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The Oxford Handbook of Exercise Psychology

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1 Exercise Psychology: Understanding the Mental Health Benefits of Physical Activity and the Public Health Challenges of Inactivity

Edmund O. Acevedo, Professor and Chair, Department of Health and Human Performance, Virginia Commonwealth University.

Published: 18 September 2012
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Regular physical activity is important for optimal physical and mental health. Furthermore, physical inactivity has been identified as a leading cause of death (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1996). However, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (Barnes, 2007) have reported that fewer than 50% of Americans participate in regular physical activity. This information highlights the public health challenge of increasing participation in physical activity to enhance physical health and to buoy the psychological benefits associated with physical activity.This chapter presents a brief synopsis of the evidence that compels the study of exercise psychology. In addition, as a basis for assimilating the content of subsequent chapters, this chapter includes explanations for terms often used in exercise psychology, important methodological and conceptual clarifications, and a preface to the topics addressed throughout this text.

Lack of activity destroys the good condition of every human being, while movement and methodical physical exercise save it and preserve it. —Plato

Throughout most of history the physical requirements of survival have been a defining element of human existence. However, within the last 150 years, industrial and technological advancements have made survival no longer intricately dependent on physical demands. With little need for physical activity to perform important work for society, ease of transportation, and almost effortless access to information, most of the population must make a conscious effort to incorporate physical activity into their lifestyles. The challenge to self-regulate exercise behavior has had unexpected, negative health consequences. This challenge, along with the documented psychological benefits associated with participating in physical activity, is central to the arguments supporting the study of exercise psychology.

This chapter provides a brief presentation of the evidence that compels the study of exercise psychology. In addition, it presents explanations for terms that are used in the field of exercise psychology. Together these will serve to define the broad scope of this interdisciplinary field. The cross-fertilization of knowledge has had a tremendously positive effect on the development of exercise psychology. In addition, this chapter clarifies important methodological and conceptual issues that will provide a platform from which to assimilate the content presented in subsequent chapters. In particular, a number of issues relevant to the combined investigation of physical activity and behavior are included—for example, the challenge of assessing physical activity, the relationship of physical health outcomes to mental health outcomes within the context of standard exercise prescription guidelines for physical health outcomes, and, although minimal and far outweighed by the benefits, the health risks associated with exercise. This chapter also includes a preface to the topics addressed in this text.

In 1996 the Surgeon General's Report identified physical inactivity as a leading cause of death. Since the publication of that report, physical inactivity has contributed to the deaths of approximately 200,000 Americans per year (Danaei et al., 2009 ). Even with the common understanding of the importance of physical activity to health (Bouchard, Blair, & Haskell, 2007 ), the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has reported that fewer than 50% of Americans participate in regular physical activity (Barnes, 2007 ). Furthermore, evidence supports the benefits of physical activity to mental health, including improvements in depression, anxiety, self-concept, quality of life, and cognitive function (see Faulkner & Taylor, 2005 ). Promoting physical activity has clear relevance to improving physical and mental health. This text provides in-depth analyses of the literature that examines the behavioral, affective, cognitive, and psychobiological antecedents and consequences of physical activity, with a focus on the adoption and maintenance of physical activity and its effects on psychological well-being.

Regular physical activity can help in controlling weight; reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and some cancers; improving bone strength; and improving the ability to do daily activities and preventing falls in older adults (USDHHS, 1996 ). The financial cost of the physical health consequences of inactivity is approximately $250 billion (Chenoweth & Leutzinger, 2006 ). In addition, the benefits of physical activity include alleviating depression, decreasing anxiety, enhancing self-concept and cognitive function, attenuating the stress response, and improving general mood states (Faulkner & Taylor, 2005 ). These mental health benefits are important when one considers that at least one in five people in the United States has a diagnosed mental disorder, and the estimated direct cost of mental health services is now more than $99 billion (U.S. Department of Health and Human Service, 1999 ). These physical and mental health benefits, along with the potential reduction of the dramatic financial costs of poor health, provide great impetus for the promotion of physical activity as a public health goal.

An understanding of the mental health benefits of exercise has developed from an appreciation of the value of interdisciplinary investigation into the psychobiological nature of the physical activity experience. The study of exercise psychology provides an excellent model for examining the link between the mind-brain and the body. This age-old concept is highlighted in the quote that begins this chapter. An even more compelling consideration is that physical fitness is necessary for optimal physical and mental health, including cognitive function (Kramer, Erickson, & Colcombe, 2006 ), and “to make normal life more fulfilling” (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000 ). This is a central proposition of the conceptualization of positive psychology by Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi.

Terminology

The terms physical activity and exercise are often used interchangeably; however, there are subtle differences. Physical activity is defined as “ any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that results in energy expenditure” (Caspersen, Powell, and Christenson, 1985 ). In the literature examples of physical activity include activities of daily living, participation in sports, exercise, and leisure-time activity. However, the literature goes further in defining exercise as a form of structured physical activity with the specific objective of improving or maintaining physical fitness or health. The psychological study of emotions, thoughts, and behaviors of physical activity versus exercise also maintains this subtle distinction between structured physical activity and physical activity encompassing all types of movement. It is important to appreciate that, as Gill ( 2009 ) has noted, “Physical activity is the key to positive health and quality of life, and, thus, lifetime physical activity is the base for healthy lives” (p. 691). However, the primary focus of this text is the development of empirical evidence in support of physical activity programs that promote health. A major challenge in developing such knowledge is assessing physical activity as a stimulus for improvements in health. The necessity or desire to efficiently and effectively quantify, prescribe, and promote physical activity to increase the likelihood of a positive health outcome is the rationale for the use of “exercise psychology” in the title of this text. Nonetheless, throughout this text and in parallel with the literature, “physical activity” and “exercise” are often used interchangeably.

The historical development of exercise psychology has been fueled by a broad range of disciplines and interdisciplinary approaches. In 1986, the research journal Journal of Sport Psychology changed its name to the Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology to include this promising area of investigation. Since then a number of new journals addressing exercise psychology have included “exercise” or “physical activity” in their titles, including Psychology of Sport and Exercise, International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, Mental Health and Physical Activity , and International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity . Today inquiries into the behavioral aspects of exercise and physical activity originate from health psychology, rehabilitation psychology, positive psychology, psychobiology, neuroscience, behavioral epidemiology, behavioral medicine, and exercise science. Furthermore, scientific journals from these disciplines and subdisciplines frequently publish articles on research that uses physical activity as an independent variable. The plethora of work parallels the demand for knowledge in this area. Comprehensive historical accounts of the field of exercise psychology have been presented by Rejeski and Thompson ( 1993 ) and Buckworth and Dishman ( 2002 ).

The exercise psychology literature most often examines exercise or physical activity as an independent variable. A clear understanding of the benefits of this stimulus (physical activity or exercise) requires an operational definition. When interpreting the exercise literature one must recognize that the exercise stimulus can be either acute—a single relatively short bout of exercise—or chronic—exercise that is carried out repeatedly over time, usually for a number of weeks. To further describe the physical challenge of an exercise program the duration of the activity, intensity of the activity, the type of activity, and the frequency (per week) must be identified. In 2007 the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) and the American Heart Association (AHA) provided updates to their physical activity guidelines based on the most relevant science that links physical activity to enhanced health and quality of life (Haskell et al., 2007 ). ACSM/AHA guidelines recommend a minimum of 30 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity five days a week. Alternatively, individuals can accumulate 30 minutes over the course of a day with shorter bouts that total 30 minutes. These guidelines are considered minimal recommended amounts. Finally, the exercise stimulus does not have to be aerobic. It can also be anaerobic, which includes resistance exercise (weight training), and it can be a combination of activities. These types of exercise have received little attention in the exercise psychology literature. The parameters of the physical stimulus (exercise) to be studied must be clearly defined so that one is able to compare “apples to apples” or be able to identify differences in the stimulus to compare “apples to oranges.”

Key Methodological and Conceptual Clarifications

While the ACSM/AHA guidelines address the activity requirements for physical health, these guidelines do not address the exercise stimulus necessary for mental health benefits. Furthermore, the mechanisms that explain the physiological adaptations to exercise that impact physical health have received much attention, whereas the psychobiological mechanisms that explain the mental health benefits have only recently been investigated. It is intriguing to consider the exercise stimuli that are necessary to elicit positive mental health outcomes, and which mechanisms explain these adaptations. Interestingly, while the mental health benefits of aerobic exercise have begun to be explored, the psychological responses and mental health benefits of anaerobic exercise, resistance exercise (weight lifting), and combinations of activities have received little attention in the literature. Thus, although aerobic physical activity is associated with significant mental health benefits, the challenge still exists to define a specific exercise prescription for a specific mental health benefit. It may be that the mental health outcomes are not contingent on changes in the physiological parameters that have supported the ACSM/AHA guidelines.

