who funded voyages of exploration

• Corrections

Who Funded Christopher Columbus’ Voyages?

Christopher Columbus was the intrepid European explorer who traveled through uncharted waters. But how did he secure funding for his ventures?

The year was 1492. Genoan sailor Christopher Columbus stood aboard the Santa Maria , eyes trained to the west, hoping to find a passage to the West Indies and its vast store of spices and potential wealth . With the Niña  and the Pinta following close by, he would succeed on a mission he did not set out on – the discovery of a New World, and the change of the destiny of the rest of the Old. 

That’s the story we grew up learning, possibly the first history lesson many of us received in elementary school. But the craziest part of Columbus’s story does not happen during or after his great exploration venture. The crazy part is what happened before. The crazy part is how Columbus got the money for it.

Backing up to 1484 – Christopher Columbus was already a seasoned sailor, having traveled up and down the coasts of Europe and West Africa. Since the Ottomans had conquered Turkey and the Eastern Roman Empire in the 1450s, the “ Silk Road ” to the East and its riches were shut down. Christopher was an enterprising sort, and thought he had figured out a shorter way to India on account that he did not have the distances between latitudes calculated properly due to confusion between Arabic and Roman calculations. No, Christopher Columbus did not think the earth was flat – no one really did at that time.

He thought it was SMALLER than it really was. And he was not letting go of that idea.

Seeking Funding From the World’s Foremost Sailors – the Portuguese

Get the latest articles delivered to your inbox

Please check your inbox to activate your subscription.

Columbus approached King John II of Portugal in 1484, but was rejected on two grounds.  The Portuguese were the world’s premier sailors and explorers at the time, and a committee appointed by John concluded that Columbus’s calculations of the earth’s size were incorrect, and that any voyage would take substantially longer than he predicted. The other ground for rejection was that the Portuguese were already developing a route to the Orient around the southern tip of Africa, and they did not want to waste time and resources on a questionable route in the opposite direction that would take too long because there definitely was not a giant land mass full of riches to exploit in the way .

Seeking Funding From the Country Next Door to the World’s Foremost Sailors – the Spanish

So a rejected Columbus goes to the King and Queen of Spain – actually, at the time, it was the monarchs Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon , who were in the middle of the Reconquista – the reconquering of the Spanish peninsula from Muslim rule, which had been in place in some areas of Spain for over 700 years.  Since they were in the middle of a rather large military operation, Ferdinand and Isabella were not quite ready to sponsor a voyage across a wide ocean in the wrong direction that did not have a giant land mass in the middle of it full of riches to exploit in the way .

Columbus, ever the optimist, then goes back to Portugal. Unfortunately for him, the guy who ALSO got back to Portugal was a sailor named Bartholomeu Dias who had figured out how to go around the southern tip of Africa.  The Portuguese, walking around with dollar signs for eyeballs, did not have time for Columbus and his crazy ideas about sailing west to India. There was not anything useful in doing something so silly from a sailor who did not know how to calculate latitudes properly.

One Last Shot at the Spanish, Getting Desperate, and Spain Comes Through

So, Columbus goes BACK to Ferdinand and Isabella in 1491. The King and Queen of Almost Spain turned him down again. Wars and all. In early 1492, Columbus started to think that the French might be reasonable people , and Charles VIII was called “The Affable,” so he might be agreeable. Columbus heads north, but is not long upon the road when he receives word from the King and Queen of Spain, who had just finally run the Muslims out of the country and had some spending money. 

And there you go. Almost a decade of consistently pestering the royalty of Spain and Portugal allowed Christopher Columbus the opportunity to prove to everyone the earth was smaller around and that there was plenty of money to be made by sailing in a different direction.  

Don’t you love it when great historical visionaries with crazy ideas know what they’re doing?

What Was the Silk Road & What Was Traded on It?

By Ryan Watson MA History, BA History Ryan Watson is a husband, father, underwriter, writer, and reseller. He graduated with a Bachelor's and Master's in History from Louisiana Tech University in the early 2000s. He focuses on Biblical, post-Biblical, and medieval history with occasional dabblings in other arenas.

Frequently Read Together

Who Was Christopher Columbus?

The Early Modern Period in Europe: How Did the Middle Ages End?

Kicking the Ottomans out of Europe: The First Balkan War

• school Campus Bookshelves
• menu_book Bookshelves
• perm_media Learning Objects
• login Login
• how_to_reg Request Instructor Account
• hub Instructor Commons
• Download Page (PDF)
• Download Full Book (PDF)
• Periodic Table
• Physics Constants
• Scientific Calculator
• Reference & Cite
• Tools expand_more
• Readability

selected template will load here

This action is not available.

3.3: European Voyages of Exploration: Intro

• Last updated
• Save as PDF
• Page ID 85817

The European Voyages of Exploration: Introduction

Beginning in the early fifteenth century, European states began to embark on a series of global explorations that inaugurated a new chapter in world history. Known as the Age of Discovery, or the Age of Exploration, this period spanned the fifteenth through the early seventeenth century, during which time European expansion to places such as the Americas, Africa, and the Far East flourished. This era is defined by figures such as Ferdinand Magellan, whose 1519–1522 expedition was the first to traverse the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean and the first to circumnavigate the globe.

The European Age of Exploration developed alongside the Renaissance. Both periods in Western history acted as transitional moments between the Middle Ages and the early modern period. Competition between burgeoning European empires, such as Spain and England, fueled the evolution and advancement of overseas exploration. Motivated by religion, profit, and power, the size and influence of European empires during this period expanded greatly. The effects of exploration were not only felt abroad but also within the geographic confines of Europe itself. The economic, political, and cultural effects of Europe’s beginning stages of global exploration impacted the longterm development of both European society and the entire world.

Empire and Politics

During the eighth century, the Islamic conquest of North Africa, Spain, France, and parts of the Mediterranean, effectively impeded European travel to the Far East for subsequent centuries. This led many early explorers, such as Vasco de Gama and Christopher Columbus, to search for new trade routes to the East. Previous travel accounts from the early expeditions of figures such as Marco Polo (during the late thirteenth century) encouraged many Europeans to search for new territories and places that would lead to the East. Ocean voyages were extremely treacherous during the beginnings of European exploration. The navigation techniques were primitive, the maps were notoriously unreliable, and the weather was unpredictable. Additionally, explorers worried about running out of supplies, rebellion on the high seas, and hostile indigenous peoples.

The Spanish and Portuguese were some of the first European states to launch overseas voyages of exploration. There were several factors that led to the Iberian place in the forefront of global exploration. The first involved its strategic geographic location, which provided easy access to venturing south toward Africa or west toward the Americas. The other, arguably more important, factor for Spain and Portugal’s leading position in overseas exploration was these countries’ acquisition and application of ancient Arabic knowledge and expertise in math, astronomy, and geography.

The principal political actors throughout the Age of Exploration were Spain, Portugal, The Netherlands, England, and France. Certain European states, primarily Portugal and The Netherlands, were primarily interested in building empires based on global trade and commerce. These states established worldwide trading posts and the necessary components for developing a successful economic infrastructure. Other European powers, Spain and England in particular, decided to conquer and colonize the new territories they discovered. This was particularly evident in North and South America, where these two powers built extensive political, religious, and social infrastructure.

Economic Factors

Before the fifteenth century, European states enjoyed a long history of trade with places in the Far East, such as India and China. This trade introduced luxury goods such as cotton, silk, and spices to the European economy. New technological advancements in maritime navigation and ship construction allowed Europeans to travel farther and explore parts of the globe that were previously unknown. This, in turn, provided Europeans with an opportunity to locate luxury goods, which were in high demand, thereby eliminating Europe’s dependency on Eastern trade. In many ways, the demand for goods such as sugar, cotton, and rum fueled the expansion of European empires and their eventual use of slave labor from Africa. Europe’s demand for luxury goods greatly influenced the course of the transatlantic slave trade.

During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries small groups financed by private businesses carried out the first phase of European exploration. Members of the noble or merchant class typically funded these early expeditions. Over time, as it became clear that global exploration was extremely profitable, European states took on a primary role. The next phase of exploration involved voyages taken in the name of a particular empire and monarch (e.g., France or Spain). The Iberian empires of Spain and Portugal were some of the earliest states to embark on new voyages of exploration. In addition to seeking luxury goods, the Spanish empire was driven by its quest for American silver.

Science and Culture

The period of European exploration introduced the people of Europe to the existence of new cultures worldwide. Before the fifteenth century, Europeans had minimal knowledge of the people and places beyond the boundaries of Europe, particularly Africa and Asia. Before the discovery of the Americas, Europeans did not even know of its existence. Europeans presumed that the world was much smaller than it was in actuality. This led early explorers such as Columbus and Magellan to believe that finding new routes to the Far East would be much easier than it turned out to be.

Profound misconceptions about geography and the cultures of local populations would change very slowly throughout the early centuries of European exploration. By the sixteenth century, European maps started to expand their depictions and representations to include new geographic discoveries. However, due to the intense political rivalries during the period, European states guarded their geographic knowledge and findings from one another.

With the growth of the printing press during the sixteenth century, accounts of overseas travels, such as those of Marco Polo in the late thirteenth century, spread to a wider audience of European readers than had previously been possible. The Age of Exploration also coincided with the development of Humanism and a growing intellectual curiosity about the natural world. The collection and study of exotic materials such as plants and animals led to a new age of scientific exploration and inquiry. These initial surveys and analyses influenced future revolutionary developments in numerous fields of science and natural history in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

Religious Factors

One of the tenets of Catholicism decreed that Christianity ought to be the universal religion and faith among all mankind. The Crusades in the centuries preceding the Age of Exploration exposed Europeans to new places, people, and goods. It also reflected the zealous nature of medieval Christianity and foreshadowed the fervent missionary work that would form a major part of all early global expeditions. The pope played an important and validating role in these voyages by sanctioning and encouraging worldwide exploration. This often included the approbation of enslaving Africans and indigenous peoples. Missionaries were frequently a part of the early expeditions of Spain with the aim of bringing Christianity to the native inhabitants. Europeans typically viewed indigenous populations as barbaric heathens who could only become civilized through the adoption of Christianity.

• The age of European exploration and discovery represented a new period of global interaction and interconnectivity. As a result of technological advancements, Europeans were able to forge into new and previously undiscovered territories. They understood this to be a “New World.”
• European exploration was driven by multiple factors, including economic, political, and religious incentives. The growing desire to fulfill European demand for luxury goods, and the desire to unearth precious materials such as gold and silver, acted as a particularly crucial motivation.
• The period of European global exploration sparked the beginning phases of European empire and colonialism, which would continue to develop and intensify over the course of the next several centuries.
• As European exploration evolved and flourished, it saw the increasing oppression of native populations and the enslavement of Africans. During this period, Europeans increasingly dealt in African slaves and started the transatlantic slave trade.
• European Voyages of Exploration: Introduction. Authored by : The Saylor Foundation. Located at : https://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/HIST201-3.1.1-EuropeanExplorationIntro-FINAL1.pdf . License : CC BY: Attribution

• History Classics
• Your Profile
• Find History on Facebook (Opens in a new window)
• Find History on Twitter (Opens in a new window)
• Find History on YouTube (Opens in a new window)
• Find History on Instagram (Opens in a new window)
• Find History on TikTok (Opens in a new window)
• This Day In History
• History Podcasts
• History Vault

Christopher Columbus

By: History.com Editors

Updated: August 11, 2023 | Original: November 9, 2009

The explorer Christopher Columbus made four trips across the Atlantic Ocean from Spain: in 1492, 1493, 1498 and 1502. He was determined to find a direct water route west from Europe to Asia, but he never did. Instead, he stumbled upon the Americas. Though he did not “discover” the so-called New World—millions of people already lived there—his journeys marked the beginning of centuries of exploration and colonization of North and South America.

Christopher Columbus and the Age of Discovery

During the 15th and 16th centuries, leaders of several European nations sponsored expeditions abroad in the hope that explorers would find great wealth and vast undiscovered lands. The Portuguese were the earliest participants in this “ Age of Discovery ,” also known as “ Age of Exploration .”

Starting in about 1420, small Portuguese ships known as caravels zipped along the African coast, carrying spices, gold and other goods as well as enslaved people from Asia and Africa to Europe.

Did you know? Christopher Columbus was not the first person to propose that a person could reach Asia by sailing west from Europe. In fact, scholars argue that the idea is almost as old as the idea that the Earth is round. (That is, it dates back to early Rome.)

Other European nations, particularly Spain, were eager to share in the seemingly limitless riches of the “Far East.” By the end of the 15th century, Spain’s “ Reconquista ”—the expulsion of Jews and Muslims out of the kingdom after centuries of war—was complete, and the nation turned its attention to exploration and conquest in other areas of the world.

Early Life and Nationality 

Christopher Columbus, the son of a wool merchant, is believed to have been born in Genoa, Italy, in 1451. When he was still a teenager, he got a job on a merchant ship. He remained at sea until 1476, when pirates attacked his ship as it sailed north along the Portuguese coast.

The boat sank, but the young Columbus floated to shore on a scrap of wood and made his way to Lisbon, where he eventually studied mathematics, astronomy, cartography and navigation. He also began to hatch the plan that would change the world forever.

Christopher Columbus' First Voyage

At the end of the 15th century, it was nearly impossible to reach Asia from Europe by land. The route was long and arduous, and encounters with hostile armies were difficult to avoid. Portuguese explorers solved this problem by taking to the sea: They sailed south along the West African coast and around the Cape of Good Hope.

But Columbus had a different idea: Why not sail west across the Atlantic instead of around the massive African continent? The young navigator’s logic was sound, but his math was faulty. He argued (incorrectly) that the circumference of the Earth was much smaller than his contemporaries believed it was; accordingly, he believed that the journey by boat from Europe to Asia should be not only possible, but comparatively easy via an as-yet undiscovered Northwest Passage . 

He presented his plan to officials in Portugal and England, but it was not until 1492 that he found a sympathetic audience: the Spanish monarchs Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile .

Columbus wanted fame and fortune. Ferdinand and Isabella wanted the same, along with the opportunity to export Catholicism to lands across the globe. (Columbus, a devout Catholic, was equally enthusiastic about this possibility.)

Columbus’ contract with the Spanish rulers promised that he could keep 10 percent of whatever riches he found, along with a noble title and the governorship of any lands he should encounter.

Where Did Columbus' Ships, Niña, Pinta and Santa Maria, Land?

On August 3, 1492, Columbus and his crew set sail from Spain in three ships: the Niña , the Pinta and the Santa Maria . On October 12, the ships made landfall—not in the East Indies, as Columbus assumed, but on one of the Bahamian islands, likely San Salvador.

For months, Columbus sailed from island to island in what we now know as the Caribbean, looking for the “pearls, precious stones, gold, silver, spices, and other objects and merchandise whatsoever” that he had promised to his Spanish patrons, but he did not find much. In January 1493, leaving several dozen men behind in a makeshift settlement on Hispaniola (present-day Haiti and the Dominican Republic), he left for Spain.

He kept a detailed diary during his first voyage. Christopher Columbus’s journal was written between August 3, 1492, and November 6, 1492 and mentions everything from the wildlife he encountered, like dolphins and birds, to the weather to the moods of his crew. More troublingly, it also recorded his initial impressions of the local people and his argument for why they should be enslaved.

“They… brought us parrots and balls of cotton and spears and many other things, which they exchanged for the glass beads and hawks’ bells," he wrote. "They willingly traded everything they owned… They were well-built, with good bodies and handsome features… They do not bear arms, and do not know them, for I showed them a sword, they took it by the edge and cut themselves out of ignorance. They have no iron… They would make fine servants… With fifty men we could subjugate them all and make them do whatever we want.”

Columbus gifted the journal to Isabella upon his return.

Christopher Columbus's Later Voyages

About six months later, in September 1493, Columbus returned to the Americas. He found the Hispaniola settlement destroyed and left his brothers Bartolomeo and Diego Columbus behind to rebuild, along with part of his ships’ crew and hundreds of enslaved indigenous people.

Then he headed west to continue his mostly fruitless search for gold and other goods. His group now included a large number of indigenous people the Europeans had enslaved. In lieu of the material riches he had promised the Spanish monarchs, he sent some 500 enslaved people to Queen Isabella. The queen was horrified—she believed that any people Columbus “discovered” were Spanish subjects who could not be enslaved—and she promptly and sternly returned the explorer’s gift.

In May 1498, Columbus sailed west across the Atlantic for the third time. He visited Trinidad and the South American mainland before returning to the ill-fated Hispaniola settlement, where the colonists had staged a bloody revolt against the Columbus brothers’ mismanagement and brutality. Conditions were so bad that Spanish authorities had to send a new governor to take over.

