and strengthen diplomatic ties, establish new – and expand existing – tributary relationships, and also to deal with disruptions encountered in previous voyages, including one on Ceylon (present-day Sri Lanka).

The Fourth Voyage: 1412-1415

The fourth voyage – believed to be the largest of all including close to 29,000 men and over sixty Chinese treasure ships – took Zheng He further than he had been previously. As well as the Malay Peninsula, modern-day Sri Lanka, and Calicut in India, he carried on to the Maldives, Hormuz in the Persian Gulf and, it is believed, the eastern coast of Africa. He traded spices and silks with foreign rulers and returned with diplomatic envoys from a number of countries he visited.

The Fifth Voyage: 1417-1419

One of the primary purposes of the fifth voyage was for Zheng He to return the envoys from whence they came, along with imperial letters and gifts for the various rulers in acknowledgement of them sending representatives to China. The fifth voyage is said to have returned to China with ivory, as well as zebras, camels, ostriches and even giraffes.

The Sixth Voyage: 1421-1422/3

Smaller in size than previous voyages, the sixth voyage was similar in route to the previous trip and visited a number of previous locations. Around two years after Admiral Zheng He returned, the Yongle Emperor died. While Zheng He remained at court, all naval expeditions were suspended and it would be almost a decade before he took his final voyage under the Xuande Emperor.

The Last Voyage of Zheng He

Replica of Zheng He's treasure ship in Nanjing (Credit: China Photos / Stringer via Getty Images)

A huge fleet of Chinese treasure ships set out in 1431 for what would be the last hurrah of Zheng He.

By this time he was around sixty and in failing health, but the lure of the open ocean was too good to refuse. The seventh voyage reached as far west as Hormuz and contemporary sources suggest they visited at least seventeen or even as many as twenty countries. This was to be his final voyage.

There are two competing theories as to the date of the death of Zheng He.

The most commonly accepted theory is that Zheng He died in 1433, either at sea or shortly after his fleet returned to China. This version is widely cited in historical documents and is the one most historians lean towards due to its consistency with the timelines of his voyages and historical records from the Ming dynasty.

A less common but still significant theory suggests that Zheng He died in 1435, two years after the last voyage. This theory is based on some later historical texts and inscriptions that suggest he might have lived beyond the completion of his seventh voyage. However, this theory is not as widely accepted due to less supporting evidence compared to the 1433 theory.

The exact circumstances and location of his death remain uncertain due to the lack of definitive historical records. Despite this, his legacy as a great navigator and diplomat endures, and the voyages of Zheng He continue to be celebrated for their remarkable achievements in maritime history.

The Enduring Legacy of Zheng He

Historic world map (Credit: Photo 12 via Getty Images)

The Zheng He voyages stand as a monumental chapter in the annals of maritime history, showcasing the prowess and ambition of the Ming Dynasty’s naval capabilities.

His journeys surpassed the maritime boundaries of his time, and fostered unprecedented cultural and economic exchanges between China and the rest of the world. The expeditions, marked by their scale, sophistication, and diplomatic finesse, not only redefined global trade routes, but also left an indelible mark on the history of international relations and cross-cultural interactions.

The story of Zheng He continues to inspire and intrigue scholars, and is a reminder of the complexity of the vast, interconnected tapestry of human history.

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Voyages of Zheng He

• 1.1 Expeditions
• 2.1 Nanjing, China
• 2.2 Elsewhere in China
• 2.3 Outside of China

Admiral Zheng He ( Chinese : 鄭和/郑和 Zhèng Hé ), also known in English as Cheng Ho , was a Chinese mariner, explorer, diplomat, and fleet admiral early in China's Ming Dynasty .

Understand [ edit ]

He was born as Ma He in a Muslim family, taken prisoner as a child during the Ming conquest of Yunnan and made into a court eunuch. He later adopted the surname Zheng conferred by Emperor Yongle.

Zheng He commanded expeditionary treasure voyages to Southeast Asia, the Indian Subcontinent, Western Asia, and East Africa from 1405 to 1433. According to legend, his larger ships carried hundreds of sailors on four decks and were almost twice as long as any other wooden ship ever recorded. His voyages are the seven Ming treasure voyages undertaken.

The China National Space Administration has named its proposed sample-return spacecraft ZhengHe. Its mission to explore Near-Earth asteroid 2016 HO3 is scheduled to launch in 2024.

Expeditions [ edit ]

China had been trading with Arabs and all the countries between for centuries via the Maritime Silk Road , but in the 15th century the Yuan Dynasty expanded that trade and Chinese knowledge of the world. Until then "universal" maps had only displayed China and its surrounding seas, but now they began to include more accurate depictions of the extent of India, Arabia and Africa.