In addition, the exercise psychology literature has understandably struggled in its attempt to measure physical activity as a perception and as an objective physical stimulus. Valid and reliable assessment of physical activity is important in the investigation of the direct relationship between physical activity and mental health; in the study of physical activity patterns, determinants, and barriers in different populations; and in evaluating the effectiveness of physical activity interventions (Pols, Peeters, Kemper, & Grobbee, 1998 ; Washburn, Heath, & Jackson, 2000 ). Furthermore, addressing the dose–response relationship with psychological outcomes necessitates the accurate measurement of physical activity.

The literature has included subjective (self-report questionnaires, diaries) and objective measures (heart rate monitors, pedometers, accelerometers, doubly labeled water), with the inherent advantages and disadvantages of both. More specifically, self-report measures are relatively inexpensive, are easy to administer, and can be used with large samples. Conversely, objective measures, although they are not subject to recall error and are generally unobtrusive, can often fail to assess specific types of activities (water sports, arm exercise, walking or running on an incline) and can be very expensive. In addition, the use of a specific technique may be limited by the ability of the participant to follow instructions. Thus the age and any special needs or characteristics of the participants must be considered. Welk, Blair, Wood, Jones, and Thompson ( 2000 ) have proposed that accelerometers, which measure movement based on acceleration and deceleration of the body, provide the most reliable and valid measure of physical activity for research purposes. However, an objective measure of physical activity does not preclude the importance of assessing individuals’ perceptions of the amount of their physical activity participation. Depending on the research question, the perception of activity may be more critical to the research question or outcome of interest than the actual or objective assessment of physical activity. Tudor-Locke and Meyers ( 2001 ) in their review have suggested that the use of multiple measures will likely increase the accuracy of the assessment. Our understanding of exercise psychology will continue to progress in parallel with the improvements in the tools for assessing physical activity.

An aspect of exercise that must be considered prior to embarking on an examination of its benefits is the potential health risks associated with physical activity participation. While the benefits clearly outweigh the risks (USDHHS, 1996 ), understanding the risks provides insight that can be used to minimize the possibility of an adverse event or response to physical activity. The two most discussed risks are myocardial infarction and musculoskeletal injuries. Individuals with underlying heart disease are at increased risk of a cardiac event during physical activity because of the additional stress it places on the heart and circulatory system. However, this stress also serves as a stimulus for improved cardiovascular function. Ultimately, physical activity reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease by at least half (Kohl, Powell, Gordon, Blair, & Paffenbager, 1992 ). Cardiac patients can experience considerable improvements, but must take appropriate clinical precautions when participating in physical activity (ACSM, 2010 ).

Most physical activity–related injuries can be categorized as overuse injuries. These musculoskeletal injuries are associated with the frequency, intensity, and duration of exercise (Pate & Macera, 1994 ). Thus the risk of these injuries can be minimized by a reduction in the frequency, intensity, or the duration of the activity. The recommendations for health-related physical activity by the ACSM ( 2010 ) are moderate enough to limit the incidence of overuse injuries for most people (Pate et al., 1995 ). At very high levels of activity health problems can include dehydration, hyperthermia and hypothermia from exercise in extreme environmental conditions, amenorrhea, anemia, and suppression of immune function. In general, these conditions, when monitored, can be improved with an appropriate decrease in the level of physical exertion or limitation of physical activity participation.

Several mental health problems related to exercise have received some attention in the literature. Exercise dependence—a combination of high levels of physical activity participation and a strong perceived need to exercise despite all obstacles (Davis, Brewer, & Ratusny, 1993 )—can interfere with social and work activities and lead to or exacerbate injuries. In addition, in habitual exercisers withdrawal from exercise can elicit depressive symptoms, anxiety, and symptoms of emotional distress (Mondin et al., 1996 ). Current understanding of the extent and severity of exercise dependency across the population is very limited. Interestingly, Coen and Ogles ( 1993 ) have found that participants who rated high on exercise dependency had less psychopathology and less body image distortion than individuals with anorexia nervosa. This distinction suggests that although exercise dependency and anorexia share some similar characteristics, the severity of the potential medical and psychological consequences is much greater for anorexic individuals. Finally, Morgan, Brown, Raglin, O'Connor, and Ellickson ( 1987 ) have reported that athletes, as a result of overtraining (when the volume and intensity of exercise exceeds an individual's recovery capacity and performance is compromised), can experience symptoms of chronic fatigue, muscle soreness, insomnia, and disturbed mood. Although substantial evidence supports the detrimental psychological consequences of excessive physical activity, this evidence must be considered in light of the plethora of data demonstrating the beneficial physical and mental health effects of appropriate levels of exercise and the fact that fewer than 15% of U.S. adults, a relatively small portion of the population, regularly participate in vigorous exercise (USDHHS, 1996 ). Thus the challenge of increasing physical activity is pertinent to enhancing physical and mental health and addressing the tremendous cost to society of inactivity.

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OPINION article

Theories to explain exercise motivation and physical inactivity: ways of expanding our current theoretical perspective.

$\nRalf Brand*$

1 Sport and Exercise Psychology, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
2 Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
3 Laboratory for the Study of Emotion Elicitation and Expression (E3Lab), Department of Psychology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland

Physical inactivity and lack of exercise are major societal health problems. Most experts in exercise psychology, if asked how to support people in growing their motivation for physical activity and exercise, would probably recommend shifting the decisional balance by creating a belief that there are more benefits to be had from becoming active than barriers to be overcome, bolstering their appraisals of self-efficacy, and creating social environments that promote perceptions of autonomy, competence, and relatedness (e.g., Biddle and Vergeer, 2019 ). These recommendations are evidence-based (e.g., Teixeira et al., 2012 ; Young et al., 2014 ). Many empirical studies show that people who are sufficiently physically active differ in these variables from those who are less active. There are also longitudinal and intervention studies demonstrating that changing these motivational variables makes behavior change more likely.

On the other hand, there is growing skepticism as to whether epidemic physical inactivity can be effectively addressed through interventions developed on the basis of the few cognitive-behavioral theories (e.g., Conn et al., 2011 ) that have been the mainstays in exercise psychology for decades ( Rhodes et al., 2019 ). For example, in the context of a recent congress symposium organized to debate this issue, two renowned researchers explained their conviction and challenged each other with good arguments: One position—that interventions based on these theories provide promising approaches in some contexts, but have proven to be ineffective by and large ( Weed, 2018 )—contrasted sharply with the other—that results achieved from interventions based on these cognitive-behavioral theories could have been much stronger if only the available evidence had been put into practice more consistently ( Hagger, 2018 ). Other authors have argued that the current situation is forcing a critical reevaluation of cognitive-behavioral theories, since all of them are based on the common assumption that behavioral decisions are driven mainly by the rational evaluation of information (and dramatically neglect the importance of affective and automatic processes; e.g., Ekkekakis, 2017 ).

We share the concerns that have been expressed. In this text, we will outline our view, focusing on one common element of the most widely used cognitive-behavioral theories of motivation. We will argue that this one element obscures alternative approaches that could lead to more physical activity and exercise in everyday life.

The Unfavorable Commonality of Cognitive Theories of Physical Activity and Exercise

A framework for classifying theories of exercise and physical activity behavior suggests organizing them into five classes ( Biddle et al., 2007 ). Belief-attitude theories focus on the cognitive antecedents of behavioral intentions, defined as the effort someone is prepared to invest toward performing a target behavior. Well-known examples are the theory of reasoned action ( Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975 ) and the theory of planned behavior ( Ajzen, 1985 ). Competence-based theories are exemplified primarily by Bandura's construct of self-efficacy, which is defined as an individual's judgment of his or her “capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances” ( Bandura, 1986 , p. 391). Control-based theories refer to the notion that humans have the intrinsic desire or goal to experience oneself as the initiator and regulator of one's actions. The currently highly influential self-determination theory attributes this desire to a basic psychological need for autonomy ( Deci and Ryan, 1985 ). S tage models , e.g., the transtheoretical model ( Prochaska and DiClemente, 1983 ), conceptualize behavioral change as a process that brings one closer to the envisaged goal. Hybrid models , such as the health action process approach ( Schwarzer, 1992 ), combine the stage concept with motivational variables, to predict intention, with the addition of post-decisional variables (e.g., implementation intention; Gollwitzer, 1999 ).

All these models have one core attribute in common, stemming from origins of cognitive theorizing in psychology: They all emphasize the importance of imagined end states (behaviors or goals) and the energization of action resulting from them to such an extent that the experience of situated factors (e.g., momentary affect linked to the situation; Ekkekakis, 2017 ) is overlooked.

This notion that a better understanding of ongoing behavior requires both situated factors and the cognitive projections that direct behavior was proposed by Lewin (1951) . He conceptualized every specific state of behavior as either the result of equal but opposite forces, which hold the person in his or her current state, or under the influence of relatively stronger driving forces, which direct the person away from the current state.

This theoretical idea had limited impact on research on motivation however. Probably because the cognitive revolution in psychology, which began soon after Lewin's early death (in 1947) fascinated so many psychologists. With the advent of the contention that people are able to engage in forethought, the separate conceptualization of momentary restraining forces was lost.