Meanwhile, the native Taino population, forced to search for gold and to work on plantations, was decimated (within 60 years after Columbus landed, only a few hundred of what may have been 250,000 Taino were left on their island). Christopher Columbus was arrested and returned to Spain in chains.

In 1502, cleared of the most serious charges but stripped of his noble titles, the aging Columbus persuaded the Spanish crown to pay for one last trip across the Atlantic. This time, Columbus made it all the way to Panama—just miles from the Pacific Ocean—where he had to abandon two of his four ships after damage from storms and hostile natives. Empty-handed, the explorer returned to Spain, where he died in 1506.

Legacy of Christopher Columbus

Christopher Columbus did not “discover” the Americas, nor was he even the first European to visit the “New World.” (Viking explorer Leif Erikson had sailed to Greenland and Newfoundland in the 11th century.)

However, his journey kicked off centuries of exploration and exploitation on the American continents. The Columbian Exchange transferred people, animals, food and disease across cultures. Old World wheat became an American food staple. African coffee and Asian sugar cane became cash crops for Latin America, while American foods like corn, tomatoes and potatoes were introduced into European diets. 

Today, Columbus has a controversial legacy —he is remembered as a daring and path-breaking explorer who transformed the New World, yet his actions also unleashed changes that would eventually devastate the native populations he and his fellow explorers encountered.

HISTORY Vault: Columbus the Lost Voyage

Ten years after his 1492 voyage, Columbus, awaiting the gallows on criminal charges in a Caribbean prison, plotted a treacherous final voyage to restore his reputation.

Sign up for Inside History

Get HISTORY’s most fascinating stories delivered to your inbox three times a week.

By submitting your information, you agree to receive emails from HISTORY and A+E Networks. You can opt out at any time. You must be 16 years or older and a resident of the United States.

More details : Privacy Notice | Terms of Use | Contact Us

The Age of Exploration

The Age of Exploration began in earnest with the first voyage of Christopher Columbus in 1492 and ended, at least where present-day Virginians are concerned, with the founding of Jamestown in 1607. When Columbus stumbled into two unknown continents, he had been looking for a quick route to the Far East, and, for decades to come, explorers focused on discovering that passage almost as much as they did on exploiting the New World. Early in the sixteenth century, the Spaniards conquered three major civilizations in Central and South America, and in the process unleashed a devastating biological exchange that killed an estimated 95 percent of the area’s inhabitants between 1492 and 1650. The Spanish then turned their sights north, planting short-lived colonies on the shores of present-day Georgia and South Carolina and pursuing what came to be known as the Chicora Legend: the belief that the best land, as well as a passage to China, could be found in the area of the Chesapeake Bay. While the French and later the English explored the far northern latitudes of the Atlantic Ocean, the Spanish slowly worked their way up the coast from present-day Florida, a quest that ended only when a Virginia Indian called Don Luís (Paquiquineo) led a fatal attack on a group of Jesuit missionaries in 1571. This defeat helped make room for the English, whose failed colonies at Roanoke in 1585 and 1587 led, finally, to the permanent settlement at Jamestown.

For Europeans of the Late Middle Ages, the known world was relatively small, mysterious, and imbued with Christian symbols. A popular kind of map, the T-O map, divided the world into three regions—Asia, Europe, and Africa—separated by the T-shaped intersection of the Mediterranean Sea and the Don and Nile rivers. All of this was contained within a large circle with Jerusalem at its center. For some mapmakers, the T shape called to mind the cross on which Jesus had died, and they seized on this image to incorporate Christ into the geography of the world.

These maps were oriented with the east at the top, privileging where Christians believed life had begun. Many Europeans thought the history of civilization would follow the same path as the sun: rising (Latin oriens ) in the east and falling ( occidens ) in the west. In the twelfth century, the German bishop Otto of Freising wrote “that because all human learning began in the Orient and will end in the Occident, the mutability and disappearance of all things is demonstrated.” In other words, the apocalypse would happen somewhere in the West, and it was important to many Christians that nonbelievers be baptized before the end came. Although this helped motivate the explorations that led Europeans to America, it does not explain them.

When the Age of Exploration began, the Far East was more advanced than Europe in terms of technology, economy, and culture. Still, the Mediterranean Sea was already a zone of thriving trade and those who did business there, including the Chinese, had little motivation to seek out other lands. Western Europe, by comparison, was poor in wealth and resources. Although western Europeans had benefited from thousands of years of Eastern innovations in farming, mining, language, and religion, they lived far from economic and cultural centers and, for that reason, had an interest in finding new connections.

Geography aided this search. Although early in the 1400s western Europeans were far behind the Chinese in their understanding of navigation, they took advantage of their Atlantic coastlines and used the century to catch up. First, European explorers claimed many of the Atlantic’s nearby islands. In 1402 soldiers from the kingdom of Castile landed on the Canary Islands off the coast of Africa, near present-day Morocco and Western Sahara, and conquered the natives who lived there. Portugal then claimed the island of Madeira, just north of the Canaries, in 1418; the Azores, farther out in the Atlantic, in 1431; and Cape Verde, off the coast of present-day Mauritania and Senegal, in 1456.

They used these new lands to establish sugar plantations run on enslaved labor and as outposts for explorations farther west into the open Atlantic and farther south along the coast of Africa. These conquests also helped to demonstrate how western Europeans might fund their new empires: loans by Genoese merchants funded ships and crews, and were repaid through the profits reaped from slave sales and sugar production.

The First Voyages West

Some historians have suggested that one key distinction between the Europeans and their Far East counterparts was the European idealization of the adventurer. Certainly the 1490s proved to be a golden age for adventurers. In 1492, the Genoese captain Christopher Columbus convinced the king and queen of Spain to sponsor his exploration west across the Atlantic Ocean. He mistakenly believed the world to be much smaller than geographers had previously estimated, and for this reason he argued that by sailing west he could find a quick route to the (East) Indies, still a lucrative trade zone.

Columbus assumed he had found the Indies. It took him and his fellow Europeans a while to understand that he had, in fact, come across two previously unknown continents: North and South America. Even then they assumed that the land mass must be narrow enough to provide easy passage to China. So while Columbus established a colony on Hispaniola (present-day Haiti and the Dominican Republic), navigated the coast of Cuba, and touched the tip of South America, another Italian, John Cabot (Zuan Chabotto), set off from England. Cabot went in search of the so-called Northwest Passage to China, hoping to connect Bristol to that region’s spice trade. Like Columbus, he failed. (He did, however, discover Newfoundland.) Not until Vasco da Gama sailed around the southern tip of Africa and arrived near Calicut, India, in 1498, did Europeans navigate by sea to the actual Indies—a place, as it happens, where their trade goods were of only mediocre value.

These western voyages, especially the four led by Columbus, were important for several reasons. One was Columbus’s discovery of a reliable sailing route west using the Atlantic system of trade winds. By following the northeasterly trade winds south and then west, and the westerly trade winds back east, Columbus demonstrated how others might make the round trip in the future. Another was the discovery, by Juan Ponce de León in 1513, of the Gulf Stream off the coast of what he named La Florida. This strong ocean current, caused by the sinking of cold water and the rising of hot, allowed Spanish captains an even quicker route to the westerly trade winds and back home.

A third, more critical result of Columbus’s voyages was their effect on the indigenous populations of America. Prior to Columbus, there had been virtually no biological interaction between Europe and Asia on the one hand and North and South America on the other. With Columbus and his followers arrived new people, new plants and animals, and new diseases in what the scholar A. W. Crosby has dubbed the Columbian Exchange. The exchange went both ways, of course, but for various reasons Europeans were much less vulnerable. Scholars estimate, for instance, that between 1492 and 1650, 95 percent of all the inhabitants of the Neotropic ecozone, an area covering Central and South America, died of disease. This massive depopulation resulted in significant changes in the environment and may even have led, according to at least one scientist, to a cooling of worldwide temperatures .

The World Divided in Two

Columbus’s voyages sparked intense competition between Spain and Portugal. On May 4, 1493, Pope Alexander VI, a Spaniard, issued a bull, Inter caetera , that attempted to ease tensions. He decreed that all newly discovered lands west of a line of longitude running through the eastern part of present-day Brazil belonged to Spain, and everything east to Portugal. The two nations confirmed the ruling at the Treaty of Tordesillas, signed the next year.

On their side of the line, the Spaniards conquered the Aztecs, Mayas, and Incas. Those American Indians they did not kill, they enslaved and attempted to convert to Christianity. In 1545, the Spanish founded Potosí, a mining town in present-day Bolivia. Within the decade they were unearthing hundreds of metric tons of pure silver annually and transporting it in galleons back to Europe, where King Charles V and later his son, King Philip II, used it to pay for Spanish wars against Muslims and Protestants.

In the meantime, exploration continued. Amerigo Vespucci sailed down the coast of South America in 1499, and in 1500, the Portuguese mariner Pedro Alvares Cabral, looking to follow Vasco da Gama’s lead and navigate around Africa, instead was blown west and into Brazil. He claimed it for Portugal. Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese captain sailing for Spain, led a crew that circumnavigated the globe in a voyage that lasted from 1519 until 1522. As Columbus did with the Atlantic, Magellan showed the way across the Pacific Ocean before being killed in the island group now known as the Philippines. By the 1570s the Spanish had claimed these islands, named them for their king, and established ports connecting the spice trade of the East with the resources extracted from the New World. Western Europeans were finally at the hub of a new and fully global economy.

The Spanish Move Toward Virginia

Johannes Gutenberg’s printing press, invented about 1450, made possible the kind of publicity that became a driving force in the Age of Exploration. In 1503, for instance, printers in Venice, Paris, and Antwerp all published Mundus novus , a Latin pamphlet that served as a highly exaggerated, some have argued even fictionalized, version of several genuine letters written by Amerigo Vespucci after his voyages to the New World. Within just a few years, the popularity of Mundus novus led to at least one profound consequence: in 1507 the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller published Universalis Cosmographia , the first world map to use the name “America.”

In 1530, another Latin book was published, this time posthumously: De Orbe Novo by Peter Martyr d’Anghiera. In it, the Italian-born historian provided a comprehensive account of Spanish exploration and conquest, including the story of Lucas Vásquez de Ayllón , under whose partial auspices two ships in search of people to enslave sailed up the Atlantic coast of North America in July and August 1521. The ships likely anchored off the coasts of present-day Georgia and South Carolina, but the captains and then later Ayllón exaggerated how far north they had sailed. They told the king they had visited the area now known as the Chesapeake Bay because its latitude is roughly the same as Andalucía, a Spanish region rich with pearls, gold and silver, grapes, and olives. (By the logic of the age, lands on the same latitude should have similar climates and produce similar natural resources.)

In what has come to be known as the Chicora Legend, this bit of deception found a home in De Orbe Novo . And despite Ayllón’s failed colony, established in 1526 at Sapelo Sound in present-day McIntosh County, Georgia, it fueled interest in the land that would later become Virginia. In 1529, for instance, the Portuguese cartographer Diogo de Ribeiro created a padrón general , or master map, for the House of Trade in Seville, Spain. It described the area of Ayllón’s settlement as “well suited to yield breadstuff, wine and all things of Spain.”

Meanwhile, in 1524 Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine working for France, sailed along the Atlantic coast but apparently did not notice the Chesapeake Bay. In the Outer Banks region of present-day North Carolina, however, he claimed to have seen the Pacific Ocean in the distance. In 1525, the Spaniard Esteban Gómez, who had sailed with Magellan, also explored up the coast. And then, in the spring of 1528, Pánfilo de Narváez landed near present-day Tampa Bay, Florida, and initiated what amounted to a decades-long Spanish march north and west along the Gulf coast. It began in unpromising fashion, however. Narváez died later that year, and only after an epic, eight-year journey did a handful of survivors finally reach Mexico. One of those, Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, authored a popular account of his adventure .

In 1537, even before Narváez’s fate was known for sure, the Spanish king granted Hernando de Soto the right to explore the newly created province of La Florida, an area that stretched from the Delaware Bay in the north to Mexico’s Pánuco River in the south, and included much of the present-day American Southeast, Texas, and parts of northern Mexico. Soto landed near Tampa Bay in 1539 and traveled north to the abandoned site of Ayllón’s 1526 settlement. From there he marched west instead of north, and by the spring of 1541 he had reached the Mississippi River.

Despite that achievement, or rather because Soto had found nothing to rival the silver of Potosí, the Spanish king seemed to lose interest in Florida. True, he guarded America jealously, even making plans to wipe out a French colony that was planted near present-day Quebec during explorations by the French captains Jacques Cartier and Jean-François de La Roque de Roberval. (The colony failed before an attack could be made.) But there were no major expeditions until, as it happens, the French spurred Philip II to action. Worried that his European rival planned to stake a claim in La Florida, he ordered that a settlement be established at the Point of Santa Elena, near present-day Parris Island, South Carolina.

What followed was a bloody test of wills between Spanish Catholics and French Protestants, with the Spaniards’ designs on present-day Virginia ending only when a baptized Indian killed three Spanish Jesuits in 1571.

From Saint Augustine to Ajacán

From the Inter caetera bull in 1493 to a more detailed arrangement made in 1508, the pope demanded that his servants in the New World “instruct” the Indians they encountered in Christian teachings. In 1513, the Spaniards introduced el Requerimiento , a document to be read to Indians in Spanish introducing them to church doctrine. Indians were not compelled to convert, but if they did not, they were immediately subject to Spanish invasion. Of course, if they did convert, they were also subject to the Spaniards, who were the pope’s official representatives in the New World.

The Dominican friar Bartolomé de las Casas recalled that when he first read the document he did not know “whether to laugh or cry,” and he eventually became a fierce opponent of what he perceived to be Spanish abuses in America. His book, Brevísima relación de la destrucción de las Indias , published in 1552, was enormously influential, so that by 1565, the governor of La Florida, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, declined to punish Indians who chose not to convert.

Menéndez de Avilés was less forgiving when it came to European Protestants. In 1562, the Huguenot Jean Ribault established a short-lived garrison at Charlesfort, near what the Spanish called Santa Elena. And then, two years later, René Goulaine de Laudonnière landed French troops at Fort Caroline, near present-day Jacksonville, Florida. With King Philip’s blessing, Menéndez de Avilés first founded his own settlement, Saint Augustine, and then, in September 1565, attacked and destroyed Fort Caroline, killing about 140 Frenchmen and capturing 70 women and children. He then set his sights to the north.

It is possible Menéndez de Avilés was influenced by Historia general de las Indias by Francisco Lopez de Gómara, a book published in 1552 that renewed interest in Ayllón’s vision of a New Andalucía at the Chesapeake Bay. By 1570 he had approved a Jesuit mission to the Chesapeake led by Father Juan Baptista de Segura and a baptized Virginia Indian, Don Luís de Velasco, who called his land Ajacán. The Spanish had always been interested in finding the Northwest Passage for commercial reasons, but by this time, the Jesuits were interested in it, too. They had largely written off La Florida as a place to evangelize and hoped that such a passage could quickly take their priests to the more promising land of China.

Segura and his compatriots reached present-day Virginia on September 10, 1570, finishing what Pánfilo de Narváez had begun in 1528. It ended no better for Segura than it did for Narváez, however. In February 1571, Don Luís (also known as Paquiquineo) led a group of Indians that wiped out the mission and for all intents and purposes ended Spanish designs on the Chesapeake Bay.

The English Step In

After the Spanish presence in the Chesapeake Bay had been eliminated, the English moved in. They had been bit players in the New World up to that point, unsuccessfully attempting to save the French settlement at Charlesfort in 1563 and looting the Spanish galleons transporting gold and silver back to Spain. England’s most accomplished pirate, Sir Francis Drake, even circumnavigated the globe from 1577 to 1580. In three voyages from 1576 to 1578, Martin Frobisher explored the icy waters between Greenland and Canada, searching for that ever-elusive passage to China. And with a patent from Queen Elizabeth I , Sir Humphrey Gilbert sailed to Newfoundland and Cape Breton Island in present-day Nova Scotia in 1583 with the goal of establishing colonies there. After he was lost at sea, Gilbert’s cousin, Walter Raleigh , took over the patent.

Raleigh assembled an elite group of would-be colonizers. These included the brilliant mathematician Thomas Hariot , who instructed sailors on the art of open-sea navigation, and Richard Hakluyt (the younger) , an Anglican minister and enthusiastic geographer, who provided compelling arguments in favor of the English settlement of America. In 1585, Raleigh funded an English colony at Roanoke in the same Outer Banks region where the explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano had claimed to have seen the Pacific Ocean more than a half century earlier. Although this and a subsequent colony both failed , the colonization attempts included a visit to the Chesapeake Bay during the winter of 1585–1586. There the Englishmen found the ports to be deeper and safer and the Indians friendlier.