Between 1405 and 1433, the Ming Dynasty sponsored seven naval expeditions. The Yongle Emperor designed them to establish a Chinese presence and impose imperial control over the Indian Ocean trade, impress foreign peoples in the Indian Ocean basin, and extend the empire's tributary system. Zheng He was placed as the admiral in control of the huge fleet and armed forces that undertook these expeditions. Wang Jinghong was appointed his second in command. Preparations were thorough and wide-ranging, including the use of so many linguists that a foreign language institute was established at Nanjing. Zheng He's first voyage departed 11 July 1405, from Suzhou, and consisted of a fleet of 317 ships holding almost 28,000 crewmen.

Zheng He's fleets visited Brunei, Java, Thailand and Southeast Asia, India, the Horn of Africa, and Arabia, dispensing and receiving goods along the way. Zheng He presented gifts of gold, silver, porcelain, and silk; in return, China received such novelties as ostriches, zebras, camels, and ivory from the Swahili. The giraffe he brought back from Malindi was considered to be a qilin and taken as proof of the favor of heaven upon the administration. The Daxuexi Alley Mosque in Xi'an has a stele dating to January 1523, inscribed with Zheng He's fourth maritime voyage, to Tianfang on the Arabian peninsula.

While Zheng He's fleet was unprecedented, the routes were not; there had been trade between China and the Arabian peninsula since at least the Han Dynasty (206 BCE to 220 CE). See Maritime Silk Road .

Zheng He generally sought to attain his goals through diplomacy, and his large army awed most would-be enemies into submission. But a contemporary reported that Zheng He "walked like a tiger" and did not shrink from violence when he considered it necessary to impress foreign peoples with China's military might. He ruthlessly suppressed pirates who had long plagued Chinese and southeast Asian waters. He also waged a land war against the Kingdom of Kotte on Ceylon, and he made displays of military force when local officials threatened his fleet in Arabia and East Africa. From his fourth voyage, he brought envoys from 30 states who traveled to China and paid their respects at the Ming court.

In 1424, the Yongle Emperor died. His successor, the Hongxi Emperor (r. 1424–1425), stopped the voyages during his short reign. Zheng He made one more voyage during the reign of Hongxi's son, the Xuande Emperor (r. 1426–1435); the emperor allowed the old man to make the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca.

After that, the voyages of the Chinese treasure ship fleets were ended. Xuande believed his father's decision to halt the voyages had been meritorious and thus "there would be no need to make a detailed description of his grandfather's sending Zheng He to the Western Ocean". The voyages "were contrary to the rules stipulated in the Huang Ming Zuxun" (皇明祖訓), the dynastic foundation documents laid down by the Hongwu Emperor. They further violated longstanding Confucian principles. Upon Zheng He's death and his faction's fall from power, his successors sought to minimize him in official accounts, along with continuing attempts to destroy all records related to the Jianwen Emperor or the manhunt to find him.

Although unmentioned in the official dynastic histories, Zheng He probably died during the treasure fleet's last voyage. Although he has a tomb in China, it is empty: he was buried at sea.

Zheng He led seven expeditions to the "Western" or Indian Ocean. Zheng He brought back to China many trophies and envoys from more than 30 kingdoms – including King Vira Alakeshwara of Ceylon, who came to China as a captive to apologize to the Emperor for offenses against his mission.

See [ edit ]

Nanjing, china [ edit ].

• Zheng He Park (or Taiping Park), at No. 35 Taiping Lane, is the original site of the private garden of Zheng He’s mansion when he was the garrison officer of Nanjing. Built in 1953, Zheng He Park includes Memorial Hall of Zheng He, the earliest one in China, and the Shuangbao Pavilion in the ancient style.
• Jinghai Temple is southwest of Lion Mountain. To reward Zheng He, Emperor Zhu Di ordered the construction of this temple. “Jinghai” means peace and calmness. Zheng He over in the temple's 80 rooms and halls in his later years, and it was here he placed some of the treasures he brought back from his many voyages.
• Tianfei Palace (天妃宫; Tiānfēigōng; 'Palace of the Celestial Wife') in the northern part of Jianning Road, at the foot of Lion Mountain, outside the Yifeng Gate in Xiaguan District. Zheng He built this temple in honor of the goddess Mazu, after the fleet returned from its first western voyage in 1407. To celebrate the 600th anniversary of Zheng He’s voyages, Tianfei Palace was rebuilt on the same site.