Two recent theories in exercise psychology tie in with considerations about situated restraining forces, albeit in different ways. We will briefly describe the relevant aspects of these theories and outline ideas on how future research could yield alternative intervention approaches for public health.

Affective-Reflective Theory of Physical Inactivity and Exercise

Affective-Reflective Theory (ART) of physical inactivity and exercise ( Brand and Ekkekakis, 2018 ) is a dual-process theory, which assumes that stimuli (e.g., a friend's reminder that you intended to go for a run, or remembering that you had planned to go for a run) trigger automatic associations and a resulting automatic affective valuation of exercise (type-1 process). An automatic affective valuation is the unattended assignment of positive (association with pleasure) or negative (association with displeasure) value to a stimulus, either as the result of repeated exercise-related emotional experiences mediated by cognitive appraisals (e.g., pride, embarrassment) or as a result of repeated experiences of core affective reactions to stimuli (e.g., sense of physical reinvigoration, bodily discomfort). The automatic affective valuation serves as the basis for a controlled, reflective evaluation (type-2 process), which can follow if self-control resources are available. The reflective evaluation draws on propositions about exercise and physical inactivity, derived from previous experience and mental simulation (e.g., anticipation of the affective consequence of actions). Higher-level cognitive operations, such as deliberative reasoning about one's needs and values ( Deci and Ryan, 1985 ) may also contribute to this process. The automatic affective valuation is connected to an action impulse (approach or avoidance), whereas the controlled response can result in action plans.

The ART aims to explain and predict behavior in situations in which people either remain in a state of physical inactivity or initiate action. It assumes that experience, feelings, and thoughts connected with exercise influence whether someone would be willing to undergo physical strain similar to that previously experienced during exercise. Related to the topic of this opinion article, the ART posits that, in the face of an exercise-related stimulus, one's negative affective valuation of exercise will act as a restraining force that may counteract any positive cognitive motivational drives toward action (or, on the other hand, if the affective valuation is positive, it will present a driving force and thus make it more likely that the person will change his or her current state of physical inactivity).

Theory of Energetic Cost Minimization

The theory of energetic cost minimization (TECM; Cheval et al., 2018a , b ) assumes that biomechanically efficient behaviors have a rewarding value. It refers to evidence on the multiple neuro-behavioral adaptations that have contributed to the minimization of metabolic costs in the course of human action and during movement ( Srinivasan and Ruina, 2006 ). For example, individuals automatically adapt their step frequency in real time to optimize energy costs ( Selinger et al., 2015 ) and learn to minimize the physical effort required to obtain specific rewards ( Skvortsova et al., 2014 ). This automatic behavioral tendency of effort optimization is theorized to be a neurobiologically anchored process.

The TECM assumes that situational factors (such as one's internal physiological state or external physical environment) may either incentivize the behavioral opportunities to minimize or lead the individual to effectively temper the tendency to reduce energetic cost ( Cheval et al., 2019 ). The availability of cognitive resources can weaken the automatic tendency toward effort optimization ( Cheval et al., 2018c , 2019 ). In sum, the theory conceptualizes the evolutionary inclination to avoid unnecessary physical exertion as a restraining force that may hinder the ability of individuals to effectively implement their conscious intention to be physically active.

Major Similarities and Differences Between the Two Theories

The ART is a psychological theory that relates what we know about people's acute affective responses to exercise ( Ekkekakis et al., 2013 ) and how such experiences can influence the odds of future exercise ( Rhodes et al., 2009 ; Rhodes and Kates, 2015 ). Simply put, many people (especially untrained individuals and e.g., overweight people) experience negative affect during exercise and this may have a significant negative effect on further exercise engagement. Habitual physical inactivity and exercise avoidance are explained by the ART as learned reactions; they originate from an automatic negative affective valuation of exercise, constituting an important restraining force. Interventions should, therefore, focus on minimizing unpleasant experiences while exercising, and/or should facilitate consistently pleasant experiences during exercise, so that positive automatic affective valuations of exercise can develop.

The TECM has its roots in evolutionary behavioral biology and posits an ever-present tendency (a restraining force) in human behavior toward efficiency in anticipation of potentially exhausting physical activity as well as during physical performance. In the light of this theory, with regard to possible intervention approaches, people should be aware that this tendency exists. Most generally, executive cognitive functioning, e.g., the capacity for self-control should be strengthened. In addition, psychological training ( Sheeran et al., 2013 ) through (for example) evaluative conditioning, attentional bias modification, or approach-avoidance training could be useful, in order to change individuals' automatic reactions to physical activity-related stimuli and reduce the restraining force.

In our opinion, the fact that most research in exercise psychology pertaining to how people can be motivated to be more physically active is considered through the prism of a few paradigmatically similar cognitivist theories, is problematic. By focusing on the action energizing properties of expectations and goals, the importance of situated processes that can hold the individual back in that particular moment, has been overlooked. However, in our view, such processes represent crucial components of theoretical explanations of both physical activity (and exercise) and physical inactivity. The two highlighted theoretical approaches, the ART and the TECM, are examples that illustrate directions toward which the field of exercise psychology can evolve.

Hands-on Recommendations for Real-Life Interventions

Since both theories are relatively new, high-quality studies that would provide direct evidence for the effectiveness of derived intervention methods do not yet exist. Nevertheless, we take the liberty of providing a few suggestions for practice, because these will certainly not have a negative effect on the effectiveness of standard intervention methods ( Howlett et al., 2019 ).

With regard to the ART, we like to emphasize that behavioral interventions (i.e., those that are not only conversation-based) should be delivered by well-trained instructors with expertise in tailored exercise load control. Convincing exercise novices with the help of supportive verbal communication may be a field for psychologists. Facilitating experiences through exercise is profession of exercise specialists however.

With regard to the TECM, it is assumed that the behavioral tendency to minimize can be most effectively counteracted by strengthening the individual's cognitive resources and self-control capacity. Feeling relaxed, energetic and focused should help to more effectively implement plans and intentions. Creating conditions that maximize pleasure during physical activity and exercise may play an additional role in counteracting the tendency to reduce energetic cost.

Generally speaking, we also believe that public policy should endorse open, safe and well-maintained infrastructure to promote access to places for walking, cycling and other physical activities, and the architecture of buildings should encourage physical activity throughout the day (e.g., access to stairs, active work-stations). A multi-faceted approach is warranted to effectively address the pandemic of physical inactivity in everyday life.

Author Contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

BC is supported by an Ambizione grant (PZ00P1_180040) from the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF).

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Keywords: exercise, motivation, affect, automaticity, physical inactivity

Citation: Brand R and Cheval B (2019) Theories to Explain Exercise Motivation and Physical Inactivity: Ways of Expanding Our Current Theoretical Perspective. Front. Psychol. 10:1147. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01147

Received: 14 March 2019; Accepted: 01 May 2019; Published: 21 May 2019.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2019 Brand and Cheval. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Ralf Brand, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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The Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology ( JSEP ) is a peer-reviewed publication designed to stimulate and communicate research theory in all areas of sport and exercise psychology. JSEP emphasizes original research reports that advance our understanding of human behavior as it relates to sport and exercise. Comprehensive reviews employing both qualitative and quantitative methods are also encouraged, as well as brief reports of soundly designed research studies that are of special interest or importance. Areas of interest include research in social, clinical, developmental, and experimental psychology, as well as psychobiology and personality. Moreover, the terms sport and exercise may pertain to either the independent or dependent variables. Generally speaking, work on motor control processes, studies of sport as a social institution, or broader social issues are beyond the scope of JSEP . A wide variety of methods are acceptable for studying sport and exercise psychology topics.

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College of Health Sciences Faculty Books

Applied exercise psychology: The challenging journey from motivation to adherence

Selen Razon , West Chester University of Pennsylvania Follow Michael L. Sachs , Temple University

Description

Applied Exercise Psychology emphasizes the application of evidence-based knowledge drawn from the fields of exercise psychology, health psychology, clinical and counseling psychology, and exercise physiology for physical activity behavior change. The collection builds a bridge between up-to-date research findings, relevant field experiences, and applied implications. This is the first book to cover such breadth of topics in applied exercise psychology, with chapters bringing often overlooked issues to the attention of practitioners to promote not only evidence-based practice but also responsible ethics and referral.

9780415702720

Publication Date

Abingdon, UK

Disciplines

Psychology of Movement

Recommended Citation

Razon, Selen and Sachs, Michael L., "Applied exercise psychology: The challenging journey from motivation to adherence" (2017). College of Health Sciences Faculty Books . 10. https://digitalcommons.wcupa.edu/chsfaculty_books/10

Since September 09, 2019

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Cover Story

Exercising judgement: the psychology of fitness.

It’s only been a few weeks since you made that New Year’s resolution to exercise more, but already you’re finding reasons to skip days — maybe even weeks. You know all the benefits of a healthy lifestyle: In addition to the weight loss, which would obviously be nice, exercise has been linked to reduced depressive symptoms and reduced risk for heart disease. Yet the temptation of sitting on the couch and watching TV instead of going for a short jog is just too great.