Although the Spaniards had largely given up their attempts to settle in this area, they still resisted English incursions. They quite reasonably feared that the English would use ports at Roanoke or in the Chesapeake as safe havens for pirates such as Sir Francis Drake and Christopher Newport . Their protection of this coastline, in other words, was a means of protecting Spanish shipping in the Caribbean. Despite their efforts, though, they did not discover the location of the Roanoke colony in time to destroy it, and although they considered an attack against the Jamestown settlement, founded in 1607 , the king refused to give the order.

So ended more than a century of feverish competition over control of the Atlantic coast and the area of present-day Virginia. Although the Spanish had long dreamed of a New Andalucía on the banks of the Chesapeake Bay, what resulted instead was a small, unlikely, and persistent English colony.

• Colonial History (ca. 1560–1763)
• Exploration
• Crosby, A. W. The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 2003.
• Cushner, Nicholas P. Why Have You Come Here? The Jesuits and the First Evangelization of North America. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.
• Fernández-Armesto, Felipe. Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration . New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 2006.
• Hoffman, Paul E. A New Andalucia and a Way to the Orient: The American Southeast during the Sixteenth Century. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1990.
• Hoffman, Paul E. Spain and the Roanoke Voyages. Raleigh: Division of Archives and History, North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources, 1987.
• Lester, Toby. The Fourth Part of the World: An Astonishing Epic of Global Discovery, Imperial Ambition, and the Birth of America . New York: Free Press, 2009.
• Morison, Samuel Eliot. The Great Explorers: The European Discovery of America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978.
• Name First Last
• Comments This field is for validation purposes and should be left unchanged.

Never Miss an Update

Partners & affiliates.

Encyclopedia Virginia 946 Grady Ave. Ste. 100 Charlottesville, VA 22903 (434) 924-3296

Indigenous Acknowledgment

Virginia Humanities acknowledges the Monacan Nation , the original people of the land and waters of our home in Charlottesville, Virginia.

We invite you to learn more about Indians in Virginia in our Encyclopedia Virginia .

European Exploration in the Americas — APUSH 1.3 Notes, Review, and Terms

APUSH Unit 1, Topic 1.3 covers the European exploration of the regions of North America, Central America, and South America, up to the settlement of Jamestown.

Christopher Columbus. Image Source: Wikipedia.

Summary of European Exploration in the Americas

APUSH Unit 1, Topic 1.3 covers the European exploration of the regions of North America, Central America, and South America and is often referred to as the Age of Exploration. 

European Exploration Begins with the Vikings

Although APUSH Unit 1 covers the years 1491 to 1607, European Exploration started much earlier. As early as the late 10th Century, Vikings from the Scandinavian Region of Northern Europe sailed west to Greenland and established a settlement on the southwest coast. That was followed by the voyage of Leif Erickson to present-day Newfoundland on the east coast of Canada — 500 years before Christopher Columbus arrived in the Caribbean.

The Impact of the Renaissance

Starting in the 15th Century, Europe began to rise out of the Middle Ages due to the Renaissance. The Renaissance saw a revival in the humanities, including the arts, literature, philosophy, and science. It started in Florence, Italy around 1450 and spread throughout Europe until roughly 1650. 

As it spread, it led to social changes and technological advancements. The social changes contributed to the Protestant Reformation, which was followed by the English Reformation. The technological advancements enabled European explorers to travel the world and map all the continents except Antarctica.

The Golden Age of European Exploration Begins

In 1492, Christopher Columbus sailed west, searching for a new trade route to the east, and landed in the Bahama Islands. Within five years, explorers from Spain, Portugal, England, and the Netherlands were sailing west, claiming the land they found for their respective nations, or for the nations that sponsored their voyages.

From 1494 to 1604, various settlements were established in the Western Hemisphere by European Explorers. Some still stand today, including St. Augustine, Florida. Others, like the Lost Colony of Roanoke Island , vanished or have otherwise been lost to time.

APUSH 1.3 Review Video

This video from Heimler’s History provides an excellent overview of APUSH 1.3. You can also check out our APUSH Guide provides a look at all Units and Topics in the APUSH Curriculum.

APUSH 1.3 Review Terms and Notes for Unit 1 Key Concepts and APUSH Themes

The terms and definitions that follow are related to the Key Concepts for Unit 1 and are broken into sections by APUSH Themes. Within the explanations of APUSH 1.3 Terms are links to content on American History Central that should provide a more comprehensive understanding of each topic.

Unit 1 Key Concepts

Key Concept 1.1 — As native populations migrated and settled across the vast expanse of North America over time, they developed distinct and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their diverse environments.

Key Concept 1.2 — Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean.

APUSH Themes

• American and National Identity

Work, Exchange, and Technology

• Migration and Settlement
• Politics and Power
• America in the World
• Geography and the Environment
• Culture and Society

Geography — North America

The following APUSH Terms and Definitions fall under the theme of Geography and are locations in North America.

Baja California

Baja California is a peninsula in Northwestern Mexico, separated from the rest of the country by the Gulf of California. It was colonized by the Spanish in the 16th century, primarily as a strategic outpost and a stopping place for Spanish ships traveling to and from the Philippines. Baja California played a limited role in Spanish colonization compared to other regions in Mexico, but it has a unique cultural and geographical identity.

Florida is a region located in the Southeastern United States. It was first explored by Spanish Conquistadors, including Juan Ponce de León, who is credited with giving the region its name. Florida became a major focus of Spanish Colonization and was the site of the first permanent European settlement in the present-day United States, St. Augustine, established in 1565.

“New Albion” was the name given by Sir Francis Drake to a region in present-day Marin County California, during his explorations in the late 16th century. It represented English claims to the area and was named after the ancient name for England, “Albion.” Drake’s visit marked one of the first English explorations of the region, although no permanent English settlement was established there.

Newfoundland

Newfoundland is an island located off the Northeastern Coast of North America, part of the Canadian Province of Newfoundland and Labrador. It holds historical significance as one of the earliest areas visited and settled by Europeans, particularly Norse explorers. It later became a focal point for British and French colonization efforts and a strategic location for the fishing industry and transatlantic trade.

Nova Scotia

Nova Scotia, meaning “New Scotland” in Latin, is a Canadian province located in Eastern Canada. It was originally inhabited by Indigenous peoples, such as the Mi’kmaq. The area was colonized by the French in the early 17th century, but it came under British control after the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, which ended the War of the Spanish Succession and Queen Anne’s War. Nova Scotia played a significant role in maritime trade and fishing industries in the Colonial Era and was a point of conflict between the British and the French. It later became an important destination for Scottish immigrants, contributing to its name.

Outer Banks

The Outer Banks is a narrow strip of barrier islands located off the coast of North Carolina, United States. Known for its picturesque beaches and unique ecosystem, the Outer Banks has a rich history intertwined with maritime exploration and pirate lore. It served as a haven for pirates such as Blackbeard and was a site of shipwrecks due to treacherous offshore shoals.

In 1719, Founding Father Benjamin Franklin wrote a poem about Blackbeard called The Taking of Teach the Pirate .

Geography — Europe

The following APUSH Terms and Definitions fall under the theme of Geography and are locations in Europe.

Aragon was another medieval kingdom in the northeastern region of the Iberian Peninsula, now part of modern-day Spain. It originated in the 11th century and experienced significant territorial expansion through military conquests. Aragon played a crucial role in the Reconquista and was instrumental in the formation of the Kingdom of Spain. The marriage of Isabella I of Castille and Ferdinand II of Aragon brought the two kingdoms together.

Castille, or Castilla in Spanish, was a medieval kingdom in the Iberian Peninsula that played a crucial role in the history of Spain. It emerged as a political entity in the 9th century and eventually became the dominant kingdom in the Iberian Peninsula. Castille expanded its territories through conquests and marriages, absorbing neighboring territories and kingdoms. It played a significant role in the Reconquista, the centuries-long campaign to retake the Iberian Peninsula from the Moors. Castille was the birthplace of Queen Isabella I, who, together with her husband Ferdinand II of Aragon, united the kingdoms of Castille and Aragon to form modern Spain.

England is a country located in the southern part of the island of Great Britain in Europe. England’s long, complex history has made an impact on the world due to its political, cultural, and economic developments. England played a prominent role in European history, particularly during the Medieval Period, the Renaissance, and the Colonial Era. It was the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution and became a global power through its vast empire, including territories in North America, the Caribbean, Africa, and Asia.

France is located in Western Europe. It has a rich history and is known for its cultural and intellectual contributions to the world, along with its rivalry with England. France played a pivotal role in medieval history, the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, and the French Revolution. It had a vast colonial empire, including territories in North America, Africa, the Caribbean, and Southeast Asia.

Iberian Peninsula

The Iberian Peninsula is located in southwestern Europe and is comprised mainly of present-day Spain and Portugal. During the Age of Exploration, the Iberian Peninsula played a leading role as the launching point for many voyages of discovery. Spanish and Portuguese explorers, such as Christopher Columbus and Ferdinand Magellan, set sail from the Iberian Peninsula, expanding European knowledge and influence around the globe.

Netherlands

The Netherlands, also known as Holland, is a country located in Northwestern Europe. It is known for its flat landscapes, windmills, canals, tulip fields, and cycling culture. The Netherlands has a long history, including the Dutch Golden Age in the 17th century, when it became a major economic and colonial power. The Dutch established a global trading empire and played a significant role in exploration and colonization, particularly in the East Indies — present-day Indonesia — and the Americas.

Portugal is a country located on the western coast of the Iberian Peninsula in Europe. Portugal was heavily involved in exploration and colonization during the Age of Exploration. Portugal played a leading role in maritime exploration, establishing a colonial empire that included territories in Africa, Asia, and the Americas. During the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal, under the leadership of Prince Henry the Navigator, embarked on numerous expeditions in search of new trade routes and territories. Portuguese explorers such as Vasco da Gama, Ferdinand Magellan, and Bartolomeu Dias made significant voyages, opening up new sea routes to India, Africa, and the Americas.

Geography — Islands

The following APUSH Terms and Definitions fall under the theme of Geography and are important islands.

The Bahamas is an archipelago consisting of more than 700 islands located in the Atlantic Ocean. It played a significant role in the history of European exploration, as it was one of the first areas encountered by Christopher Columbus during his 1492 voyage. The islands were subsequently colonized by various European powers, with the British establishing dominance in the 17th century.

East Indies

The East Indies, also known as the “Indies,” refers to a group of islands in Southeast Asia, including modern-day Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines. During the Age of Exploration, European powers, notably the Dutch and Portuguese, sought control over the lucrative spice trade originating from the East Indies. The pursuit of these valuable resources greatly influenced European colonization efforts in the region.

Hispaniola is an island in the Caribbean, divided between the present-day countries of Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It was claimed by Christopher Columbus in 1492. Hispaniola was subsequently colonized by Spain, becoming a center of Spanish colonial administration and a hub for trade, including the Transatlantic Slave Trade .

San Salvadore

San Salvador, also known as Guanahani, is an island in the Caribbean Sea. It gained historical significance as the first landfall in the New World by Christopher Columbus during his 1492 voyage. Believed to be part of the Bahamas, San Salvador marked the initial encounter between Europeans and the indigenous peoples of the Americas, and it ignited the age of European exploration and colonization in the Western Hemisphere.

Geography — Waterways

The following APUSH Terms and Definitions fall under the theme of Geography and are key waterways in North America related to European Exploration.

Chesapeake Bay

Chesapeake Bay is a large estuary located on the East Coast of the United States, primarily in Maryland and Virginia. Explored by Captain John Smith in the early 17th century, Chesapeake Bay became a vital waterway for English colonial settlements, including Jamestown. The region later became a major center for tobacco cultivation and played a crucial role in the development of the English and British Colonies in North America.

Mississippi River

The Mississippi River is one of the longest rivers in North America, flowing through the United States from its headwaters in Minnesota to the Gulf of Mexico. It was explored by various European expeditions, including those led by Hernando de Soto and René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle. The Mississippi River played a significant role in the exploration, colonization, and trade in the interior of North America and is called the “Father of Waters.”

Northwest Passage

The Northwest Passage was a sea route that was sought by European explorers in the 16th and 17th centuries as a way to access the wealth and resources of the Pacific Ocean. The Northwest Passage was believed to be a shortcut between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and it was the subject of numerous expeditions. European explorers, including Martin Frobisher and Henry Hudson, sought the passage. Although it was not found until 1851, expeditions during the Age of Exploration allowed Europeans to gain a better understanding of Arctic geography and Canada’s northern regions.

St. Lawrence River

The St. Lawrence River is a major river in North America, flowing through the Great Lakes and connecting the Atlantic Ocean. Explored by French explorers such as Jacques Cartier and Samuel de Champlain, the St. Lawrence River became an important waterway for Fur Trade and French Colonization in Canada.

Migration and Settlement — Dutch Explorers

Adrian block.

Adrian Block was a Dutch explorer and navigator who played a significant role in the early exploration and colonization of North America. Block was part of the Dutch West India Company and is known for his explorations along the northeastern coast of the continent. In 1613 and 1614, he led expeditions that resulted in the mapping and exploration of areas such as Long Island, Block Island, and the Connecticut River. Block’s voyages contributed to Dutch claims and presence in the region.

Migration and Settlement — English Explorers and Investors

John Davis was an English explorer and navigator who made several voyages in search of the Northwest Passage. In the late 16th century, Davis explored the Arctic regions of North America, including the coasts of Greenland and Baffin Island. He made important discoveries and contributions to the understanding of Arctic geography.

Francis Drake

Sir Francis Drake was an English privateer, explorer, and naval officer. He gained fame for his daring circumnavigation of the globe from 1577 to 1580. Drake’s exploits included raids against Spanish colonies in the Americas, capturing immense wealth, and disrupting Spain’s dominance in the New World. Renowned as a skilled navigator and commander, Drake played a pivotal role in establishing England’s naval supremacy and bolstering its position as a major colonial power. His daring voyages helped lay the foundation for England’s vast overseas empire and significantly influenced the balance of power among European nations.

Drake also visited the Roanoke Island Colony in 1586 and transported some of the colonists back to England. A local Indian, Manteo, also sailed with Drake’s fleet to England.

Martin Frobisher

Martin Frobisher was an English navigator and explorer who played a significant role in the search for the Northwest Passage. In the late 16th century, he made three expeditions to the Arctic Region, primarily focusing on present-day Canada. Although he did not find the passage, his voyages were followed by others.

Humphrey Gilbert

Humphrey Gilbert, an English explorer and colonizer of the late 16th century, played a key role in England’s efforts to establish colonies in North America. Gilbert’s endeavors included unsuccessful attempts to establish settlements in Newfoundland and the Chesapeake Bay Region, including the Roanoke Island Colony. Gilbert was also the half-brother of Sir Walter Raleigh.

Raleigh Gilbert

Raleigh Gilbert was an English colonizer, the son of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, and the nephew of Sir Walter Raleigh. Gilbert played a role in the early attempts at English colonization in North America and was involved in the leadership of the Popham Colony.

Ferdinando Gorges

Ferdinando Gorges was an English colonial entrepreneur and a significant figure in early English attempts to establish colonies in North America. He was a prominent member of the Plymouth Company, which played a role in the colonization of Maine and granted the Pilgrims a land patent to settle in the New World . Gorges was a proponent of English expansion in the New World and sought to establish permanent settlements in the region. He was involved in the formation of the Council for New England and received land grants for territories in Maine, becoming an influential figure in the development of English colonies in North America, including New Hampshire and Massachusetts .

Bartholomew Gosnold

Bartholomew Gosnold was an English explorer and colonizer who played a key role in the early English ventures to North America. In 1602, he led an expedition to explore the New England coast, discovering and naming Cape Cod and Martha’s Vineyard. Gosnold’s voyage laid the groundwork for future English settlements in the region and contributed to the colonization efforts in the early 17th century. Gosnold was one of the first colonists at Jamestown and a member of the Governor’s Council.

John Hawkins

John Hawkins was an English naval commander and slave trader during the 16th century. Hawkins played a key role in the development of the English Slave Trade. Hawkins oversaw voyages to West Africa where he captured and transported African slaves to be sold in the Spanish Colonies of the Americas.

Henry Hudson

Henry Hudson was an English explorer who is credited with discovering the Hudson River and the Hudson Bay in North America in the early 17th century. Hudson’s voyages, which were funded by the English government, helped to establish English claims to the region and laid the foundations for the later colonization of the northeastern part of North America by the English. Hudson’s voyages also helped to establish trade routes between England and the New World.

John Popham

John Popham was an English lawyer and member of the Plymouth Company. He helped organize and fund the Popham Colony.

Martin Pring

Martin Pring was an English explorer and navigator who conducted several voyages to North America in the early 17th century. In 1603, he embarked on an expedition to what is now Maine and Massachusetts, exploring and mapping the region. Pring’s voyages provided valuable information about the geography and resources of New England, paving the way for future English settlement and trade.