• Zheng He's Tomb in the southern edge of Niushou Mountain has been repaired and a small museum built next to it, although his body was buried at sea off the Malabar Coast in western India. It was built to commemorate the 580th anniversary of his voyages. In front of the tomb are 28 steps divided into four groups and seven layers, representing Zheng He’s seven voyages which lasted for 28 years. His sword and other personal possessions were interred in a Muslim tomb inscribed in Arabic. The tomb of Zheng He's assistant Hong Bao had been unearthed in Nanjing, as well.
• Zheng He Treasure Ship Park , in Zhongbao Village in the Gulou District, on the bank of Yangtze River, west of Nanjing. It is a large series of ruins built by the Nanjing government to commemorate the 600th anniversary of Zheng He’s voyages. The park includes the Memorial Archway, Zheng He Bell, Museum Square, the Museum of Treasure Ships (bao chuan), the Watchtower, the Ancient Shipyard, and the Treasure Sailing Vessel.
• Jingjue Mosque : Standing near Sanshan Street, south of Nanjing, Jingjue Mosque is the largest mosque in Nanjing. It is the most famous mosque in China’s South-East coastal area, and is listed as one of the eight famous ancient mosques of China. Jingjue Mosque was first built in 1388 on the orders of Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang. In 1430, the mosque was destroyed by fire, and Emperor Xuande rebuilt it at the request of Zheng He. Its reconstruction was extensive and elaborate, and today it is one of the best preserved ancient mosques related to Zheng He.

Elsewhere in China [ edit ]

• The " Deed of Foreign Connection and Exchange " (通番事跡) or "Tongfan Deed Stele" is a reconstruction in the Tianfei Palace in Liuhe, Taicang (near Suzhou ), whence his expeditions departed. The stele was submerged and lost.
• In order to thank the Celestial Wife for her blessings, Zheng He and his colleagues rebuilt the Tianfei Palace in Nanshan , Changle county, in Fujian province prior to departing on their last voyage. At the renovated temple, they raised a stele entitled "A Record of Tianfei Showing Her Presence and Power", discussing their earlier voyages.
• Underwater World , Beihai . It has a large section on China's naval history, with some nods to foreign expeditions as well. Of particular interest is the exhibit on the Admiral Zheng He, including a detailed comparison between his massive treasure ships and the comparatively tiny vessels of Christopher Columbus.  
• Kunyang , near Jianshui . Zheng He is honored in his hometown by a parkful of monuments, Zheng He Park, on top of Kunyang's Moon Mountain (Yue Shan).
• Daxuexi Alley Mosque (94 Daxuexi Alley, Zhong Lou Shang Quan, Lianhu Qu, Xian Shi, Shaanxi Sheng) in Xi'an . It has a stele dating to January 1523, inscribed with Zheng He's the fourth maritime voyage to Tianfang, Arabian peninsula.

Outside of China [ edit ]

• -6.1787 106.62969 5 Benteng Heritage Museum , Tangerang , Java, Indonesia , ☏ +62 21 55791139 . Museum on the history of Chinese settlement in Tangerang and Indonesia, and the importance of the voyages of Chinese admiral Zheng He in spreading Chinese heritage across (Southeast) Asia. ( updated Sep 2016 )

See also [ edit ]

• Voyages of James Cook
• Voyages of Matthew Flinders

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Zheng He : China and the oceans in the early Ming dynasty, 1405-1433

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• I. The Enigma of Zheng He. The Chinese Tributary System and the Purpose of Zheng He's Voyages. Traditional Chinese Interpretations of Zheng He's Career. Zheng He's Voyages and Western Imperial Expansion. Zheng He's Voyages and the Course of Chinese History. Historical Problems in the Interpretation of Zheng He's Career. II. Zheng He's Early Life and His Patron Emperor Yongle. The Fall of the Yuan and the Rise of Zhu Yuanzhang to
• 1368. The Reign of Emperor Hongwu, 1368
• -1398. Civil War, 1398
• -1402. Yongle's Reign as Emperor, 1402
• -1424. III. China and the Asian Maritime World in the Time of Zheng He. The Purpose of Zheng He's Voyages. Patterns of Trade in the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea. The Malay-Indonesian World in the Hongwu Era. Southern India and Ceylon in the Time of Zheng He. IV. Sailing to India: Zheng He's First, Second and Third Voyages. The First Voyage, 1405
• -1407. The Second Voyage, 1407
• -1409. The Third Voyage, 1409
• -1411. V. Sailing to Africa: Zheng He's Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Voyages. The Fourth Voyage, 1412/14
• -1415. The Fifth Voyage, 1417
• -1419. The Sixth Voyage, 1421
• -1422. The Last Years of the Yongle Reign, 1422
• -1424. VI. The Ships and Men of Zheng He's Fleets. Dimensions and Displacements of the Treasure Ships. Masts and Sails. Shipbuilding Notices in the Taizong Shilu. Shipbuilding Costs. Numbers of Ships in Each of the Voyages. Personnel. VII. Zheng He's Career after 1424 and His Final Voyage. Ming China in the Hongxi (1424-25) and Xuande (1425-35) Reigns. Zheng He's Career from 1424 to
• 1430. Zheng He's Inscriptions at Liujiagang and Changle. Zheng He's Seventh and Final Voyage, 1431
• -1433. VIII. The Legacy of Zheng He. Appendix. Translations of Primary Sources. Zheng He's Biography in Mingshi 304.2b-4b. Zheng He's 1431 Inscriptions. Glossary. Note on Sources. Index.
• (source: Nielsen Book Data)

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