You’re not alone. According to the surgeon general, more than 60 percent of American adults do not exercise regularly and 25 percent aren’t active at all. The Center for Disease Control says that 34 percent of Americans are overweight and more than 72 million people were obese from 2005 to 2006. Inertia has become a national emergency.

For decades, psychologists around the world have studied why people exercise — and why they don’t. Some of the factors they’ve studied you probably see every day and don’t even think about — like televisions, iPods, or personal trainers. Others are a little more subtle (you might even be getting more exercise than you think). But either way, there’s a growing body or work dedicated to help you get up off the couch.

The Best Intentions Preferring to be sedentary is not necessarily an innate human trait. In fact, most children are actually quite active, and people generally stay active all the way through high school. But many of them stop being active when they reach college. McMaster University (Ontario, Canada) psychologist Steven Bray noticed this trend and decided to look at what was stopping students from continuing physical activity during the transition to college. He tracked 127 students and found that most students in their first year of college do, in fact, participate in significantly less exercise than they did the year before. Bray found that about a third of college students were active in high school and continued to stay active throughout their first year of college. Another third was active in high school but was no longer active after going to college. And the final third is made up of people who were inactive in high school, the majority of which stay inactive.

“A lot of times it has to do with being too busy with school-related things, but it also comes down to changing social patterns,” Bray says. “They get to be friends with people who are less active than they used to be. … And so there may be a culture of inactivity that starts to take place at first-year university.”

But why do some freshmen manage to stay fit while others quickly put on the “freshman 15”? Bray found that students’ sense of power in life — self-efficacy, in psychological jargon — is closely related to their level of physical activity. Their inability to cope with the environmental and social changes they face at college was a big reason why many stopped exercising. Many students, for example, are athletes in high school but are not talented enough to play on college sports teams. Not only do they lose out on the vigorous exercise of playing sports, but they often lose their motivation to train, Bray says, which is why he argues that universities can help their students adapt by providing more intramural and club sport opportunities. For many, this change to a sedentary lifestyle then becomes something that persists through the rest of college and even into adulthood.

“Personally, I believe that if we can teach people to adapt, that’s going to be more successful and probably more efficient than having them adopt” new healthy habits later in life, he says.

And it’s not just college. This rule applies to many of life’s transitions — moving into the workforce, switching jobs or moving, getting married, having kids. In each of these moments, there is a chance for people to give up on exercise, possibly for good.

“What it comes down to at each of those points is if we have the skills to be flexible and keep believing that these things are good for us. … I can keep it a priority and make it something I schedule the rest of my life around,” Bray says. “Unfortunately, [exercise] is one of the first things that goes when we get busy with other things.”

Reasons for stopping exercise might not be the same across all age groups. Rachel Newson, a psychologist at Flinders University in Australia, looked at this question of what motivates and prevents exercise in adults 63 and over. Barriers to exercise in Newson’s study included “adverse weather conditions” and “not knowing what you’re physically capable of.” But the most common reason her participants didn’t exercise was because of physical ailments and painful joints.

On the other hand, motivators for Newson’s participants ranged from “I want to get out of the house” to “I want to be physically fit” to “I like to be competitive,” and the most common responses were ones related to health and physical fitness, suggesting “that older adults are clearly aware of the potential health benefits of exercise,” Newson writes.

Even adults who are fully healthy, have adapted to their environment, and live in a climate ideal for exercising find plenty of reasons to sit on the couch instead. Clearly, other factors are at play. For one thing, it helps to have the right kind of intentions. Jochen Ziegelmann, a psychologist at Berlin’s Freie Universitat, has done work looking at goal-setting as it relates to exercise. He and a number of other psychologists who have done similar studies have found that participants who made implementation intentions (“I will walk to my friend’s house and back every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday”) were more likely to continue exercising after two weeks than were people who set goal-intentions (“I will exercise in my free time”).

Controlling Interests Once you have set your goals for implementing your exercise, it is easier to keep a certain exercise part of your routine. Then, you must be able to motivate yourself even on the days when you’re feeling tired or bored or distracted. That’s called self-control. APS Fellow Roy Baumeister, a psychologist at Florida State University, has spent his career looking at self-control and decision making, and he has found that self-control is not an unlimited resource — the more you use your self-control, the more difficult it becomes to control your actions. So if you spend all day trying to avoid the Snickers in the vending machine or trying not to say anything mean to your devilish child, you might not have the same stamina you normally would when you get home for an evening run. “Stamina counts as a measure of self-control,” Baumeister writes, “because it involves resisting fatigue and overriding the urge to quit.”

Baumeister’s team has done numerous experiments to test this theory, but many of them are similar. They have one set of participants complete an activity that depletes their self-control — such as watching a funny movie while trying not to laugh or resisting cookies and eating radishes instead — while another group does a similar activity that has no self-control component (they get to eat the cookies and laugh). Then, Baumeister tests the self-control of both groups with a second task, such as the mentally challenging Stroop test, a common tester of self-control, or by seeing how long participants can hold onto a handgrip, which focuses on physical stamina.

Baumeister relates the idea of self-control to a muscle that becomes more exhausted the more you use it, and his studies “all pointed toward the conclusion that the first self-control task consumed and depleted some kind of psychological resource that was therefore less available to help performance on the second self-control task.”

A recent study by University of Kentucky psychologists Suzanne Segerstrom and Lise Solberg Nes supports this idea that controlling your emotions is hard work. They had participants either eat from a plate of cookies and chocolates while avoiding a plate of carrots or eat from the plate of carrots while avoiding the sweets. The heart rate variability of the participants who had to use their self control and avoid the tempting sweets (they even made the cookies warm and freshly baked) was higher than it was in those who didn’t have to avoid that temptation. Then, all the participants were asked to work on difficult, or even impossible, anagrams. The participants who had used up their self-control by avoiding the cookies and chocolates were less determined to finish the impossible anagrams.

“People are aware that they are sometimes vulnerable to saying the wrong thing, eating the wrong thing, or doing the wrong thing, but they may be unaware of their own self-regulatory capacity at any given time,” Segerstrom and Solberg Nes write.

Baumeister says he doesn’t know how far the muscle analogy goes for self-control. He says his team hasn’t pushed anyone to the state of self-control exhaustion in the laboratory. But it appears that people begin to conserve their self-control as they approach exhaustion in the same way they would if they were getting physically tired. Plus, people seem to be able to exert self-control despite depletion if the stakes are high enough (like great athletes are able to do so even when they’re exhausted). There is even research suggesting that glucose depletion is related to depletion of self-control, much like a muscle. And, also similar to a muscle, research has shown that focusing on a task that requires self-control — exercising or managing your money, for example — improves other self-control-related tasks, such as cutting down on smoking and drinking or helping out with household chores.

“These peripheral improvements suggest that you’re strengthening a core muscle rather than just working on the behavior,” Baumeister says.

Recently, they have done work to test whether, like a muscle, you can exercise your self-control to make it stronger. They gave students a variety of self-control tasks to do every day — sit up and stand up straight whenever you think of it; do all minor activities, such as brushing your teeth, lifting a cup to your mouth, and using a computer mouse with your non-dominant hand; don’t swear — and then they tested the students’ progress on self-control tasks. Their results have been mixed so far. Many participants have been able to improve their self-control, but some have not. Baumeister says the results are promising, but it still needs more study. “This has not only theoretical interest, but also practical,” Baumeister says. “If we can actually make people stronger, then that would be a good, useful finding.” And it might help you work up the strength to get off the couch.

Just Do What? Once you’re off the couch, you have to figure out how to exercise to best meet your goals. That’s what Thomas Plante has been working on for more than 20 years. Plante, a psychology professor at Santa Clara University, has looked at the psychological benefits of exercise in men and women. He focuses on keeping the exercise constant — 20 minutes at about 70 percent of the participants’ maximum heart rate — and then he measures people’s mood.

He has found that environment changes the type of psychological benefits one gets. Exercising indoors and alone is calming for many exercisers. However, if the goal of exercising is to feel energized, then participants are better off exercising outdoors and with friends.

“We think that’s because you’re enjoying it,” Plante says. “You’re experiencing more, you’re enjoying the experience, and you’re chatting and so forth during the exercise.”

Many people look to personal trainers, not just to make exercise more fun but also to help them stay motivated. But this valuable exercise tool can also have unintended consequences. Christopher Shields, a psychology professor at Acadia University in Canada, looked at people in group exercise classes and found that those with high proxy-efficacy (i.e. those who relied heavily on someone else to help them exercise) have low self-confidence when it comes to exercising on their own. This is an old psychological principle that goes back to Albert Bandura’s self-efficacy theory, but it has real-life implications. It is insignificant if the people using the trainers have the ability to continue exercising with a trainer indefinitely. But if that is not possible, relying on a trainer can cause regular exercisers to lapse into a routine of indolence when the help disappears.

“Professionals working in the health and exercise field must recognize the potential dilemma that may arise when individuals use them as proxy-agents,” Shields writes. He implores trainers to “actively collaborate with participants to encourage planned development for independence” while still under the trainer’s supervision. If people who use trainers practice not just the exercises that they need to do but also the planning of the exercises, then, Shields says, they will be more prepared to continue their exercise routine after the trainer is no longer available.