Walter Raleigh

Sir Walter Raleigh was an English explorer, writer, and adventurer who is best known for his role in the colonization of the New World. Raleigh also led several expeditions to the New World, including the establishment of the Roanoke Colony in what is now modern-day North Carolina. The colony, which was funded by Raleigh, was established in 1585 and was the first English settlement in the New World. However, the colony was abandoned a few years later and is known as the “Lost Colony” due to the disappearance of its settlers.

John Smith was an English soldier, explorer, and leader in the early years of Jamestown Colony . He played a critical role in the survival of the colony, implementing strict discipline, establishing relations with Native American tribes of the Powhatan Confederacy, and exploring the Chesapeake Bay Region. Smith’s leadership and determination were instrumental in ensuring Jamestown’s survival in its early years. Smith’s accounts of the colony’s challenges and achievements provide important insights into the early English colonial experience.

George Weymouth

George Weymouth was an English explorer and mariner who led an expedition to North America in 1605. Sailing under the sponsorship of the Plymouth Company, Weymouth explored the coast of present-day Maine and conducted diplomatic interactions with Native American tribes, particularly the Penobscot people. His voyage contributed to English knowledge of the New England Region and played a role in future colonization efforts.

Migration and Settlement — French Explorers

Jacques cartier.

Jacques Cartier was a French explorer who is credited with discovering the St. Lawrence River and the Gulf of St. Lawrence in Canada in the 16th century. Cartier’s voyages, which were sponsored by the French government, established French claims to the region and laid the foundations for the later colonization of Canada by the French. Cartier’s voyages also helped to establish trade routes between France and the New World and played a significant role in the early history of Canada.

Samuel de Champlain

Samuel de Champlain was a French explorer and colonizer who is credited with establishing the first permanent French settlement in North America at Quebec in 1608. Champlain’s voyages, which were sponsored by the French government, helped establish French claims to the region and laid the foundations for the later colonization of Canada by the French. Champlain’s voyages also established trade routes between France and the New World and played a significant role in the early history of Canada.

De Champlain was involved in the Beaver Wars , an early conflict for control of the Fur Trade in North America.

Robert de La Salle

Robert de La Salle was a French explorer who is best known for his expeditions in North America during the late 17th century. La Salle explored the Great Lakes region and the Mississippi River, claiming these territories for France. He is credited with establishing a French presence in the interior of North America and played a significant role in French colonization.

René Goulaine de Laudonnière

René Goulaine de Laudonnière was a French explorer and colonizer who played a significant role in French attempts to establish a colony in North America. He is best known for his involvement in the establishment of Fort Caroline, a French Huguenot settlement in present-day Jacksonville, Florida. In 1564, Laudonnière led an expedition to Florida under the sponsorship of Admiral Gaspard de Coligny. He founded Fort Caroline as a haven for French Protestants. However, conflicts with the Spanish and internal challenges ultimately led to the destruction of Fort Caroline by the Spanish in 1565.

Jean Ribault

Jean Ribault, a French naval officer and explorer, led an expedition to Florida in 1562. Ribault aimed to establish a French colony in the region and successfully founded Fort Caroline. His efforts bolstered the French presence in North America, challenging Spanish claims and igniting fierce competition among European powers for control of the continent.

Jean-François de La Rocque de Roberval

Jean-François de La Rocque de Roberval was a French nobleman and explorer who led an ill-fated expedition to establish a French colony in Canada in the 16th century. In 1541, Roberval was appointed as the lieutenant-general of New France by King Francis I of France. His expedition aimed to establish a permanent settlement in North America, but it faced numerous challenges, including harsh weather, conflicts with indigenous peoples, and internal strife. The venture ultimately failed, and Roberval’s colony was abandoned.

Migration and Settlement — Italian Explorers

John Cabot, also known as Giovanni Caboto, was an Italian explorer commissioned by King Henry VII of England. He embarked on voyages across the Atlantic Ocean, seeking a western route to Asia. In 1497, Cabot reached Newfoundland, making him one of the first Europeans to set foot on the North American continent since the Vikings.

Sebastian Cabot

Sebastian Cabot, the son of John Cabot, followed in his father’s footsteps and made several voyages in the early 16th century. Cabot explored the northeastern coast of North America, including parts of modern-day Canada. His maps and writings contributed to European knowledge of the New World.

Christopher Columbus

Christopher Columbus was an Italian explorer who is credited with discovering the Americas in 1492. Columbus made four voyages to the Americas, sponsored by the Catholic Monarchs of Spain — Ferdinand and Isabella — and his expeditions helped to establish the first Spanish colonies in the Americas. Over time, Columbus has become a controversial figure due to the impact his voyages ultimately had on Indigenous peoples in the Americas.

Giovanni da Verrazzano

Giovanni da Verrazzano, an Italian explorer and navigator sailing under the French flag, made significant contributions to European knowledge of North America in the early 16th century. Verrazzano undertook expeditions along the eastern coast of the continent, charting and exploring areas such as present-day New York Harbor and Narragansett Bay. Verrazzano’s explorations laid the groundwork for future European colonization in North America and influenced the geopolitical rivalries among European powers seeking to claim territories in the New World.

Amerigo Vespucci

Amerigo Vespucci was an Italian explorer who is best known for his role in the exploration and mapping of the New World. He is credited with the discovery of the mainland of South America and was the first to suggest that the landmass was a separate continent, not part of Asia as had previously been believed. Vespucci’s explorations were funded by the Medici family of Florence, Italy, and he wrote extensively about his travels, providing valuable information about the geography and indigenous peoples of the New World.

Migration and Settlement — Portuguese Explorers

Pedro álvares cabral.

Pedro Álvares Cabral was a Portuguese explorer who is credited with the discovery of Brazil. In 1500, while attempting to sail to India, Cabral veered off course and landed on the eastern coast of South America. His arrival in Brazil marked the beginning of Portuguese colonization in the region.

Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo

Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo was a Portuguese explorer who sailed for the Spanish Empire. He is known for leading the first recorded European expedition to explore the California coast. In 1542, Cabrillo set sail from Mexico with the goal of finding a northwest passage to Asia. He explored the California coastline, reaching as far north as present-day Oregon. Cabrillo’s voyage provided valuable information about the geography of the region and the indigenous peoples encountered along the way. His exploration marked an important early European contact with California and laid the foundation for future Spanish and European presence in the area.

Bartholomeu Dias

Bartholomeu Dias was a Portuguese explorer who became the first European to sail around the southernmost tip of Africa, known as the Cape of Good Hope, in 1488. Dias’s expedition opened the way for future European sea trade with India and Asia by establishing a new route around Africa. His voyage demonstrated the reality of reaching the Indian Ocean via the southern route and contributed to Portugal’s dominance in maritime exploration during the Age of Exploration.

Vasco da Gama

Vasco da Gama was a Portuguese explorer who commanded the first successful sea voyage from Europe to India. In 1498, he reached the Indian subcontinent by sailing around the Cape of Good Hope and crossing the Indian Ocean. Da Gama’s expedition opened a direct sea route between Europe and Asia, bypassing the traditional overland Silk Road trade routes. His successful voyage established Portugal as a major maritime power and initiated an era of European dominance in Indian Ocean trade.

Ferdinand Magellan

Ferdinand Magellan was a Portuguese explorer who is best known for leading the first voyage to circumnavigate the world. He set out on his voyage in 1519 with a fleet of five ships and a crew of over 200 men. Magellan’s expedition encountered many challenges, including mutiny, starvation, and disease, but ultimately succeeded in circumnavigating the globe, returning to Spain in 1522 with just one ship and 18 survivors. Magellan himself died during the voyage, in 1521.

Prince Henry the Navigator

Henry the Navigator was a Portuguese prince who played a significant role in the Age of Exploration in the 15th century. Henry the Navigator was a patron of exploration and an advocate of the use of new technologies, such as the caravel, a type of sailing ship that was well-suited for exploration. Henry the Navigator also supported the establishment of a Trading Post Network and colonies along the West African coast, which helped to expand Portuguese trade and influence in the region.

Migration and Settlement — Spanish Explorers

Pedro menendez de aviles.

Pedro Menendez de Aviles was a distinguished Spanish admiral and explorer who played a pivotal role in the early colonization of the Americas. Tasked with establishing a Spanish foothold in Florida, he founded the settlement of St. Augustine in 1565. His primary objective was to defend Spanish interests and counter the encroachment of French and English rivals in the region. His efforts solidified Spanish control in Florida.

Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón

Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón was a Spanish Conquistador and explorer who played an important role in early Spanish efforts to colonize North America. In 1526, he led an expedition to what is now the southeastern coast of the United States, specifically present-day South Carolina. He established the short-lived colony of San Miguel de Guadalupe. However, the colony faced significant challenges and was quickly abandoned.

Vasco Núñez de Balboa

Vasco Núñez de Balboa was a Spanish explorer who is best known for leading an expedition that crossed the Isthmus of Panama. In 1513, he became the first European to reach the Pacific Ocean from the Americas. His discovery paved the way for future explorations and expeditions in the Pacific region, including the eventual colonization of present-day South America by the Spanish.

Juan de Bermúdez

Juan de Bermúdez was a Spanish explorer and navigator who is believed to have discovered the uninhabited islands now known as Bermuda in the early 16th century. The islands were named after him.

Hernán Pérez Bocanegra

Hernán Pérez Bocanegra was a Spanish Conquistador and one of the first European settlers in New Mexico. In 1598, he joined the expedition led by Juan de Oñate to establish a colony in the region. Bocanegra played a role in the early colonization of New Mexico and the interactions between the Spanish and the people living in the area.

Francisco Vásquez de Coronado

Francisco Vásquez de Coronado was a Spanish Conquistador who led an expedition into the southwestern United States in search of the fabled Seven Cities of Cibola and other riches. From 1540 to 1542, Coronado and his forces explored regions such as present-day Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas, encountering various indigenous cultures along the way.

Hernán Cortés

Hernán Cortés was a Spanish Conquistador who led the expedition that resulted in the fall of the Aztec Empire in present-day Mexico. In 1519, Cortés and his forces arrived in Mexico and engaged in alliances and conflicts with various indigenous groups. Cortés eventually conquered the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán in 1521, establishing Spanish control over the region.

Antonio de Mendoza

Antonio de Mendoza was a Spanish Conquistador and the first Viceroy of New Spain. He held the position from 1535 to 1550 and played a key role in the early administration and governance of the Spanish colonies in the Americas. Mendoza implemented policies to promote Spanish control, colonization, and conversion of indigenous peoples, laying the foundation for Spanish rule in Mexico and establishing the framework for colonial governance in the region.

Alonso de Ojeda

Alonso de Ojeda was a Spanish conquistador and explorer who participated in several expeditions to the Americas. He sailed with Christopher Columbus on his second voyage and later led his own expedition along the northern coast of South America. Ojeda is most well-known for his role in establishing the first European settlement in present-day Venezuela.

Francisco de Orellana

Francisco de Orellana was a Spanish Conquistador who is known for leading an expedition down the Amazon River in South America. In 1541, Orellana and his crew navigated the entire length of the Amazon River, from the Andes Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean.

Alonzo Alvarez de Pineda

Alonzo Alvarez de Pineda was a Spanish explorer and cartographer who mapped the Gulf Coast of North America. In 1519, he sailed along the Gulf Coast from Florida to Mexico, mapping and exploring the area. He is credited with creating one of the earliest European maps of the region.

Francisco Pizarro

Francisco Pizarro was a Spanish Conquistador who led the conquest of the Inca Empire in what is now Peru. In 1532, Pizarro and his forces captured the Inca emperor, Atahualpa, marking the beginning of Spanish control over the region. Pizarro’s conquest of the Inca Empire brought vast wealth and territory under Spanish control.

Hernando de Soto

Hernando de Soto was a Spanish Conquistador who led an expedition through the southeastern United States in the early 16th century. His expedition explored regions including Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Arkansas. The expedition was one of the first major European expeditions into the interior of North America.

Francisco de Ulloa

Francisco de Ulloa was a Spanish explorer who sailed along the western coast of present-day Mexico and the Gulf of California in the early 16th century. In 1539, Ulloa embarked on an expedition to explore and map the Gulf of California, becoming the first known European to do so.

Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca

Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca was a Spanish explorer who is best known for his accounts of the Narváez Expedition and his subsequent journey across the present-day southern United States. Shipwrecked near present-day Galveston, Texas, in 1528, Cabeza de Vaca and a small group of survivors embarked on a remarkable journey across Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and northern Mexico.

Angel de Villafane

Angel de Villafane, a Spanish naval officer and explorer of the 16th century, undertook numerous expeditions that contributed to Spain’s colonization efforts and the establishment of its empire in the Americas. His voyages encompassed regions such as the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean, where he explored uncharted territories, charted new routes, and expanded Spanish knowledge of the New World.

Migration and Settlement — Settlements

L’anse aux meadows (11th century).

L’Anse aux Meadows is an archaeological site located in Newfoundland, Canada. Discovered in 1960, it is the only confirmed Norse settlement in North America. L’Anse aux Meadows dates to the 11th Century and provides evidence of the Vikings’ presence in the New World, predating Columbus’s arrival by several centuries.

La Navidad (1492)

La Navidad was the first settlement established by Christopher Columbus during his first voyage to the Americas in 1492. Located in present-day Haiti, it was named after the ship Santa María, which had run aground nearby. The settlement did not last long, as it was destroyed by the Taino People.

La Isabella (1493)

La Isabella was the first permanent Spanish settlement in the Americas. It was founded by Christopher Columbus during his second voyage in 1493 on the island of Hispaniola, present-day Dominican Republic. Named after Queen Isabella of Castile, the settlement served as the capital of the Spanish colony and played an important role in the early Spanish colonization and administration of the region.

Santo Domingo (1496)

Santo Domingo, officially known as Santo Domingo de Guzmán, is the capital city of the Dominican Republic and the oldest continuously inhabited European-founded settlement in the Americas. It was founded by Bartholomew Columbus, the brother of Christopher Columbus, in 1496. Santo Domingo served as the administrative and economic center of Spanish colonial rule in the Caribbean and played a vital role in the development of the Spanish Empire’s presence in the New World.

Caparra (1508)

Caparra was the first Spanish colonial settlement established in Puerto Rico. Founded in 1508 by Juan Ponce de León, it served as the original capital of Puerto Rico until it was relocated to San Juan in 1521.

Panama City (1519)

Panama City, also known as Panama Viejo or Old Panama, was a historic Spanish settlement founded in 1519 by Pedro Arias Dávila, also known as Pedrarias. Located on the Pacific coast of present-day Panama, it served as the first European settlement on the mainland of the Americas’ Pacific coast. Panama City became an important location for Spanish colonial activities, serving as a starting point for expeditions to explore and conquer the Inca Empire in South America. The city was a trade center and played a key role in the transportation of gold and silver from the Spanish Colonies in South America to Europe. Panama City was destroyed by the Welsh pirate Henry Morgan in 1671, and the capital was subsequently moved to the current location of Panama City, Panama.

Veracruz (1519)

Veracruz is a major port city on the Gulf of Mexico coast in eastern Mexico. It was the site of the first Spanish settlement in Mexico. Hernán Cortés founded the settlement of Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz in 1519 as a strategic base to use for his conquest of the Aztec Empire. Veracruz became an important hub for Spanish colonization, trade, and the Transatlantic Slave Trade

San Miguel de Guadalupe (1526)

San Miguel de Guadalupe was a short-lived Spanish colony established in 1526 on the coast of present-day South Carolina. Led by Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón, the settlement aimed to establish a Spanish presence and exploit the region’s resources. However, due to harsh conditions, disease, and conflicts with indigenous peoples, the colony was abandoned within a few months.

Puebla de Zaragoza (1531)

Puebla de Zaragoza, known as Puebla, is a city in central Mexico. It was founded in 1531 by Spanish conquistadors led by Hernán Cortés. Puebla played an important role during the Colonial Era as a center for Spanish control in the region.

Santiago de Querétaro (1531)

Santiago de Querétaro, also known as Querétaro, is a city in central Mexico. It was founded by the Otomi People before the arrival of the Spanish. In 1531, the Spanish Conquistador Hernán Pérez Bocanegra established the Spanish colonial settlement. Querétaro became an important religious, political, and economic center during the Colonial Era. Later, it played a key role in the Mexican War of Independence.

Charlesbourg-Royal (1541)

Charlesbourg-Royal was a French settlement located near present-day Quebec City, Canada. It was established in 1541 by Jacques Cartier, the French explorer, during his third voyage to North America. The settlement was intended to serve as a base for the colonization of the area and to secure French territorial claims. However, the harsh conditions, conflicts with local peoples, and lack of supplies led to its abandonment in 1543.