Other tips are ones that you might already have as part of your exercising routine. Plante has done some preliminary work looking at the difference between exercising with a friend and exercising with an iPod. He has found that there is little difference between the enjoyment of the two forms of exercise. What matters is that you feel close with your friend and that you are listening to peppy music. Plante has also done work with virtual reality, and his work has shown that people who wear a virtual reality headset while running or biking enjoy their experience more than people who do the same exercise while staring at a wall in a gym. Televisions provide a similar boost in enjoyment.

“We’re always looking for ways that are going to get people to exercise regularly and what can make it more appealing to do,” Plante says. “And this is some evidence to suggest that this can help people feel more engaged more rewarded by their exercise and so forth. And that’s probably a good thing.”

Something to Think About Though it’s true that we are always looking for more ways to get people to exercise, Harvard professor and APS Fellow and Charter Member Ellen Langer says it’s possible that some people are already getting more exercise than they realize. The surgeon general recommends at least 30 minutes a day of moderate exercise or 20 minutes of vigorous exercise three times a week. But those numbers are based on white-collar workers. Construction workers, for example, spend most of their day lifting and pushing and pulling. Trash collectors are often running from the truck to the sidewalk. And hotel cleaning attendants are running around rooms quickly and vigorously scrubbing bathrooms.

It’s this last group that Langer and her student, Alia J. Crum, looked at in a 2007 study. Langer and Crum went to a variety of hotels to recruit volunteers from the cleaning staffs. They told one group that the work they were doing was already enough exercise to meet the surgeon general’s daily requirements. Changing linen for 15 minutes burns approximately 40 calories, they told the attendants. And vacuuming for 15 minutes burns about 50 calories. The other group was not given this knowledge. When they returned to the hotels four weeks later, Langer and Crum found that the informed group showed a decrease in weight, blood pressure, body fat, waist-to-hip ratio, and body mass index.

It is possible that the people who were told about the health benefits of their work made other changes to their behavior such as dieting or increased workload at the hotels. But all the room attendants were asked to report on these activities, and they did not report any changes. They simply became healthier just by being mindful of what they were doing.

“People are mindless with respect to most other exertion,” Langer says. “People see themselves when they’re eating. They don’t pay attention to the amount of calories burned standing there and stirring. … I think this study reveals that we potentially have far more control over our psychological and physical functioning than most of us realize.”

Langer has an anecdote that she tells when talking about this subject. She walks into a gym and sees a sign that says “Stairmaster on third floor.” Many people, Langer hypothesizes, would consider their 20-minute Stairmaster workout — and not their three-flight walk up to it — their only exercise of the day.

So is it possible that most of us are actually getting more exercise than we think? Think about a typical day where you walk to the bus stop, walk to lunch, walk to the copying machine, walk through the supermarket on your way home, and walk around the kitchen while cooking dinner and setting the table. Even a Saturday of sitting around on your couch and watching college football probably involves a walk down to the store for some soda and chips and maybe a game of catch at halftime. Think about that the next time you’re talking about sitting on your couch all day.

Good article. I am a “wellness” coach/trainer at a Y in metro Atlanta, and we deliver a program dealing just as much on the psychological side of exercising and dieting, as it is with the exercising and diet. One thing that becomes a reality as we determine any physical activity in any way is “good for you”, is that to drop pounds, you still have to burn more calories than what you take in, on average. So, if you have a weight loss goal using the mentality set in the last paragraphs of this article, a person more than likely will not meet these goals, or meet the goals and then fall back into bad lifestyle routines. Also, through our program and study, I’ve personally found many if not a majority of people have an underlying issue as to why they don’t “feel like” exercising or being active. Work life, child responsibilities, death in the family, a break up, and even deeper psychological issues. These people probably need therapy as well as a good exercise routine/class/trainer (which I do not believe is a part of our “study”)… If your interested in our finds, research Dr. Jim Annesi and his work with the YMCA’s. Thanks for a great article as I try to better help our people here.

Very good article. I Would like to get more information on Guilt Trap and how to avoid it. Mainly related to eating calorie rich food and it’s effect on workouts.

Thanks Rahul

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Chapter 14: Mindfulness in Physical Activity

Chapter Overview

Why be Mindful While Moving?

What is Mindful Movement?

Experiences During Mindful Movement

Affective and Emotional Experiences

Embodied Experiences

Body Connection and Comfort

Inhabiting the Body as a Subjective Site

Outcomes of Mindful Movement

Trait Mindfulness

Mental Health

Healthy Behaviors

Is Mindful Movement Motivating?

Key Details of Self-Determination Theory Explained

Theoretical Explanation for the Role of Mindfulness

Moving Beyond Theory: What Does the Research Show?

Other Important Motivational Factors: How Pleasant is Moving?