Nueva Ciudad de Mechuacán (Morelia) (1541)

Nueva Ciudad de Mechuacán, later known as Morelia, is a city in the state of Michoacán, Mexico. It was founded in 1541 by Antonio de Mendoza, the first Viceroy of New Spain, as part of Spain’s efforts to establish control over the region. Morelia became an important political, economic, and cultural center during the Colonial Era.

Pensacola (1559)

Pensacola is a city in the state of Florida, United States. Initially established by the Spanish in 1559, Pensacola served as a strategic outpost for Spain in the Gulf of Mexico and played a role in the broader Spanish colonization efforts in North America. Over the centuries, it changed hands multiple times between various European powers, including Spain, France, and Britain.

Charlesfort (1562)

Charlesfort was a French settlement established in 1562 on Parris Island, present-day South Carolina. It was founded by French explorer Jean Ribault and served as a strategic outpost during France’s attempts to colonize the southeastern region of North America. However, the settlement faced challenges and was abandoned.

Fort Caroline (1564)

Fort Caroline was a French Huguenot settlement established in 1564 in present-day Jacksonville, Florida. Led by René Goulaine de Laudonnière, the settlement aimed to establish a French presence in the southeastern part of North America. Fort Caroline became a focal point of conflict between the French and Spanish, eventually resulting in the Spanish destroying the fort in 1565 and establishing St. Augustine, a Spanish colony, in its place.

St. Augustine (1565)

St. Augustine, founded in 1565 by Spanish explorer Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, is the oldest continuously occupied European-established settlement in the United States. Located in present-day Florida, St. Augustine served as a military outpost and a hub for Spanish colonial activity in the region.

Ajacán Mission (1570)

Ajacán Mission was a failed Spanish Jesuit mission established in 1570 in present-day Virginia. The mission aimed to convert and establish a settlement among the people in the region. However, the mission faced numerous challenges and was abandoned.

Roanoke Island (1585)

Roanoke Island is an island located off the coast of present-day North Carolina. It holds historical significance as the site of the Roanoke Colony, an early English attempt at establishing a permanent settlement in North America. The colony, also known as the “Lost Colony,” was established in 1585 by Sir Walter Raleigh. However, the colonists faced numerous challenges and mysteriously disappeared. The fate of the Roanoke Colony remains unknown.

Port Royal (1603)

Port Royal, established in 1603, was an English settlement located in present-day Nova Scotia, Canada. It was one of the earliest English colonies in North America. Port Royal served as a base for fur trading and fishing activities, and it played a significant role in the expansion of English presence in the region. The settlement was later captured by the French in 1613.

St. Croix Island (1604)

St. Croix Island, located in present-day Maine, was the site of a French settlement established in 1604. Led by Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons, the settlement aimed to establish a fur trading outpost and served as the first French attempt at permanent colonization in North America. However, the harsh winter and scarcity of resources led to significant hardships, resulting in the abandonment of the settlement the following year.

Popham Colony (1607)

The Popham Colony, also known as the Sagadahoc Colony , was an English settlement established in 1607 in present-day Maine. Sponsored by the Plymouth Company, the colony aimed to establish a profitable trading outpost in North America. Led by George Popham and Raleigh Gilbert, the colony faced numerous challenges, including harsh weather, scarcity of resources, and conflicts with the indigenous people. The colony lasted for just over a year before it was abandoned due to hardships and lack of support.

Jamestown Colony (1607)

Jamestown Colony was the first permanent English settlement established in North America . Founded in 1607 in present-day Virginia, it was sponsored by the Virginia Company of London. The colony faced numerous challenges, including harsh conditions, food shortages, and conflicts with Native Americans. However, it survived and grew due to the leadership of figures like John Smith, and John Rolfe, and the introduction of tobacco as a cash crop. Jamestown Colony marked the beginning of English colonization in America and played a crucial role in shaping the future of the Virginia Colony, the Chesapeake Bay Region, and North America.

Migration and Settlement — Business

Joint-stock companies.

Joint-Stock Companies were a type of business organization that emerged in Europe during the early Colonial Era. They were formed by the merging of individual investments into a single enterprise, with each investor receiving a share of the company’s profits in proportion to their investment. Joint-Stock Companies were often used to fund long-term ventures that included immigration and the establishment of settlements.

Company of Merchant Adventurers of London

The Company of Merchant Adventurers of London was a prominent English trading company established in the 16th century. It was composed of wealthy merchants who engaged in international trade, particularly in northern Europe. The company had a monopoly on the trade of English cloth in certain regions and played a significant role in expanding English commerce and influence. It established trading posts and networks across Europe, particularly in the Low Countries and Baltic regions, and contributed to the growth of England’s economic power during the early modern period.

Muscovy Company

The Muscovy Company, also known as the Russian Company, or the Company of Merchant Adventurers to New Lands, was an English trading company founded in the 16th century. It held a monopoly on English trade with Russia and the surrounding regions. The company sought to establish trade routes to Russia and to engage in commerce with the Muscovite tsardom. The Muscovy Company played a crucial role in developing trade between England and Russia, importing goods such as furs, timber, and Russian products. It established important trading posts and helped pave the way for future English-Russian trade relations.

Virginia Company of London

The Virginia Company of London was a Joint Stock Company founded in 1606 by King James I of England with the purpose of establishing colonies in the New World. The company received a charter from the king granting it the right to settle and govern a large area of land in what is now modern-day Virginia. The company funded the establishment of the Jamestown colony, which was the first permanent English settlement in the New World. Typically referred to as just the “Virginia Company,” it played a key role in the colonization and development of the region, but it eventually lost its charter and was dissolved in 1624.

Virginia Company of Plymouth

The Virginia Company of Plymouth, also known as the Plymouth Company, was an English Joint Stock Company established in 1606. It was one of the two companies granted charters by King James I to colonize North America, the other being the Virginia Company of London. The Plymouth Company wanted to establish settlements in the northern parts of Virginia, which included present-day New England. The Plymouth Company’s charter was eventually revoked, and its territory was absorbed by the Massachusetts Bay Company.

Migration and Settlement — Colonists

Virginia dare.

Virginia Dare was the first English child born in the Americas. She was born on August 18, 1587, in the Roanoke Colony. Her birth coincided with the early English attempts at colonization in the New World. Unfortunately, the fate of Virginia Dare and the rest of the Roanoke Colony remains unknown, as they mysteriously disappeared, giving rise to the legend of the “Lost Colony.”

Richard Grenville

Sir Richard Grenville was an English naval commander and explorer during the Elizabethan era. He played a significant role in the early colonization efforts in North America. In 1585, Grenville led an expedition to establish the first English colony in the Americas on Roanoke Island.

Thomas Harriot

Thomas Harriot was an English mathematician, astronomer, and natural philosopher who made important contributions to the study of science during the late 16th and early 17th centuries. He was part of the Roanoke Colony Expedition and is known for his observations and documentation of the New World, including his studies of indigenous people and the natural environment. Harriot’s work on the Roanoke Colony provided valuable insights into early English encounters with the Native American Indian population.

Sir Ralph Lane was an English explorer and military officer who was part of the Roanoke Colony Expedition. He served as the first Governor of the colony when it was established in 1585.

John Rolfe was an English settler in Jamestown Colony and is credited with introducing tobacco as a cash crop to Virginia. His successful cultivation of a high-quality strain of tobacco known as “Orinoco” brought economic stability to the colony and played a significant role in the colony’s prosperity. In 1614, Rolfe married Pocahontas, the daughter of Powhatan. The “Peace of Pocahontas” ended the First Anglo-Powhatan War , establishing peace between colonists and Powhatan Confederacy. The marriage also encouraged cultural exchange and cooperation between the two groups.

John White was an English artist and colonist who was also part of the Roanoke Colony Expedition. He served as the colony’s Governor during its final attempt at settlement in 1587. White is well known for his watercolor illustrations documenting the flora, fauna, and Native American cultures of the New World. He returned to England in 1587 to gather supplies but was delayed due to the Anglo-Spanish War. When he finally returned to Roanoke Island in 1590, the colony had disappeared, including his granddaughter, Virginia Dare.

Migration and Settlement — Causes of European Immigration

Black plague.

The Black Plague, also known as the Black Death, was a devastating pandemic that swept across Europe in the 14th century. It is believed to have originated in Asia and spread through trade routes, primarily carried by fleas on rats.

The Crusades were a series of religious and military campaigns initiated by European Christians in the 11th through 13th centuries. The Crusaders aimed to reclaim and protect Christian holy sites, primarily in the Holy Land, which was under Muslim control.

Protestant Reformation

The Protestant Reformation was a movement in the 16th century that sought to reform the Catholic Church and led to the creation of Protestantism, a branch of Christianity that rejected the authority of the Pope and the Catholic Church. The Protestant Reformation was sparked by the teachings of Martin Luther, a German monk who criticized the corruption and excesses of the Catholic Church. John Calvin and others also challenged the teachings and practices of the Church.

Renaissance

The Renaissance was a period of intellectual, artistic, and cultural rebirth that spanned roughly from the 14th to the 17th century. It originated in Italy and gradually spread throughout Europe. The Renaissance marked a shift from the medieval worldview to a renewed focus on humanism, exploration, scientific inquiry, and the revival of classical knowledge and art.

Spanish Armada

The Spanish Armada was a fleet of ships sent by Philip II of Spain in 1588 with the goal of invading England and overthrowing Queen Elizabeth I . The Armada was defeated by the English navy in a series of battles, most notably the Battle of Gravelines. The victory of the English navy marked a turning point in European naval warfare and solidified England’s position as a major naval power while weakening Spain’s dominance. In the wake of the Armada’s defeat, England became determined to establish colonies in the New World as part of its Mercantile System.

Spanish Inquisition

The Spanish Inquisition was a state-sanctioned institution established in the late 15th century by the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castille. It aimed to enforce religious orthodoxy and eliminate heresy, primarily targeting Jews, Muslims, and conversos — Jews converted to Christianity — who were suspected of practicing their former faith secretly. The Spanish Inquisition employed methods such as torture, trials, and confiscation of property to enforce religious conformity. Its impact on Spanish society and the persecution it carried had significant consequences, including the expulsion of Jews and Muslims from Spain.

Migration and Settlement — Causes of European Exploration

Anglo-spanish war.

The Anglo-Spanish War refers to a series of conflicts between England and Spain during the 16th and 17th centuries. These conflicts were driven by competition for power, wealth, and influence, both in Europe and overseas territories. Notable events include the Spanish Armada campaign in 1588. The war had significant implications for naval power, colonial expansion, and trade, ultimately contributing to the decline of Spanish dominance and the rise of English supremacy on the high seas.

Dutch Golden Age

The Dutch Golden Age refers to a period of economic, cultural, and scientific prosperity in the 17th century in the Dutch Republic. During this era, the Dutch dominated global trade, establishing a vast colonial empire and becoming one of the wealthiest and most powerful nations in the world. Following the end of the Anglo-Spanish War, England challenged the Netherlands for control of trade on the high seas, leading to the passage of the Navigation Acts.

English Reformation

The English Reformation refers to the religious and political changes in England during the 16th Century, when the Church of England separated from the authority of the Roman Catholic Church. It was driven by both religious and political motives, including King Henry VIII’s desire for the annulment of his marriage and the influence of Protestant ideas. The English Reformation resulted in the establishment of the Church of England.

European Expansion

European Expansion refers to the expansion of European influence and control in the Americas in the 16th and 17th centuries. European Expansion was driven by a variety of factors, including the desire for land, resources, and wealth, as well as the desire to spread Christianity and European culture to the New World.

Fountain of Youth

The Fountain of Youth is a mythical spring believed to grant eternal youth and vitality to those who drink from it. The legend of the Fountain of Youth captivated the imagination of early European explorers, most notably Juan Ponce de León, who searched for it in present-day Florida in the early 16th century.

Feudalism was a social and economic system that dominated Medieval Europe. It was based on the exchange of land for military service and the hierarchical relationships between lords and vassals. In the Feudal System, the land was owned by nobles or monarchs and granted to vassals in exchange for their loyalty and military support. Feudalism provided social order and structure but also reinforced inequality and limited social mobility. Under the Feudal System, the lower classes had little to no opportunity to own land of their own. The opportunity to own land in the New World played an important role in European immigration.

God, Gold, and Glory

“God, Gold, and Glory” is a phrase often used to summarize the motivations and driving forces behind European Exploration, colonization, and conquest during the Age of Exploration. It represents the three primary objectives that inspired and justified European powers’ actions in the New World and beyond.

Land-Based Trade Routes

Land-based trade routes refer to the networks of overland routes that facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultures between different regions and civilizations. Examples of significant land-based trade routes include the Silk Road, connecting Europe and Asia, and the Trans-Saharan trade routes, linking Sub-Saharan Africa with North Africa and the Mediterranean world. These trade routes played a crucial role in the exchange of commodities, technologies, and cultural diffusion.

Mercantile System

The Mercantile System, also known as Mercantilism, was an economic policy prevalent in Europe from the 16th to the 18th centuries. It aimed to increase a nation’s wealth and power through the promotion of exports, the acquisition of precious metals, and the establishment of colonies. Mercantilist policies typically involved protectionism, such as imposing tariffs and promoting domestic industries. The goal was to achieve a positive balance of trade by exporting more goods than importing. Mercantilism played a significant role in shaping European colonialism and trade during the Colonial Era.

New France was the French colonial empire in North America from the 16th to the 18th centuries. It included regions such as present-day Canada, the Great Lakes, and parts of the Mississippi River Valley. New France was primarily focused on Fur Trade and establishing friendly relations with Native American tribes. French colonists, known as Canadiens or Acadians, developed a distinctive culture and society in the region. However, conflicts with the British, such as the French and Indian War, eventually led to the cession of most French territories in North America to the British Empire.

New Spain was the Spanish colonial empire in North America and the Caribbean during the 16th to 19th centuries. It encompassed a vast region including present-day Mexico, Central America, the southwestern United States, and parts of the Caribbean. New Spain was characterized by Spanish colonization, the imposition of Spanish culture and institutions, and the exploitation of indigenous peoples and resources. It played a crucial role in the Spanish Empire’s economic and political power, serving as a source of wealth through mining, agriculture, and trade.

Quivira was a legendary city believed to be located in the interior of North America, described as a wealthy place filled with gold and precious gems. Francisco Vásquez de Coronado led an expedition in search of Quivira in 1541, exploring the present-day American Midwest, including parts of present-day Kansas.

Seven Cities of Cibola

The Seven Cities of Cibola refers to a mythical area of seven wealthy cities believed to be located in the southwestern United States. The legend of the Seven Cities of Cibola motivated several Spanish expeditions, including Francisco Vásquez de Coronado’s, in search of great wealth and cities made of gold.

Trading Post Empire

A trading post empire is a type of colonial empire that was primarily focused on establishing trading posts and maintaining control over strategic points along trade routes. Instead of large-scale colonization, trading post empires, such as the Portuguese Empire in the Indian Ocean and the Dutch East India Company, aimed to control trade and secure access to valuable resources. They often built fortified trading posts and relied on local alliances and commercial dominance rather than direct territorial control. These trading post empires played a significant role in European expansion and the development of global trade networks.

Trading Post System

The Trading Post System was a system of economic exchange that emerged in North America during the Colonial Era. It involved the establishment of Trading Posts, typically located in strategic locations such as along rivers or at the confluence of trade routes, where European traders could exchange goods with Native American tribes for furs, pelts, and other valuable commodities.

Water-Based Trade Routes

Water-Based Trade Routes refer to the routes of maritime trade that connected different regions and civilizations through the seas and oceans. Notable water-based trade routes include the Mediterranean Sea, which connected Europe, Africa, and Asia, and the Indian Ocean trade routes, linking the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and East Africa. These trade routes facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and technologies, and they were essential for the growth of global commerce and cultural exchange.

Politics and Power — Monarchs, Politicians, Clergy

Elizabeth i.

Elizabeth I, also known as the “Virgin Queen,” was the Queen of England and Ireland from 1558 to 1603. She is considered one of the most influential monarchs in English history. Her reign was marked by political stability and the expansion of England’s influence in the world. Her reign saw England’s defeat of the Spanish Armada and the establishment of England as a major naval and colonial power.

Ferdinand and Isabella

King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella were the joint rulers of the Kingdom of Castile and the Kingdom of Aragon in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. They are best known for their role in the unification of Spain, as well as their support for the voyages of exploration led by Christopher Columbus. Ferdinand and Isabella are also known for their support of the Catholic Church and their role in the Spanish Inquisition, a period of persecution of non-Catholics in Spain.

Francis I was the King of France from 1515 to 1547. He sponsored several exploratory expeditions, including those led by Giovanni da Verrazzano, Jacques Cartier, and Jean-François de La Rocque de Roberval. These expeditions aimed to find new trade routes and territories and expanded French influence in North America.