Moving from Motivation to Behavior: Mindfulness and Physical Activity Behavior

Mindfulness as an Intervention to Increase Physical Activity

Learning Exercises

Mindfulness in Physical Activity

Mindfulness refers to being fully present in the moment; attending to the sights, sounds, thoughts, and physical sensations as they come and go.
Research findings show the potential for mindfulness to support more pleasurable exercise experiences and exhibit more positive embodiment.
Mindfulness also fits well with current theories of exercise motivation and is linked with key motivation variables such as need satisfaction and autonomous forms of motivation.
Mindfulness-based interventions even suggest that helping individuals develop mindfulness skills may be an effective strategy for increasing physical activity behavior.
Current definitions of mindfulness tend to include two key parts:
The first part relates to awareness of and attention to present-moment experience, rather than thinking about the past or the future (Bishop et al., 2004; Brown & Ryan, 2003).
The second part of the definition relates to attitude or the characteristics of present-oriented attention. It is not enough to simply be present. One must also be open, accepting, nonjudgmental and even curious about the things that are passing in and out of awareness
Higher levels of trait mindfulness predict higher state mindfulness, but they have also demonstrated independent effects when predicting certain outcome variables (Brown & Ryan, 2003).
During mindful movement, participants intentionally bring their attention to the experience of moving their body with an attitude of acceptance and nonjudgment that is characteristic of mindfulness more generally (Asztalos et al., 2012).
This might include their breath, physical sensations, thoughts, and emotions. Moving mindfully requires deliberate, conscious attention be brought to the experience of moving.
More recently, researchers have dived more deeply into the psychological processes that occur when individuals are moving mindfully.
When moving mindfully, individuals not only direct their attention to their present-moment experience but are also open and accepting of whatever emerges in that experience.
Alternatively, when individuals engage in physical activity and are not being mindful, they might be thinking about the past or the future, judging some aspect of their experience (e.g., pain, ability, performance), thinking about what they look like while exercising, contemplating their exercise goals, or listening to music.
Researchers are interested in how being fully present in one’s body while engaging in physical activity impacts one’s experiences while moving.
Two areas that have received recent attention are the degree of pleasure experienced and how one experiences or inhabits their body while moving.
In several studies, researchers have observed a relationship between mindful states and affective responses during physical activity.
In a study testing the effects of mindful walking, participants’ state mindfulness and positive and negative emotions were assessed multiple times a day using experience sampling methodology (Gotink et al., 2016). Results showed that state mindfulness and emotions experienced during mindful walking prospectively enhanced each other in an upward spiral.
That is, state mindfulness in one moment positively predicted positive emotions in the next moment sampled. Similarly, positive emotions positively predicted state mindfulness in the next moment sampled.
Overall, being attentive to the experience of moving in a nonjudgmental and accepting way appears to support positive affective and emotional experiences.
Mindfulness also plays a key role in how we experience living in our bodies, referred to as embodiment (Piran & Teall, 2012).
Piran (2016) further discusses how experiences of embodiment can be positive or negative along five different dimensions including: body connection and comfort, agency and functionality, attuned self-care, experience and expression of bodily desire, and inhabiting the body as a subjective site.
Piran discusses in her developmental theory of embodiment (DTE) how multiple factors contribute to negative embodiment, such as the way many cultures emphasize the importance of women’s physical attractiveness and evaluate them based on often unrealistic societal standards. This objectification of women’s bodies can cause them to dissociate from their physical experiences.
On the other hand, she outlines the factors that support positive embodiment, which include immersing oneself in joyful physical activities. Unsurprisingly, engaging in mindful forms of movement is associated with positive experiences of embodiment.
Qualitative investigations of individuals who participate in various forms of mindful movement highlight how the movement helps them feel more connected to their body or greater integration between mind and body.
Women ages 22 to 72 years who practice yoga regularly reported an increased awareness and connection with their body due to practicing yoga. This connection helped them feel more grounded or present in their bodies and they were better able to listen and respond to their bodies’ needs (Dittman and Freedman, 2009).
Moving in a mindful way, whether it be through yoga, dance, or sport, provides numerous opportunities to become both aware of sensations in the body that may be reflective of physiological and emotional states and accepting of what one finds, thus contributing to body connection and comfort.
Inhabiting one’s body subjectively means experiencing and interacting with the world from a first-person, internal perspective (Piran, 2016). It also refers to resisting the pressure to view one’s body from a third-person perspective, as an object to be judged for its external appearance.
Body surveillance is something people do all the time, some more than others. It refers to thinking about what you look like from a third-person perspective, and it undermines inhabiting your body subjectively (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997).
Mindful forms of movement may contribute to resisting this objectifying, third-person perspective by continually drawing attention to internal experiences of physical sensations, thoughts, and emotions.
Mindful forms of movement or physical activity have also been linked to a number of mental and physical health benefits as well as other healthy behaviors.
We know that mindful movement, like physical activity more generally, is associated with a wide range of physical health outcomes.
In line with an exercise psychology perspective, here we will discuss some of the psychological and behavioral outcomes associated with mindful movement.
At a very basic level, participating in mindful movement can be an effective strategy for increasing overall levels of trait mindfulness.
Any activity in which an individual is being mindful is enhancing one’s ability to be mindful in general.
Similarly, engaging in various forms of mindful movement over time has been associated with increases in trait mindfulness.
Mindful movement has been shown to be more effective than seated mindfulness practices for supporting the development of trait mindfulness (Carmody & Baer, 2008). Thus, mindful movement may not only provide a more accessible and attractive entry point for engaging in mindfulness practices but may even be more effective than seated practices for developing trait mindfulness.
The cultivation of mindfulness while moving may lead to better mental health benefits than either seated forms of mindfulness or physical activity that is not mindful.
The positive link between physical activity and mental health indicators is well-established, however, combined with acceptance and detachment from one’s thoughts, emotions, and other experiences, mindful physical activity may enhance the positive mental health benefits of physical activity alone.
In one study hoping to disentangle the various elements of MBSR, college students were randomly assigned to one of five conditions: a) mindfulness and meditation alone, b) yoga alone, c) yoga with mindfulness and meditation training, d) study break with snacks and therapy dog, or e) no treatment control for four weeks (Huntet al., 2018). At the end of the intervention, only the yoga alone and yoga plus mindfulness/meditation groups had significantly lower anxiety and negative affect compared to the no treatment control group.
The results of this study provide some initial evidence that there may be a synergistic effect when movement is combined with mindfulness.
Other potential beneficial outcomes of engaging in mindful movement include health behaviors.
Individuals who participate in yoga on a regular basis report that it has promoted healthy habits in the areas of eating, physical activity, sleep, and engaging in relaxation (e.g., Watts et al., 2018). Furthermore, yoga motivated them to be more active outside of yoga and provided them with the skills to try other forms of physical activity.
The relationship between mindful movement and healthy behaviors may be due to increases in attunement with the self that occur when being mindful.
Through increased awareness of what the mind and body feel like, individuals can better discern how best to respond to and take care of one’s self. This attuned self-care is also one of Piran’s (2016) five dimensions of embodiment.
As research is catching up with the practice, we are seeing more and more evidence to support how mindful movement can play a role in motivational processes.
As a research topic, mindfulness and motivation is in its infancy. However, there is at least one theoretical model that incorporated mindfulness within a broader description of motivation and well-being more than forty years ago.
Self-determination theory (SDT; Ryan & Deci, 2017) is one of the most widely used theoretical frameworks on motivation and well-being across many disciplines and domains.
SDT is referred to as a macro-theory, which means that it is a framework that is intended to be applied across all people and domains to holistically describe, explain, and make predictions about human well-being.
Motivation is described as multi-dimensional, reflecting the different ways we regulate our behavior. There are different types of motivation that represent different reasons why people engage in a particular behavior.
Amotivation reflects lacking a reason for doing an activity and represents an absence of autonomy. Theoretically, individuals who are amotivated may be acting rather mindlessly given the unintentional nature of their behavior.
Intrinsic motivation represents the highest degree of autonomy. Intrinsic motivation represents engaging in a behavior, such as exercise, for the rewards gained solely from the act of exercising.
In the middle of the continuum, there are four types of motivation regulations that represent engaging in a behavior for reasons that emanate from external sources to the activity.
The most autonomous of the extrinsic regulations is integrated regulation, which represents an integration of the activity as congruent with one’s sense of self or identity; “I exercise because I identify as a healthy and active person”.
Next is identified regulation, which is still autonomous because it represents engaging in a behavior because it is of personal value and importance; “I value the benefits of exercise”.
A somewhat more external and more controlling regulation is introjected regulation, which reflects internalized rewards, pressure, or guilt; “I exercise because I feel bad about myself if I don’t”.
Finally, the most controlling form of motivation, external regulation, represents external rewards or punishments; “I exercise because my physician tells me I have to”.
While there are important inter-personal influences such as the exercise instructor and environment on these motivational processes, there are also intra-personal factors involved.
Mindlessness represents a mode of operating in reactive, compulsive, and/or habitual patterns. These patterns of behavior demonstrate a submission to negative psychological and emotional states and may interrupt acting from one’s core values and needs.
Mindful awareness may defend against defensive or ego-involved states, which are more aligned with controlling forms of motivation that are regulated by short-term internal or external rewards and punishments (Ryan & Deci, 2017).
Mindfulness creates a pause, a space within which to be more deliberate. The result of this psychological space is that behavioral choices can be made with more clarity and over time can facilitate the internalization process and lead to autonomous motivation and long-term behavior
A daily diary study by Brown & Ryan (2003) showed that those with higher trait mindfulness tend to have more experiences of state mindfulness during daily life and that these individuals report positive affect and more autonomous regulation for their activities
A key finding of this study was that the state of mindfulness had a stronger effect on affect and autonomous motivation and were independent of trait mindfulness.
Trait mindfulness has been positively associated with autonomous motivation for physical activity and negatively associated with controlling forms of motivation for physical activity (Kang et al., 2017; Ruffault et al., 2016).
Greater awareness of one’s feelings and sensations during movement may increase one’s ability to meet their needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness, thus facilitating the internalization process toward autonomous regulation.
Mindfulness allows attention without judgment that can serve to connect one to their physical experience, which should raise perceptions of competence and foster their sense of autonomy.
The extent to which exercise has pleasant feelings associated with it, the greater the likelihood of choosing to exercise again in the future and making that choice for intrinsic reasons. In order to develop useful exercise interventions, a growing trend is to focus on how to make exercise experiences more pleasant.
Dissociative strategies, such as listening to music during exercise have been touted as a way to make exercise more pleasant.
Although dissociation may serve a purpose of reducing awareness of discomfort and is motivating for many people, this can lead to a dissociation with the bodily experience of moving. While a distracted experience tends to be enjoyable, it should be more difficult to develop a strong sense of competence when one isn’t fully experiencing the movement and activity itself.
There is evidence to suggest that intentionally manipulating mindfulness while exercising can lead to similarly pleasant exercise experiences as listening to music while exercising (Cox, Ullrich-French, Hargreaves, & McMahon, 2020).
Those who self-report more physical activity also report higher levels of trait mindfulness (Gilbert & Waltz, 2010; Kangasniemi et al., 2014) and are more likely to engage in mindfulness practices (Strowger et al., 2018).
Although there is a consistent positive association between mindfulness and self-reported physical activity, this is not the case when physical activity is assessed more objectively (Kang et al., 2017; Kangasniemi et al., 2015).
When mindfulness is context specific, or applied specifically to physical activity, it is more strongly and consistently associated with physical activity compared to trait mindfulness.
It is difficult to predict and understand all the factors that influence behavioral choices, but we do know that mindfulness is related to many of those factors including more autonomous motivation, positive affect, and other physical activity related perceptions (e.g., psychological needs).