Richard Hakluyt the Elder

Richard Hakluyt the Elder was an English geographer and writer during the Elizabethan era. He was a key figure in promoting English exploration and colonization. Hakluyt’s most notable work was “The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the English Nation,” a collection of travel accounts and geographical information that aimed to inspire English exploration and establish a colonial empire.

Richard Hakluyt the Younger

Richard Hakluyt the Younger was an English clergyman, geographer, and editor who carried on the work of his uncle, Richard Hakluyt the Elder. He continued to collect and publish accounts of voyages and explorations, further promoting English expansion and colonization. Hakluyt the Younger played a crucial role in disseminating knowledge about overseas exploration and encouraging English colonization efforts during the early 17th century.

Henry VII was the King of England and Lord of Ireland from 1485 until his death in 1509. He was the founder of the Tudor Dynasty and played a crucial role in consolidating power after the Wars of the Roses. Henry VII sponsored voyages of exploration, including those led by John Cabot, in search of new trade routes and territories.

Henry VIII was the King of England from 1509 until his death in 1547. He is one of the most well-known monarchs in English history. Henry VIII is notable for his role in the English Reformation, which resulted in the separation of the Church of England from the authority of the Roman Catholic Church. His desire to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon and marry Anne Boleyn led to the establishment of the Church of England, with Henry VIII as its Supreme Head. His reign also saw the dissolution of the monasteries, the establishment of the Royal Navy, and significant political and religious changes in England. Henry VIII had six wives and is known for his efforts to secure a male heir, which led to divorces, annulments, and beheadings. Queen Elizabeth I was his daughter.

James I was the monarch of England and Ireland from 1603 to 1625. He granted the charter to the Virginia Company of London, allowing the establishment of Jamestown Colony in the New World. He played a pivotal role in encouraging English colonization efforts and providing support to the Virginia Company. During his time on the throne, there were significant developments in English colonization, exploration, and overseas trade, setting the stage for further expansion and influence in the New World.

Philip II of Spain was a powerful monarch who ruled over the Spanish Empire from 1556 to 1598. He was the son of Charles V and Isabella of Portugal. Philip II’s reign was marked by Spanish dominance in Europe, extensive colonial expansion, and his strong commitment to Catholicism. He launched the Spanish Armada in an attempt to invade England and restore Catholicism, but the defeat of the Armada marked a turning point in the balance of power in Europe.

Pope Alexander VI

Pope Alexander VI, born Rodrigo Borgia, was the pope of the Catholic Church from 1492 until his death in 1503. He is known for his controversial and corrupt actions, particularly in relation to the colonization of the Americas. Pope Alexander VI issued several papal bulls, including the infamous Inter Caetera, which granted Spain and Portugal the rights to explore and colonize newly discovered lands and impose Christian dominion over the people living in the New World

Politics and Power — Treaties

Inter caetera.

Inter Caetera is a papal bull issued by Pope Alexander VI on May 4, 1493. The bull divided the newly discovered lands between Spain and Portugal, providing them with exclusive rights to explore, colonize, and convert the people they found living there. It established the Line of Demarcation, a boundary dividing the world between the two nations. Spain was granted rights to lands west of the line, while Portugal had rights to lands east of the line. Inter Caetera played a crucial role in shaping European colonial expansion in the Americas and contributed to the subsequent era of Spanish and Portuguese colonization.

Line of Demarcation

The Line of Demarcation, also known as the Papal Line of Demarcation, was an imaginary line established by the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494. It was a division agreed upon by Spain and Portugal to divide the newly discovered lands outside of Europe. The line was drawn by Pope Alexander VI in the papal bull Inter Caetera. The purpose of the line was to avoid conflicts between the two Catholic powers and to define their spheres of influence in the exploration and colonization of the New World. The line ran from pole to pole, dividing the world into two zones: the eastern zone granted to Portugal and the western zone granted to Spain. Portugal received rights to lands and territories east of the line, including present-day Brazil, while Spain gained rights to territories west of the line, encompassing most of the Americas. Over time, the line was adjusted through various treaties and negotiations as other European powers entered the scene of exploration and colonization.

Treaty of Alcáçovas

The Treaty of Alcáçovas was a treaty signed in 1479 between the kingdoms of Portugal and Castile (Spain). It marked the end of the territorial disputes between the two kingdoms and established spheres of influence for each country in the Atlantic Ocean and Africa. The treaty recognized Portuguese control over the Cape Verde Islands, Madeira, and the Azores, while Castile gained control over the Canary Islands. It played a significant role in defining the areas of exploration and colonization for Portugal and Spain during the Age of Exploration.

Treaty of Tordesillas

The Treaty of Tordesillas was signed in 1494 between the Catholic Monarchs of Spain and Portugal and divided the New World between the two countries. The treaty was based on the papal bull Inter Caetera, which had been issued by Pope Alexander VI in 1493, and it established a Line of Demarcation that gave Spain the rights to the lands to the west of the line and Portugal the rights to the lands to the east. The Treaty of Tordesillas helped to shape the modern-day borders of many countries in the Americas.

Politics and Power — Political Structures and Groups

Conquistadors.

Conquistadors were Spanish explorers and conquerors who played a pivotal role in the colonization of the Americas during the 16th century. Driven by a desire for wealth, land, and spreading Christianity, the Conquistadors carried out expeditions in the New World, particularly in present-day Mexico, Central America and South America. Notable Conquistadors include Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro, who conquered the Aztec and Inca Empires, respectively, and established Spanish dominance in the region.

Huguenots were French Protestants who emerged during the 16th and 17th centuries as followers of the Reformed tradition of Protestantism. They were primarily Calvinists and faced religious persecution in Catholic-dominated France. Many Huguenots sought religious freedom and migrated to other countries, including England, the Netherlands, and the American colonies. Their presence in the Americas, particularly in New Netherland, made religious freedom a key benefit of the colony. 

Nation-State

A Nation-State is a sovereign state composed of a single nation or group of people who share a common identity, culture, and language. Nation-states are characterized by their strong central governments and the presence of a single dominant culture within their borders. Nation-States are the dominant form of political organization in the modern world, and they are typically characterized by a high degree of territorial integrity and political stability. Nation-States started to develop in Europe during the 15th Century.

The Puritans were a group of English Protestants who sought to “purify” the Church of England from what they considered to be remaining Catholic practices and beliefs. They emphasized a strict religious and moral code, simple worship, and a personal relationship with God. The Puritans played a significant role in the colonization of New England , seeking religious freedom and establishing colonies such as Massachusetts Bay Colony.

Separatists

Separatists were a radical group inside the Puritans who believed that the Church of England was beyond reform and chose to separate from it entirely. They sought religious freedom and the ability to practice their faith independently. Separatists faced persecution in England and sought refuge in the New World, where they played a significant role in the early colonization of America and the development of religious tolerance. The most well-known group of Separatists was the Pilgrims , who established the Plymouth Colony in 1620. 

Politics and Power — Events and Ages

Conquest of the americas.

The Conquest of the Americas refers to the process of European colonization of the Americas in the 16th and 17th centuries. The Conquest of the Americas was a complex process that involved the expansion of European influence and control over the region, as well as the exploitation and oppression of Indigenous peoples and the introduction of new diseases and technologies. The Conquest of the Americas had a significant impact on the history and development of the Americas, and it continues to be a controversial and divisive topic in the history of the region.

Reconquista

The Reconquista refers to the centuries-long process of Christian kingdoms in the Iberian Peninsula reclaiming territories from Muslim rule. It began in the 8th century and culminated in 1492 with the Fall of Granada, the last Muslim stronghold in Spain. The Reconquista had profound political, cultural, and religious implications, as it led to the establishment of Christian kingdoms and the consolidation of Catholicism as the dominant religion in the region.

Age of Exploration

The Age of Exploration, also known as the Age of Discovery, refers to the period from the 15th to the 17th centuries when European explorers ventured into uncharted territories, seeking new trade routes and knowledge. It was driven by various factors, including the desire for wealth, fame, and spreading Christianity. European nations, such as Spain, Portugal, England, and France, sponsored voyages of exploration to Africa, Asia, and the Americas, leading to significant geographic, scientific, and cultural discoveries, as well as colonization and the establishment of global trade networks.

An astrolabe is a historical astronomical instrument used to measure the altitude of celestial bodies and determine the time and location. It consists of a circular disk with marked degrees and a pivoting arm with sights to observe the position of stars and planets. Astrolabes were used by ancient astronomers and navigators for celestial navigation, determining latitude, and making astronomical calculations. They played a crucial role in early exploration and navigation, aiding in charting routes and guiding ships across vast distances.

A caravel was a small, highly maneuverable sailing ship that was used by the Portuguese and Spanish during the Age of Exploration. The ships were typically around 50-60 feet long and had a narrow hull with a high, rounded stern and a lateen sail. Caravels were used for long voyages of exploration and were instrumental in the European discovery and colonization of the New World.

Cartography

Cartography is the art and science of creating maps and charts. It involves the gathering of geographic information, the interpretation of data, and the representation of the Earth’s surface on a two-dimensional plane. Cartography played a vital role in navigation and exploration, enabling explorers to record and convey geographical knowledge, chart new territories, and plan sea routes accurately.

Magnetic Compass

The magnetic compass is an ancient navigational instrument used to determine direction relative to the Earth’s magnetic field. It consists of a magnetized needle or card that aligns with the Earth’s magnetic north-south axis. The magnetic compass revolutionized navigation by allowing sailors to accurately determine their heading, enabling them to traverse the open seas with greater precision and confidence.

Printing Press

The printing press, invented by Johannes Gutenberg in the 15th century, revolutionized the production and dissemination of information. It allowed for the mass production of books and other printed materials, making knowledge more accessible to a wider audience. The printing press facilitated the spread of scientific, religious, and philosophical ideas, fostering intellectual and cultural advancements during the Renaissance and beyond. It had a profound impact on communication, education, and the development of modern society.

A sextant is a navigational instrument used to measure the angle between celestial objects, such as the sun, moon, and stars, and the horizon. It typically consists of a graduated arc, a sighting mechanism, and a movable arm with a small telescope or sighting device. By measuring the angle between celestial objects and the horizon, sailors could calculate their latitude and navigate with greater accuracy.

Sternpost Rudder

The sternpost rudder is a key maritime invention that revolutionized ship navigation and maneuverability. Developed in ancient China during the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), the sternpost rudder is a vertical blade attached to the stern or rear of a ship. It replaced the earlier side-mounted steering oars, providing better control and stability to vessels. The sternpost rudder allowed ships to steer more effectively, enabling longer voyages, improved maneuvering in adverse conditions, and facilitated the exploration and expansion of maritime trade routes.

• Written by Randal Rust

Why Did Monarchs Encourage Exploration? (Here’s Why!)

The Age of Exploration is one of the defining aspects of the Renaissance and Early Modern Periods in Europe. The Age of Exploration refers to the period from roughly 1420 to 1600 when European explorers made voyages across the Atlantic and beyond. During this period, monarchs were keen to support exploration and funded some of the most significant voyages in history.

But why? Why did monarchs encourage exploration? What did they get out of it?

Let’s find out.

Why Did Monarchs Encourage Exploration During the Renaissance?

We will focus our discussion on the Age of Exploration which started during the Renaissance and understand the motivation of monarchs to fund and support these exploratory voyages.

Here are the main reasons why European monarchs encouraged exploration during the Renaissance:

• To discover new trade routes and markets
• To expand their empires
• To increase their political power at home
• To spread Christianity to distant lands
• To increase their wealth and influence over rivals

Let’s now look closely at each of these main reasons why monarchs encouraged exploration.

#1. To discover new trade routes and markets

Many monarchs and rulers, especially of maritime powers such as England, France, Spain, and the Netherlands as well as maritime city-states like Genoa and Venice understood that the fastest way to find new markets for their products was to explore the lands beyond the seas.

In times before the Renaissance, this wasn’t always possible. Even though the Crusades had opened up trade routes , these were to the near-Orient and the Levant because maritime technology was not advanced enough to sail further with confidence. Remember, that many of the Crusader armies went by land through the Byzantine Empire, but the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 closed this route for further exploration.

But with the invention of better ships, compasses, and navigational instruments this changed in the Renaissance period and distant lands suddenly became accessible.

With new trade routes and markets, monarchs wanted to increase the wealth of their nations not just by selling their products into these markets but also by finding valuable resources for use back home.

The discovery of these new trade routes would spawn a trade and commerce revolution and would bring immense wealth and influence to the European powers that engaged in it. It was thus natural for monarchs to be keenly interested in these voyages of discovery and to fund them as much as possible.

#2. To expand their empires

Trade, commerce and wealth were just one reason why monarchs encourage exploration. No European monarch was really satisfied with the land they had; they always wanted more. The continuous need for expansion led to virtually non-stop warfare throughout the Middle Ages.

Even the Crusades were only partly religious in nature; they were also wars of expansion and conquest, often under the guise of freeing the Holy Land. European monarchs or nobility established Crusader states like the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the Principality of Antioch the County of Tripoli and the County of Edessa.

The Age of Exploration was simply an extension of this tradition, only now it was by sea. European explorers like Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama and Ferdinand Magellan were able to reach distant lands that before had been out of reach. By claiming these lands for the crown, monarchs could not only expand their empires but also gain great wealth by bringing valuable resources back to Europe.

So, the support of monarchs was one of the main reasons why the Age of Exploration began .

#3. To increase their political power at home

Wealth and success in distant lands often led to an immense increase of power at home. By conquering new lands and bringing valuable resources to their nations, monarchs could gain a great amount of influence over rival nobles and the political landscape of their home nations.

Also, the exploration and conquest of distant lands was a way to quell political dissent (if there was any) and to put the population behind the ruling monarch. Often, political rivals were required to join the voyages of discovery and conquest, thus removing them from domestic politics.

#4. To spread Christianity to distant lands

One impact of the Renaissance on the Catholic Church was the export of Christianity to distant lands. This was an important endeavor for many monarchs and rulers who sought to convert the natives of these new lands to Christianity. The most fervent of these were the Spanish monarchs Queen Isabella of Castille and King Ferdinand II of Aragon.

Sometimes referred to as “The Catholic Monarchs”, they were responsible for the Spanish colonization of much of the Americas and brought Christianity to many people who had never been exposed to it before. So their encouragement of exploration was very much motivated by religious beliefs and their desire to spread Catholicism to these distant lands.

#5. To increase their wealth and influence over rivals

Finally, the exploration and conquests of distant lands were often a power play within the closed circles of European rulers. By discovering new lands and claiming them for the crown, monarchs could increase their own wealth and influence over their European rivals. This

was especially true with regard to the Spanish, French and English monarchs who were often competing for control of newly discovered lands.

The distant lands were often bargaining chips in the political game between European monarchs. For instance, the island of New Amsterdam was a Dutch settlement in North America and used it the defense of the fur trade of the Dutch West India Company. In 1664, the English took over New Amsterdam and in exchange gave up Surinam and the island of Run to the Dutch. Distant colonies exchanged hands as part of a larger power game. New Amsterdam was what we now call Manhattan!

To Conclude …

So, why did monarchs encourage exploration? Monarchs encouraged exploration for a variety of reasons, both religious and political.

Trade and commerce, the expansion of their empires, increased power at home, the spread of Christianity and the acquisition of wealth over rival monarchs were all motivations for why monarchs encouraged exploration during the Age of Exploration.

Winter is here! Check out the winter wonderlands at these 5 amazing winter destinations in Montana

• Travel Tips

Who Funded Christopher Columbus’ Voyage?

Published: December 15, 2023

Modified: December 28, 2023

by Merna Judson

• Travel Destinations

Introduction

Christopher Columbus is a renowned figure in history, known for his explorations and discovery of the New World. He embarked on several voyages during the late 15th century, under the financial support of various individuals and entities. The funding for Columbus’ expeditions played a crucial role in enabling his ambitious voyages and shaping the course of history.

In this article, we will delve into the sources of funding for Christopher Columbus’ voyages, exploring the motivations behind the financial support and the individuals and organizations involved. From initial fundraising efforts to securing support from the Spanish monarchy, we will uncover the intricate web of financial backing that made Columbus’ historic expeditions possible.

Before we dive into the details of funding, let’s provide some background on Christopher Columbus and his explorations. Born in Genoa, Italy, in 1451, Columbus was a skilled navigator with a burning desire to seek new trade routes to Asia. Inspired by the voyages of other explorers, he formulated a plan to sail westward across the Atlantic Ocean in search of a faster route to the riches of the East. His ultimate goal was to reach Asia and establish trade connections with its lucrative markets.

With his plans in place, Columbus began seeking financial support for his ambitious endeavor. It is important to note that during this time, the prevailing belief was that the Earth was flat, and many potential sponsors were skeptical of Columbus’ proposed route. Therefore, finding backers who were willing to invest in his vision was no easy task.