Mindfulness as an intervention to Increase Physical Activity

Mindfulness interventions often include acceptance and mindfulness-based stress reduction approaches that teach and then facilitate the practice of mindfulness strategies.
Acceptance, compassion, and mindfulness approaches share the promotion of awareness and nonjudgement toward the self. Such approaches have led to increases in physical activity (e.g., Butryn et al., 2011; Palmeira et al., 2017).
In a randomized controlled trial with healthy adults that used physical activity as a comparison group, similar amounts of physical activity were found for the MBSR and aerobic exercise conditions (Meyer et al., 2018). This study concludes that the real benefit may be in combining MBSR with physical activity.
Engaging in mindful movement is linked to better mental health, health behaviors, and the development of trait mindfulness.
Those who are generally more mindful or experience more mindful states during physical activity report greater autonomous physical activity motivation
Engaging in all types of movement provides a sensory activity with clear targets of focus as well as opportunities to resist self-judgment and thus may be an ideal forum for teaching mindfulness skills (Segal et al., 2002) or maintaining mindfulness skills previously taught (Gotink et al., 2016).
Check your recall and write down the two key parts of the definition of mindfulness. Next, let’s put mindfulness into action during a walking exercise. You can walk inside your home or outside, for a long time or just a few moments. While you are walking, see if you can apply mindful attention to all of the sensations of walking. This could include the movement of your arms, the contact between your feet and the ground and how it changes throughout each step, or muscular contraction in your legs, etc. Allow each sensation to arise in your awareness and then allow it to fade away. If it is really challenging to stay present with the sensations of walking, select just one focus of attention (e.g., your feet) and keep coming back to this target when you become distracted. How did this experience feel? What was difficult about it? What did you learn about yourself?
Recall a time when you were engaging in physical activity in a purely joyful, playful, and just plain fun way. Some of you might have to think way back to when you were a kid at the playground. Close your eyes. Try to recall everything you remember about that experience. What did you see, hear, smell, taste and feel? How did the experience make you feel? Write down everything you can remember. What aspects of mindfulness were a part of that experience? How can you recreate those experiences now?
Recall a time when you felt quite self-conscious engaging in physical activity. Maybe you were looking in the mirror frequently or thinking about the other people around you observing you. What did that experience feel like? What thoughts were going through your head? What do you notice about the way it feels to exercise or move when you are thinking about your outward appearance or others judging you? Finally, how could you bring your attention inward to the experience and sensations of moving your body?
You are in a high-intensity exercise class that is pushing you to your limit. You have choices. If you value and are motivated to push yourself then your response might be “bring it on”. If you value overall wellness, and want to survive to return to another class, your response might be “how can I modify this so I can complete the class?”. What are the ways that you might respond in this moment (i.e., emotionally and behaviorally)? Think about what is driving that response. Does the response align with your motivation, goals, and values? Does your response help you feel more competent and autonomous?
When you exercise to music it makes the time go by, it can be motivating and fun. Think about your experiences exercising with and without music. When you finish a workout while listening to music, how much of the experience to you remember? How connected do you feel with the sensations in your body? Your feelings of competence or achievement? Now, what about when you don’t listen to music? How does the experience differ?

Glossary terms

State mindfulness: An individual’s capacity be more or less mindful on a moment to moment basis
Trait mindfulness: One’s tendency or general disposition to be mindful throughout one’s day or across situations.
Affect: The experiential piece of emotions such as anxiety or joy, but does not have to be derived from a specific emotion per se.
Embodiment: How we experience living in our bodies (Piran & Teall, 2012).
Positive embodiment: “Positive body connection and comfort, embodied agency and passion, and attuned self-care” (Piran, 2016, p. 47).
Negative embodiment: “Disrupted body connection and discomfort, restricted agency and passion, and self-neglect or harm” (Piran, 2016, p. 47).
Intra-personal factors: Factors that are within the individual.
Mindlessness: A mode of operating in reactive, compulsive, and/or habitual patterns.
Integrated regulation: A type of regulation which represents an integration of the activity as congruent with one’s sense of self or identity
Identified regulation: A type of autonomous regulation because it represents engaging in a behavior because it is of personal value and importance
Introjected regulation: A controlling regulation which reflects internalized rewards, pressure, or guilt.
External regulation: The most controlling form of motivation which represents external rewards or punishments
Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) therapy: A meditation therapy used for treating a variety of physical and psychological illnesses.
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT): An approach in which participants were taught how to defuse or separate from distressing thoughts about exercise and identify and strengthen values around exercise.
Intrinsic motivation: Doing an activity for enjoyment rather than external pressures

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Hi, i'm clara, psychologist & coach.

I founded The ExerPsych in 2019, with the aim of bridging the gap between the fitness industry and exercise psychology. I do this through my psychologically informed fitness coaching service, and through my 1:1 exercise psychology consulting. I also work with sports athletes who want to improve their performance and wellbeing by working with a sports psychologist.

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The Life Journey Exercise helps people explore how their life experience shaped their perspective, and then use those insights to become more effective leaders.

Values and beliefs shape how people lead. My best bosses have understood their personal values and beliefs, and then used that insight to focus their efforts and lead their teams effectively.

A key tenet of Emotional Intelligence says that self-awareness is critical if a person is to manage their emotions, understand how others might react, or use interpersonal knowledge and skills to interact with others effectively.

But that insight develops over the course of a lifetime. So how does a trainer help participants to develop the necessary insight quickly, in a way that enables them to take action when they return to the job?

One of the most effective experiential methodologies is the Life Journey exercise. Noel Tichy, in the “Cycle of Leadership,” and Laura Freebairn-Smith, who adapted it from the work of Linkage, Inc., outline the approach. The activity guides people to review their critical life events to help them clarify their values and beliefs, and then uses those insights to enable them to articulate their motivation and rationale on leadership—what Tichy terms “their teachable point of view.”

LIFE JOURNEY EXERCISE STEPS

Explain the purpose of the exercise. This will help develop insight into the core values and beliefs that shape a person’s focus and leadership behavior.
Set up the basic diagram. This can be done on a flip chart, piece of paper, or electronically. Each person will create a graph (see the Life Journey Example illustration) with emotions on the “Y” axis, ranging from negative (terrible experience) to positive (peak experience). The “X” axis shows time, ranging from birth to current day.
Ask participants to depict their life path by using words, symbols, or pictures that illustrate their work, personal experiences of pain or joy, and significant formative relationships. Participants place them in the appropriate points on the timeline. A line can be used to “graph” the emotional energy of each event.
Ask participants to reflect on the chosen events and situations, and make adjustments as needed. Remind them that no diagram can possibly capture everything that shapes a life journey.
Ask participants to choose two or three formative events and use them to identify their core values and beliefs. They then write their insights next to the diagram.
Ask participants to review their insights with a partner and describe how at least one value or belief was operationalized in their work and life.

The Life Journey exercise enables individuals to articulate their values and beliefs, tell the story of how their life experience shaped their perspective, and use those insights to become more effective leaders.

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In-class recess for exercise is a great idea, even at the college level, OSU psychology professor finds

Published: Apr. 25, 2024, 3:42 p.m.

Theresa Selzer stretches with children during story time at the Cuyahoga County Public Library’s Maple Heights branch. Scott Hayes, an associate professor of psychology at Ohio State, found that similar short exercise breaks help his students – and himself – power through long lecture classes. John Kuntz, cleveland.com

Gretchen Cuda Kroen, cleveland.com

COLUMBUS, Ohio – Exercise helps kids focus in school. Any kindergarten teacher will tell you that.

So perhaps it’s no surprise that taking a break during a long classroom lecture to stretch and get moving helps university students ‘get their wiggles out’ too. At least that’s what one Ohio State University professor has found.

Scott Hayes , an associate professor of psychology at Ohio State , tested out his theory as a way to help his students – and himself – power through long lecture classes: exercise breaks.

And he may well have started a trend.

In a new study, Hayes found that five-minute exercise sessions during lectures not only were possible to complete during class time, but that students also benefitted from them. The students in classes that included exercise breaks reported improvements in their attention and motivation, engagement with their classmates and overall enjoyment of the course.

The results suggest a solution for a long-standing issue in college classrooms, said Hayes .

“Nobody can stay on task for 80 minutes straight without their mind wandering and their attention waxing and waning,” Hayes said.

“If you give students a break and get their bodies moving for just a few minutes, it can help them get their minds back to the lecture and probably be more productive. I know it helps me, as well.”

The study was published recently in the journal Frontiers in Sports and Active Living .

Hayes said he was inspired by a similar study of how students responded to exercise breaks during a single video lecture that took place in a laboratory setting.

That study found positive results, but Hayes wondered what would happen in the real world of in-person university lectures, over the course of a full semester.

So he tested it in four of his own upper-level psychology classes.

Throughout the semester, Hayes implemented one to two five-minute long student-led exercise breaks in each 80-minute lecture. The classes had anywhere from 20 to 93 students.

At the beginning of the course, Hayes broke the class into small groups, and each group was responsible for developing a five-minute exercise session. Hayes reviewed the exercise sessions beforehand to make sure they were workable and safe.

“I wanted the students to design and lead the sessions because I thought it would help them buy into the idea, and help with their engagement and investment,” he said.

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Although the sessions were sometimes a bit awkward at the beginning of the semester, said Hayes, students soon got into the flow and had fun with the sessions.

Many of the exercises they chose were familiar, like jumping jacks, lunges, overhead presses using a backpack and hamstring stretches, but a few groups got creative.

“One of the groups designed a theme of going to an orchard and picking apples. So they had their fellow students reaching up as if they were picking apples from a tree and reaching down to put them in a basket,” Hayes said.

Hayes said when students spontaneously provided anonymous comments about the exercise breaks to their end-of-semester student evaluations, he knew the program was a success.

“I enjoyed the exercise breaks in class and really felt like they motivated me to focus more,” Hayes recalled one student writing.

It’s impossible to say from this study if exercise breaks actually improved learning or grades, but they certainly got positive student feedback.

When specifically asked to evaluate the exercise sessions themselves, students reported that they improved attention, provided a fun way to interact with their peers. They also said that compared to other classes, they preferred the class with an exercise break, and they would like more classes to offer such sessions.

And some may well get their wish. The success of the sessions has inspired other faculty to try it out as well.

“Two colleagues in the psychology department here at Ohio State have told me they have started exercise breaks in their courses,” Hayes said. “It may be catching on.”