Background on Christopher Columbus

Christopher Columbus, born in 1451, was an Italian explorer and navigator. He had a deep interest in navigation and exploration from a young age, and his passion for the sea led him to embark on several voyages that ultimately changed the course of history.

Despite his Italian origins, Columbus conducted most of his exploration and secured funding for his voyages under the patronage of Spain. His first voyage, which took place in 1492, was aimed at finding a western sea route to Asia. Instead, he discovered the islands of the Caribbean and explored the coast of Central and South America.

What made Columbus unique was his determination to reach Asia by sailing westward, contrary to the prevailing belief that the Earth was flat. He studied various historical texts and scientific theories to develop his navigation techniques and convince potential backers of the feasibility of his plan.

Prior to his historic voyages, Columbus gained experience as a sailor and explored various parts of the world. He traveled to Portugal, where he studied navigation and mapmaking, acquiring crucial skills that would be instrumental in his future endeavors. It was during his time in Portugal that he married Felipa Perestrello and had a son, Diego.

Despite his efforts, Columbus faced numerous setbacks in his quest for sponsorship. Many potential backers were unconvinced of the viability of his proposed expedition, and he experienced repeated rejections. However, his perseverance paid off when he found support from the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, Queen Isabella of Castile and King Ferdinand of Aragon.

Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand were interested in expanding the influence and wealth of Spain through exploration and trade. Motivated by their desire to spread Christianity and establish their dominance in the world, they saw potential in Columbus’ proposed expedition.

With the support of the Spanish monarchy, Columbus set forth on his first voyage in 1492, with the famous ships Santa Maria, Pinta, and Niña. Although his initial objective was to reach Asia, his journey led him instead to the Bahamas and other islands of the Caribbean. This accidental discovery had a profound impact on world history, leading to the eventual exploration and colonization of the Americas.

Columbus accomplished a total of four voyages, each with its own significant discoveries and challenges. His explorations paved the way for subsequent European colonization and the establishment of empires in the New World.

In the following sections, we will explore the motivations behind Columbus’ voyage, the efforts he made to secure funding, and the contributions of various individuals and organizations that supported his expeditions.

The Motivation for Columbus’ Voyage

Christopher Columbus had several motivations for his ambitious voyage across the Atlantic Ocean. One of the primary motivations was the desire to find a new trade route to Asia. At the time, the Silk Road, the traditional route for trading goods between Europe and Asia, was difficult and dangerous due to conflicts and high tolls imposed by the Ottoman Empire. Columbus believed that by sailing west, he could reach Asia more quickly and establish direct trade connections, bypassing these obstacles.

In addition to economic incentives, Columbus was driven by a sense of adventure and the quest for fame and glory. Being an ambitious explorer, he wanted to further his reputation and secure his place in history. He believed that by discovering a new route to Asia, he would gain recognition and be remembered as a great explorer.

Another motivating factor for Columbus was the desire to spread Christianity. Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand were devout Catholics, and Columbus was deeply influenced by religious beliefs. He saw his voyage as an opportunity to spread Christianity to new lands and convert indigenous populations to the faith. Columbus believed that by bringing religion to these lands, he could fulfill a religious duty and also bring more territories under the influence of Catholic Spain.

A significant influence on Columbus’ motivations was the prevailing spirit of exploration and conquest during the Age of Discovery. It was a time when European nations were competing fiercely to expand their territories and gain power and wealth. Columbus wanted to contribute to the growth and influence of Spain and saw his voyage as a means to achieve this goal.

Lastly, Columbus was driven by personal financial gain. He hoped to acquire wealth and riches from his exploration ventures. He believed that by establishing trade routes and acquiring valuable resources from the lands he discovered, he could amass significant wealth for himself and his backers.

These combined motivations drove Columbus to persist in his quest for funding and support. He was relentless in his pursuit of sponsors who could make his vision a reality, and his perseverance eventually paid off when Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand of Spain decided to back his expedition. The motivations behind Columbus’ voyage shaped his strategy, determination, and the impact of his discoveries, and they continue to be subjects of study and debate among historians.

Initial Funding Efforts

When Christopher Columbus first conceived his plan to sail westward to reach Asia, he faced the daunting challenge of securing funding for his ambitious expedition. He understood the importance of financial backing to acquire ships, crew, and supplies necessary for the voyage. However, his initial funding efforts were met with skepticism and rejection.

Columbus began his quest for financial support by seeking the patronage of various European monarchs and wealthy individuals. He presented his plan to the Portuguese monarchy, hoping to gain their backing, but it was met with reluctance and dismissal. The Portuguese, who were already engaged in their own exploratory ventures, deemed Columbus’ proposed route as unfeasible and too risky.

Undeterred by these setbacks, Columbus continued his pursuit of funding. He approached the Catholic Monarchs, Queen Isabella of Castile and King Ferdinand of Aragon, in 1486. After several years of persistent efforts, he obtained an audience with the monarchs to present his plan. Although intrigued by his proposal, Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand were preoccupied with the Reconquista, the campaign to drive the Muslim Moors out of Spain.

During this critical stage, Columbus received assistance from influential individuals who believed in his vision. The most notable of these was Luis de Santángel, a Spanish royal treasurer, who played a pivotal role in securing the initial funding for Columbus’ voyage. Santángel used his own influence and network to advocate for Columbus, convincing Queen Isabella to consider supporting the expedition.

Finally, in April 1492, Queen Isabella agreed to finance Columbus’ voyage. The contract, known as the Capitulations of Santa Fe, granted Columbus certain privileges and rights in exchange for his discoveries and contributions to Spain’s endeavors. The agreement provided Columbus with financial support, including ships, provisions, and crew, necessary for his expedition.

The initial funding for Columbus’ voyage was quite modest compared to the grandeur of his ambitions. The sum provided by Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand amounted to around 1.14 million maravedis, roughly equivalent to the cost of maintaining a warship for just one day. Nevertheless, it was a significant investment for the crown considering the uncertainties surrounding the mission.

With the backing of the Catholic Monarchs and the financial resources secured, Columbus was finally able to embark on his seminal journey across the Atlantic. The initial funding efforts marked a turning point in his journey and set the stage for the subsequent expeditions that would shape the course of history.

Support from Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand

The support of Queen Isabella of Castile and King Ferdinand of Aragon was pivotal in enabling Christopher Columbus to realize his ambitious voyage across the Atlantic. Their backing not only provided financial resources but also lent credibility and legitimacy to Columbus’ mission.

When Columbus initially presented his plan to Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand, they were intrigued by the possibility of finding new trade routes to Asia and expanding the reach of Spain. However, the Spanish monarchs were preoccupied with the ongoing Reconquista, the campaign to drive the Moors out of Spain and reunify the country.

It was not until January 1492 that Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand were able to offer Columbus their full support. This came after their victory in the Battle of Granada, which marked the end of Moorish rule in Spain. With the Reconquista concluded, the monarchs sought new opportunities for the kingdom.

Queen Isabella, in particular, played a significant role in championing Columbus’ cause. She was impressed by his determination and the potential benefits of his proposed expedition. Recognizing the potential for expanding Spanish influence and spreading Christianity, she agreed to finance Columbus’ voyage.

Under the terms outlined in the Capitulations of Santa Fe, the contract between Columbus and the Spanish monarchs, Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand granted Columbus several privileges and rights. These included the appointment of Columbus as Admiral of the Ocean Sea, the right to govern and administer the lands he discovered, and a share in the riches he acquired. Additionally, Columbus was provided with the necessary ships, crew, and supplies for his inaugural voyage.

The support from Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand went beyond financial backing. They also provided Columbus with political and diplomatic support, issuing royal letters and orders to ensure the cooperation of local authorities in the lands he would encounter. This support helped secure the necessary resources and cooperation for the success of Columbus’ expeditions.

Furthermore, the Catholic Monarchs played a crucial role in securing international recognition for Columbus’ discoveries. They actively promoted his expeditions and sought papal endorsement for Spain’s territorial claims in the New World. In 1493, Pope Alexander VI issued the papal bull Inter caetera, granting Spain exclusive rights to the lands discovered by Columbus.

Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand’s support of Columbus’ voyage had long-lasting consequences. Their decision not only set in motion the exploration and colonization of the Americas but also established Spain as a dominant global power during the Age of Discovery.

Despite the controversies and criticisms that followed Columbus’ discoveries, the support from Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand remains a significant factor in understanding the context of his expeditions and their impact on world history.

The Role of the Spanish Monarchy

The Spanish monarchy, consisting of Queen Isabella of Castile and King Ferdinand of Aragon, played a crucial role in the funding and support of Christopher Columbus’ voyages. Their patronage was instrumental in enabling Columbus to embark on his historic expeditions and in shaping the course of exploration and colonization in the New World.

The Spanish monarchy, driven by a desire to expand Spanish influence and spread Christianity, recognized the potential benefits of Columbus’ proposed voyage. They understood the geopolitical implications of discovering new trade routes to Asia, as well as the opportunity to convert indigenous populations to the Catholic faith.

Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand became the primary sponsors of Columbus’ voyages after he presented his plan to them in 1486. Although initially occupied with the Reconquista, the campaign to drive the Moors out of Spain, they saw the expedition as a way to capitalize on the unsettled political and economic situation after the Reconquista’s completion.

The Spanish monarchy provided Columbus with financial backing, granting him the resources needed to procure ships, crew, and supplies for his voyages. Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand secured investors and allocated funds from the royal treasury to support Columbus’ ambitious mission. The financial commitment from the Spanish monarchy was essential in overcoming the skepticism and reluctance of other potential sponsors.

In addition to financial support, the Spanish monarchy offered political and diplomatic assistance to Columbus. They issued royal letters and orders that ensured the cooperation of local authorities in the lands he would encounter. This support helped secure the necessary resources and cooperation for the success of Columbus’ expeditions.

The Spanish monarchy also played a pivotal role in securing international recognition for Spain’s territorial claims in the New World. They sought the endorsement of the Catholic Church and obtained the papal bull Inter caetera from Pope Alexander VI in 1493. This bull granted Spain exclusive rights to the lands discovered by Columbus and solidified Spain’s dominance in the exploration and colonization of the Americas.

Furthermore, the Spanish monarchy established a system of governance and administration over the territories encountered by Columbus. They appointed colonial officials, such as viceroys and governors, to oversee the newly discovered lands and maintain Spanish control. This administrative structure helped facilitate the establishment of colonial settlements and the exploitation of resources in the New World.

The support and sponsorship of Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand had far-reaching consequences. It paved the way for subsequent Spanish exploration and colonization and positioned Spain as a dominant global power during the Age of Discovery. The Spanish monarchy’s role in funding Columbus’ voyages and providing political and diplomatic support shaped the course of history and left an indelible mark on the world.

Contributions from Wealthy Benefactors

In addition to the support from the Spanish monarchy, Christopher Columbus also received contributions from wealthy benefactors who believed in his vision and saw the potential for profit and prestige in funding his expeditions.

One notable wealthy benefactor was Luis de Santángel, a Spanish royal treasurer who played a crucial role in securing the initial funding for Columbus’ first voyage. Santángel, impressed by Columbus’ determination and the potential benefits of his proposed expedition, used his influence and network to advocate for Columbus. He convinced Queen Isabella to consider supporting Columbus, ultimately leading to the financing of the voyage.

Another significant benefactor was Juan Pérez de Marchena, a Franciscan friar and scholar who provided financial support to Columbus. Marchena believed in Columbus’ vision and saw the potential for wealth and discovery in the expedition. He provided financial assistance and used his connections within the Franciscan Order to garner further support from other wealthy individuals.

Additionally, the Pinzón family, particularly the brothers Martín Alonso and Vicente Yáñez, made significant contributions to Columbus’ expeditions. Martín Alonso Pinzón, a skilled sailor and shipowner, provided ships, crew, and financial assistance, playing a crucial role in the success of the initial voyage. Vicente Yáñez Pinzón, an experienced navigator, captained the ship Niña during the first voyage and remained a loyal supporter of Columbus throughout his explorations.

Other wealthy benefactors who contributed to Columbus’ voyages include the Bank of Saint George in Genoa, which provided financial resources, and various Spanish merchants who saw the potential for profitable trade ventures in Columbus’ proposed route.

The contributions from these wealthy benefactors were instrumental in overcoming financial obstacles and funding Columbus’ expeditions. Their financial support allowed for the procurement of ships, crew, and supplies necessary for the perilous journey across the Atlantic.

Beyond the financial contributions, the involvement of wealthy benefactors brought prestige and credibility to Columbus’ ventures. Their endorsement of his expeditions added legitimacy to his mission and helped garner support from other potential backers.

It is important to note that the contributions from wealthy benefactors were motivated by a mix of self-interest and the belief in the potential for discovery and profit. The allure of new trade routes, access to valuable resources, and the possibility of acquiring wealth and influence in the emerging world all served as incentives for their support.

The involvement of these wealthy benefactors highlights the collaborative nature of Columbus’ expeditions. While the financial support from the Spanish monarchy was pivotal, the contributions from individuals and organizations outside of the royal sphere played a crucial role in making the voyages possible.

Without the support and contributions from these wealthy benefactors, Christopher Columbus may have faced even greater challenges in realizing his historic voyages and the subsequent exploration and colonization of the New World may have unfolded quite differently.

Financing the Expeditions

The financing of Christopher Columbus’ expeditions was a complex endeavor that required the pooling of resources from various sources. The cost of procuring ships, crews, provisions, and other necessary supplies was substantial, and securing adequate funding was essential for the success of the voyages.

The initial funding for Columbus’ expeditions came primarily from the Spanish monarchy, Queen Isabella of Castile and King Ferdinand of Aragon. Through the Capitulations of Santa Fe, they provided the necessary financial support to make the first voyage a reality. The exact amount of funding allocated to the voyages is subject to speculation, but it is estimated to be around 1.14 million maravedis, a significant investment at the time.

In addition to the financing from the Spanish monarchy, Christopher Columbus secured contributions from various wealthy benefactors. Luis de Santángel, a Spanish royal treasurer, played a pivotal role in obtaining initial financial support from Queen Isabella. Other benefactors, such as Juan Pérez de Marchena and the Pinzón family, also provided financial aid, offering ships, crews, and resources to help finance the expeditions.

To further support the financial needs of the voyages, Columbus sought financial assistance from the Bank of Saint George in Genoa and Spanish merchants who saw the potential for profitable trade routes and ventures. These financial backers believed in the potential of Columbus’ proposed route to Asia and saw opportunities for substantial returns on their investments.

To manage the finances of the expeditions, Columbus appointed accountants and treasurers to oversee the disbursement and allocation of funds. These individuals were responsible for ensuring that the financial resources were utilized effectively and transparently, and they kept detailed records of the expenses incurred during the voyages.

The financing of the expeditions was not without challenges and controversies. The funding secured for the voyages was often limited, and Columbus had to make compromises and adapt to the available resources. As a result, the expeditions were characterized by frugality and improvisation, with Columbus and his crew facing shortages of provisions and other essential supplies.

In some instances, Columbus resorted to unconventional methods to finance his voyages. For example, he made use of the encomienda system, which granted Spanish colonists the right to demand tribute and labor from indigenous populations in exchange for their protection and religious instruction. This system provided a source of income for Columbus and his supporters, but it also sparked controversy and led to debates about the treatment of indigenous peoples.

Despite the various challenges and uncertainties surrounding the financing, Columbus managed to secure the necessary resources to embark on his expeditions. The combination of funding from the Spanish monarchy, wealthy benefactors, financial institutions, and trade opportunities allowed Columbus to finance his voyages and set sail in search of a new route to Asia.

The financing of Columbus’ expeditions serves as a testament to the collaborative effort and the importance of financial backing in realizing ambitious exploration endeavors. It highlights the intricacies of securing and managing funding for historic voyages that shaped the course of history.

Controversy and Criticisms

The voyages of Christopher Columbus, while celebrated as historic milestones, are not without controversy and criticisms. There are several key areas of contention surrounding Columbus and his expeditions that have sparked debates and raised ethical concerns.

One of the primary controversies surrounding Columbus is his treatment of the indigenous populations he encountered in the lands he “discovered.” Columbus and his crew engaged in exploitative practices, including forced labor, enslavement, and the extraction of resources from the Indigenous peoples. These actions led to significant suffering and loss of life among the native populations.

Furthermore, the encomienda system implemented by Columbus and his supporters allowed Spanish colonists to demand tribute and coerced labor from the indigenous inhabitants. This system resulted in the exploitation and abuse of the Native Americans, further exacerbating the ethical issues surrounding Columbus’ voyages.

Another point of contention is the impact of European colonization on the cultures and societies of the indigenous peoples. The arrival of Columbus set in motion a process of colonization that resulted in the destruction of traditional ways of life, the loss of land and resources, and the spread of diseases that decimated indigenous populations.