Stories by Gretchen Cuda Kroen

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22: 5 Types of Exercise You Need to Avoid if You’re Trying to Conceive Your Journey to Fertility

Alternative Health

How exactly does exercise fit into your journey of trying to conceive? Maybe you’ve asked your doctor & they’ve been vague about it – and you’ve found there is so much conflicting advice on the internet. Today I’m discussing the 5 types of exercise you should avoid when you’re TTC, so you have an idea of what you should be doing to support your body & chances of falling pregnant. So what type of exercise should you be doing to support your fertility? The answer is – it depends on which stage of your cycle you’re at. And most people are either doing too much, or too little, or not at the right phase. The exercise options out there are endless, so today I’m going to simplify things by breaking down the 5 types of exercise best avoided when you’re trying to conceive. BY THE TIME YOU FINISH LISTENING, YOU’LL FIND OUT: ● The exercise red flags for each phase of your cycle ● The role of exercise as you’re trying to conceive – and how you can make it work for you ● The best types of training you can do throughout your cycle to support your fertility When you finish listening, I'd love to hear your biggest takeaway from today’s episode. Take a screenshot of you listening on your device, share it to your Instagram stories and tag me, @jen.elementpilatesyoga While you’re there, make sure you follow me on Instagram to see behind the scenes of how I support women on their fertility journeys & how you can make a difference to your life as you’re trying to conceive. Free Fertility Yoga Guide: If you're new to Fertility Yoga, Breathwork + Meditation, grab a copy of my Free Fertility Yoga Guide to start synchronizing your hormones, regulating your nervous system & easing the stress of TTC. Waitlist for the In Your Element Fertility Yoga Program: Once a year, I open the doors to my signature fertility program. This is the ultimate mind-body fertility reset which uses the practices of Yoga, Breathwork, Meditation & SO much more to guide you through your journey to motherhood. With 100s of on-demand sequences, weekly live classes & support, workshops with industry experts, personalised programs & community circles, this is the most comprehensive offering online Whether you've been TTC for 3 months or 3 years,, join me on M...

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Exercise Psychology: What It Is And Why It Matters
Key points. Exercise psychology refers to how you think and feel about exercise. One's exercise psychology can be either negative or positive depending on prior experiences and emotions. A ...
Applied Exercise Psychology
Now in its second edition, Applied Exercise Psychology emphasizes the application of evidence-based knowledge drawn from the fields of exercise psychology, health psychology, clinical and counseling psychology, and exercise physiology for physical activity behavior change. Thoroughly revised, the new edition offers readers: two new chapters covering Excusercise and Mood Alteration's link to ...
Applied Exercise Psychology
Applied Exercise Psychology emphasizes the application of evidence-based knowledge drawn from the fields of exercise psychology, health psychology, clinical and counseling psychology, and exercise physiology for physical activity behavior change. The book provides readers with: theoretical bases for understanding and promoting physical activity ...
Exercise Psychology: Understanding the Mental Health Benefits of
The exercise psychology literature most often examines exercise or physical activity as an independent variable. A clear understanding of the benefits of this stimulus (physical activity or exercise) requires an operational definition. When interpreting the exercise literature one must recognize that the exercise stimulus can be either acute ...
Frontiers
Physical inactivity and lack of exercise are major societal health problems. Most experts in exercise psychology, if asked how to support people in growing their motivation for physical activity and exercise, would probably recommend shifting the decisional balance by creating a belief that there are more benefits to be had from becoming active than barriers to be overcome, bolstering their ...
Applied Exercise Psychology: The Challenging Journey from ...
"Applied Exercise Psychology: The Challenging Journey from Motivation to Adherence, Second Edition, edited by Selen Razon and Michael L. Sachs, is a comprehensive and invaluable resource, promising to inform professional practice and insure optimal health related outcomes. This work impressively organizes a vast literature of foundational ...
Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology
The Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology (JSEP) publishes peer-reviewed research articles by leading world scholars that explore the interactions between psychology and exercise and sport performance, editorials about contemporary issues in the field, abstracts of current research on sport and exercise psychology, and book reviews.JSEP is an official publication of the North American Society ...
Theories and models of behavior change applied to exercise: Research
The current chapter will review the theories and models of exercise behavior and then demonstrate how these models can help inform our practice to enhance the initiation and maintenance of exercise. ... Applied exercise psychology: The challenging journey from motivation to adherence (pp. 37-48). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group. https ...
Applied Exercise Psychology: The Challenging Journey from ...
Applied Exercise Psychology emphasizes the application of evidence-based knowledge drawn from the fields of exercise psychology, health psychology, clinical and counseling psychology, and exercise physiology for physical activity behavior change. The book provides readers with: theoretical bases for understanding and promoting physical activity behavior; interventions to use for facilitating ...
10 Vital Life Lessons From 30 Years of Exercising
Life Lessons. 1. Although I may start out resisting beginning my workout, I have yet to ever regret it when it's complete. Invariably, I feel proud of my accomplishments and enter my day more ...
Exercise, Mood, and Psychological Well-being
EXERCISE AND MOOD TERMINOLOGY. The report of feeling better in response to participating in exercise is somewhat vague but ultimately represents a complex combination of improved mood, increased self-confidence, and decreased stress ( 6 ). The focus here will be on the mood-related aspects of well-being including mood, emotions, and affect.
"Applied exercise psychology: The challenging journey from motivation t
Applied Exercise Psychology emphasizes the application of evidence-based knowledge drawn from the fields of exercise psychology, health psychology, clinical and counseling psychology, and exercise physiology for physical activity behavior change. The collection builds a bridge between up-to-date research findings, relevant field experiences, and applied implications. This is the first book to ...
Exercising Judgement: The Psychology of Fitness
He focuses on keeping the exercise constant — 20 minutes at about 70 percent of the participants' maximum heart rate — and then he measures people's mood. He has found that environment changes the type of psychological benefits one gets. Exercising indoors and alone is calming for many exercisers.
Chapter 14: Mindfulness in Physical Activity
Mindfulness in Physical Activity. Chapter Overview. Mindfulness refers to being fully present in the moment; attending to the sights, sounds, thoughts, and physical sensations as they come and go. Research findings show the potential for mindfulness to support more pleasurable exercise experiences and exhibit more positive embodiment.
(PDF) Applied Exercise Psychology: The Challenging Journey from
The Relationship between Self-Compassion and Fear of Failure among Taekwondo Athletes. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between self-compassion and fear of ...
The ExerPsych
Psychologist & Coach. I founded The ExerPsych in 2019, with the aim of bridging the gap between the fitness industry and exercise psychology. I do this through my psychologically informed fitness coaching service, and through my 1:1 exercise psychology consulting. I also work with sports athletes who want to improve their performance and ...
A New Way of Thinking About Exercise
Energy. At the cellular level, exercise triggers a rejuvenative process called mitochondrial biogenesis. This process refers to the process of forming new, healthy mitochondria. Mitochondria are ...
Psychology of Sport and Exercise
Psychology of Sport and Exercise is an international forum for scholarly reports in the psychology of sport and exercise, broadly defined. The journal is open to the use of diverse methodological approaches. To be considered for publication, manuscripts must make a substantive theoretical or methodological contribution. Manuscripts that will be ...
Learn from Life's Experiences
LIFE JOURNEY EXERCISE STEPS. Explain the purpose of the exercise. This will help develop insight into the core values and beliefs that shape a person's focus and leadership behavior. Set up the basic diagram. This can be done on a flip chart, piece of paper, or electronically. Each person will create a graph (see the Life Journey Example ...
Applied Exercise Psychology: The Challenging Journey from Motivation to
Applied Exercise Psychology emphasizes the application of evidence-based knowledge drawn from the fields of exercise psychology, health psychology, clinical and counseling psychology, and exercise physiology for physical activity behavior change. The book provides readers with:
In-class recess for exercise is a great idea, even at the college level
Scott Hayes, an associate professor of psychology at Ohio State, found that similar short exercise breaks help his students - and himself - power through long lecture classes. John Kuntz ...
‎Your Journey to Fertility: 22: 5 Types of Exercise You Need to Avoid
How exactly does exercise fit into your journey of trying to conceive? Maybe you've asked your doctor & they've been vague about it - and you've found there is so much conflicting advice on the internet. Today I'm discussing the 5 types of exercise you should avoid when you're TTC, so you have an idea of what you should be doing to ...
Hate Exercise? Here's How to Do It Even if You Don't Like It
About 97 percent of us think that getting enough exercise is important for health. One study of 3,500 adults who used a fitness tracker found that less than 4 percent actually met the goal of 150 ...
101 Activities to Boost Your Mood
Key points. Depression, low mood, and anhedonia can lead to withdrawal from activities and people. Engaging in pleasant activities is associated with better mood and lower depression symptoms.
La-Keya Williams
La-Keya Williams, Pre-Licensed Professional, Houston, TX, 77077, (346) 523-6777, Instilling hope and resilience through treatment is a hallmark of our work in this sacred space! As a LGBTQ cis ...