Moreover, there is ongoing debate regarding the historical significance of Columbus’ voyages. While he is often credited with “discovering” America, it is important to note that the lands he encountered were already inhabited by thriving civilizations. The contributions and achievements of Indigenous peoples prior to Columbus’ arrival are often overshadowed or overlooked in mainstream historical narratives.

Critics also question Columbus’ navigational skills and argue that his arrival in the Americas was more accidental than a result of deliberate calculation. They argue that other explorers, such as the Norse Vikings, had already reached North America centuries before Columbus embarked on his voyages.

Columbus’ personal legacy is also subject to criticism. Despite his achievements as an explorer, he has been accused of mismanagement, cruelty, and tyrannical behavior during his time as a colonial governor. His actions and leadership have been scrutinized, leading to calls for a reevaluation of the glorification of Columbus as a hero in historical narratives.

As a result of these controversies and criticisms, there have been ongoing calls for a more nuanced and balanced understanding of Columbus and his expeditions. Many argue for a greater focus on the experiences and contributions of the indigenous peoples impacted by Columbus’ arrival, as well as a critical examination of the long-term effects of European colonization in the Americas.

The controversies surrounding Columbus and his voyages should serve as an opportunity for reflection and a deeper exploration of the complex historical dynamics that shaped the New World. It is important to acknowledge the ethical concerns and engage in conversations that prioritize inclusivity and a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of history.

The funding of Christopher Columbus’ voyages was a critical factor in enabling his historic expeditions and shaping the course of history. From early struggles to secure financial support to the eventual backing of the Spanish monarchy and contributions from wealthy benefactors, the funding sources for Columbus’ expeditions were diverse and played a vital role in his achievements.

Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand of Spain, motivated by their desire to expand Spanish influence and spread Christianity, provided crucial support and resources to Columbus. Their patronage not only supplied the initial funding but also provided political and diplomatic assistance, leading to international recognition of Spain’s territorial claims in the New World.

However, Columbus’ voyages were not without controversy and criticisms. The treatment of indigenous populations, the impact of colonization, and questions surrounding Columbus’ navigational skills and personal conduct have sparked debates and raised ethical concerns. These discussions highlight the importance of critically examining historical narratives and acknowledging the complexities and consequences of exploration and colonization.

Looking back at Columbus’ expeditions, it is evident that the funding efforts and support he received were essential in realizing his ambitious vision. The financial contributions from the Spanish monarchy, wealthy benefactors, financial institutions, and trade opportunities enabled Columbus to procure the necessary resources and set sail across the Atlantic.

The voyages of Christopher Columbus marked a turning point in world history. They led to the exploration and colonization of the Americas by European powers and forever changed the geopolitical landscape. However, it is crucial to recognize and address the ethical complexities and consequences that resulted from Columbus’ expeditions, ensuring a comprehensive understanding that includes the experiences and contributions of indigenous peoples.

In conclusion, the funding of Christopher Columbus’ expeditions was a multi-faceted endeavor, involving support from the Spanish monarchy, contributions from wealthy benefactors, and the pursuit of financial opportunities. These diverse sources of funding, along with Columbus’ ambition and determination, enabled his voyages and opened the door to a new era of exploration, colonization, and global exchange.

• Privacy Overview
• Strictly Necessary Cookies

This website uses cookies so that we can provide you with the best user experience possible. Cookie information is stored in your browser and performs functions such as recognising you when you return to our website and helping our team to understand which sections of the website you find most interesting and useful.

Strictly Necessary Cookie should be enabled at all times so that we can save your preferences for cookie settings.

If you disable this cookie, we will not be able to save your preferences. This means that every time you visit this website you will need to enable or disable cookies again.

• Skip to primary navigation
• Skip to main content
• Skip to primary sidebar

• Native Americans
• Age of Exploration
• Revolutionary War
• Mexican-American War
• War of 1812
• World War 1
• World War 2
• Family Trees
• Explorers and Pirates

20 Famous Spanish Explorers in World History

Published: Aug 9, 2023 · Modified: Oct 19, 2023 by Russell Yost · This post may contain affiliate links ·

The Spanish Explorers that shaped the 16th century were ambitious, fearless, and men of their time. Ironically, many were not even Spanish and had been overlooked by other monarchies when they requested their voyages be funded.

During the 15th century, the Muslims closed the Great Silk Road and blocked trade with Asia. In response, the European countries had to look for other trade partners or other routes.

Portugal was first and continued to push down the coast of Africa and eventually made it around the tip of Africa and into the Indian Ocean, which allowed them to trade with the Far East.

In the 15th century, Christopher Columbus found a different trade route and asked Spain to sponsor a voyage to which they agreed.

The early risk the Spanish crown made paid off when they discovered a New World, and they were the first to begin to colonize and develop it.

1. Christopher Columbus

2. amerigo vespucci, 3. hernan cortes, 4. francisco pizarro, 5. ponce de leon, 6. hernando de soto, 7. vasco nunez de balboa, 8. ferdinand magellan, 9. pedro de alvarado, 10. cabeza de vaca, 11. juan de onate, 12. panfilo de narvaez, 13. deigo de almagro, 14. francisco coronado, 15. francisco hernandez de cordoba, 16. alonso de alvarado, 17. pedro menendez de aviles, 18. pedro de heredia, 19. juan rodriguez cabrillo, 20. phillip von hutton.

Christopher Columbus was an Italian explorer and navigator from the Republic of Genoa who completed four Spanish-based voyages across the Atlantic Ocean sponsored by the Catholic Monarchs, opening the way for the widespread European exploration and European colonization of the Americas.

His expeditions were the first known European contact with the Caribbean and Central and South America.

Columbus was born in Genoa, Italy, in 1451. He began his career as a sailor in the merchant marine and then worked as a mapmaker and navigator.

In 1484, he presented a plan to the Spanish monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella, to sail west across the Atlantic Ocean in search of a new route to Asia.

The monarchs agreed to finance his expedition, and Columbus set sail on August 3, 1492, with three ships: the Niña, the Pinta, and the Santa María.

On October 12, 1492, Columbus landed on an island in the Bahamas, which he believed to be part of Asia. He called the island San Salvador.

Columbus made several more voyages to the Americas, and he eventually explored the Caribbean islands, Central America, and South America. He never realized that he had landed on a new continent, and he died believing that he had reached Asia.

Columbus's voyages had a profound impact on the world. They opened up the Americas to European exploration.

Soon, the Caribbean Sea would be the playground of world empires and pirates.

Also Read: 20 Famous Pirates in History  

Amerigo Vespucci was an Italian merchant and explorer who completed four voyages to the Americas between 1497 and 1504. He was the first European to recognize that these lands were not part of Asia but a new continent.

His letters describing his voyages helped to popularize the idea of the Americas as a new world, and his name was eventually given to the entire Western Hemisphere.

Vespucci was born in Florence, Italy, in 1454. He studied astronomy and navigation at the University of Florence and then worked as a merchant for the Medici family.

In 1497, he was hired by the King of Spain to participate in an expedition to the Americas. Vespucci's first voyage took him to the coast of South America, where he explored the coastline and made contact with the native people. He returned to Spain in 1499.

Vespucci made three more voyages to the Americas, in 1501-1502, 1503-1504, and 1505-1506.

He sailed for Portugal from 1501 - 1504 and then returned to sail again for Spain. This did not seem to hurt his relationship with either king.

The Spanish Conquistadors would change the course of history. 

After Christopher Columbus discovered a new world, it ignited Europe and its powers. Spain would be the first country to get a foothold in the New World, and they did so on the back of their Conquistadors.

Also Read:  Age of Exploration Timeline

The following is a list, not a rank , of the most famous Spanish Conquistadors that changed the world forever. Their swords would end ancient civilizations, and the diseases they carried would cripple Native Americans .

The Aztecs, Incas, Mayans, and many other Native American tribes had ruled their respective continents for centuries, and by the end of the 16th century, their cultures would be in ruin.

Other Articles:

Amerigo Vespucci Timeline Facts About Amerigo Vespucci

The most famous Spanish Conquistador is Hernan Cortes, who conquered the Aztecs and created opportunities for those who followed him.

He was fierce in his conquest and the quest for gold, but most do not know that his attempt to conquer the Aztec Empire almost failed.

Also Read:  Hernan Cortes Timeline

After assassinating Montezuma, Cortes and his men were ambushed by Aztec warriors who had figured out that the Spanish Conquistador was not a god but a conqueror. Many of his men were caught and slaughtered on the altar of Aztec gods , while Cortes barely escaped with his life.

The Aztecs chased the Spanish from their land but did not know that the weapons of their destruction had already been released within their walls. European disease, specifically smallpox, would devastate their population.

Also Read:  15 Facts About Hernan Cortes

This would be true for most Native American Tribes throughout North and South America. They did not have immunity, and their populations would drop by 30 - 80%.

Cortes and his Native allies returned to a weakened Aztec nation . He would utilize European warfare techniques that the Aztecs were not familiar with, such as siege warfare and a divide-and-conquer strategy. 

Also Read: 15 Famous Spanish Conquistadors

These tactics, along with disease, destroyed the Aztecs. 

Cortes would become the Governor of New Spain and live another 26 years after the conquest.

Hernan Cortes conquered the Aztec Empire , while Francisco Pizarro claimed his fortune by leading the conquest of the Incan Empire .

The arrival of the Spanish in the New World introduced the natives to European disease. Just as Cortes conquered the Aztecs due to the loss in population, Pizarro would also benefit from the illnesses that plagued the natives.

The Incas lost 65 - 95% of their population prior to Pizarro's arrival. This included their leader, Wayna Qhapaq.

Also Read:  Famous Native Americans in American History

With their leader dead, the empire fell into the hands of his two sons, which then began a civil war among the nation. Atahualpa would win the civil war, and when Pizarro arrived, he organized a meeting with the young ruler.

The first evening was fun, with many drinks and horse displays. Still, the following day, Pizarro launched a surprise attack on Atahualpa and killed 7,000 of his warriors without losing a single Spanish man. Atahualpa would be captured and eventually executed.

Pizarro then captured Cuzco, but he would not enjoy his spoils peacefully. The Incas had adapted to the Spanish style of warfare and had developed effective counters to their tactics.

Perhaps the most effective of these military innovations was the one that dealt with the Europeans' greatest advantage on the battlefield: horses. Incan soldiers would offer battle but hold their position until the Spaniards had concentrated their cavalry in order to break the indigenous line.

They would then fall back before the cavalry charge and draw the Europeans into a canyon where prepositioned forces could crush them under avalanches of rocks and missile weapons. Instead of charging the numerically inferior Europeans as they had done early on, Incan soldiers used their discipline and knowledge of the terrain in order to draw the armored cavalry charge into a death trap.

Well-documented battlefield deaths show that many more Spaniards died in these battles than in the early days of the war when, theoretically, the Inca had a much greater advantage.

Despite winning the majority of the battles, the inability of the Incan forces to overwhelm Cuzco's fortifications, manned as they were by only 200 fighting men armed with gunpowder weapons, signaled the definitive victory of Spanish forces.

Despite his success, Francisco Pizarro and another conquistador, Diego de Almagro, had a contentious rivalry that split the Spanish into factions and would last through the generations. Pizarro would be assassinated by those loyal to the Almagro family in 1541. 

Ponce de Leon was the first Spaniard to explore Florida . While he did not conquer any of the native tribes like Cortes or Pizarro, he supposedly searched for the mythical fountain of youth and mapped out what became known as La Florida. 

After mapping out his discoveries, he returned to Spain, where he was knighted by King Ferdinand and made governor of Puerto Rico.

King Ferdinand also gave him authority to settle Florida, which Ponce de Leon would attempt when he sailed back to the New World.

While trying to settle the new territory, he came in contact with the Calusa tribe, and the contact was not ideal.

They were not friendly to him or his men. The colonization attempt was abandoned, and Ponce de Leon was seriously wounded in the skirmish.

The Spanish returned to Cuba, where Ponce tried to heal from his wounds, but he died in Cuba instead. 

Hernando de Soto was a man who impacted the South and North American continents. 

He was with Francisco Pizarro when the Incan Empire fell and was the first to enter the city of Cuzco. He also witnessed the death of the Incan ruler.

He returned to Spain and was given the authority to conquer and colonize Florida. This task would prove to be more difficult, and he would never find a permanent colony in Florida, however, he would be the first Spanish Conquistador to explore the Southeastern part of North America.

He spent over two years exploring the continent and would be the first to discover the Mississippi River. Although it was an important discovery for Hernando de Soto , it was an obstacle that he had to overcome. His mission was to find riches, not rivers.

In order to avoid conflict with the natives, he convinced them that he was a deity. During his journeys, he interacted with native tribes such as the Apache and other Southeast Indian tribes. He met a female chief and interacted with the powerful Tuscaloosa.

He had a conflict with Tuskaloosa, who, in response to de Soto's actions against him and his tribe, attacked them. Tuskaloosa lost, and de Soto burned their village.

Hernando de Soto became very sick and would die of fever in 1542. His men buried him secretly to avoid conflict with the natives. Although some were beginning not to believe his lie of being a deity, some still believed he was immortal.

The tragic Conquistador.

Vasco Nunez de Balboa would help found the first permanent settlement on the mainland of South America and would become the first European to set eyes on the Pacific Ocean while on the continent of North America. 

He came from lower nobility but eventually rose to prominence. He settled in Hispaniola, where he tried his hand at farming, which did not work out well for him. Once his creditors began to come after him, he hopped on a boat and sailed to mainland South America.

He would eventually lead an expedition of 190 Spaniards, 1,000 Indian porters, and some bloodhounds. He would lead them through dense jungles and swamps. He would fight off hostile natives and eventually lay eyes on the Pacific Ocean.

He would return triumphantly with much wealth in gold, pearls, and slaves. During this time, he would develop a friendship with Pedrarias, who would become his father-in-law. Pedrarias had influence, and after Balboa pleaded with him to allow him to explore the South Sea again, he gave him permission to do so for a year and a half.

His father-in-law would deceive Balboa and urge him to come home. Balboa agreed to come home and, on his way, would meet Francisco Pizarro, who would arrest Balboa in the name of the governor and accuse him of trying to usurp Pedrarias' power and create a separate government in the South Sea.

Balboa denied these allegations, but it did not matter. He was sentenced to death by beheading, and the sentence was carried out.

Ferdinand Magellan was born in Sabrosa, Portugal, to a noble family.

Magellan served in the Portuguese navy and fought in several battles against the Ottomans. In 1517, he proposed a plan to the Spanish king, Charles V, to sail west across the Atlantic Ocean to reach the Spice Islands in Indonesia.

Charles V agreed to finance the expedition, and Magellan set sail in 1519 with five ships and a crew of about 270 men.

Magellan's expedition sailed across the Atlantic Ocean and reached the coast of South America in 1520. They then sailed south along the coast, looking for a passage through the continent.

In November 1520, they found a narrow strait that led to the Pacific Ocean. Magellan named the Strait after himself, and it is now known as the Strait of Magellan.

The expedition crossed the Pacific Ocean in 1521, and they reached the Philippines in March of that year. Magellan and his men made contact with the local people, and they were soon involved in a conflict with the ruler of Mactan Island.

Magellan was killed in the battle, but the expedition continued under the command of Juan Sebastián Elcano.

The remaining ships of the expedition eventually reached Spain in 1522, completing the first circumnavigation of the Earth. Only one ship, the Victoria, and 18 men returned to Spain.

Magellan's expedition was a major achievement and would not be duplicated until Sir Francis Drake.

Pedro de Alvarado was known for his dashing good looks and his knack for brutality. He would become one of the more successful Spanish Conquistadors.

He was with Hernan Cortes when they conquered the Aztecs, and after helping with the destruction of one empire, he turned his attention to the Maya civilization and the rest of Central America.

Alvarado, along with his hardened Spanish veterans and native allies, sacked a Mayan village and took many treasures. He continued down the Pacific coast and conquered Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras. 

He also journeyed into South America after hearing of riches in modern-day Peru. When he arrived, he learned that the Incan Empire had already been conquered by Francisco Pizarro.

He began to make plans to build a Spanish fleet on the western coast of Mexico and then sail to China and the Spice Islands.

While building this fleet, another Conquistador requested he help break the siege that the natives had him under. While preparing to journey to aid his fellow warrior, his horse became spooked, and the powerful Conquistador was crushed.

He would die a few days later after the freak accident.

Cabeza de Vaca was a Spanish conquistador and explorer who led an expedition through the southwestern United States and northern Mexico in the 16th century.

He was one of the first Europeans to see the Grand Canyon and the Rio Grande.

Cabeza de Vaca was born in Jerez de la Frontera, Spain, in c. 1490. He joined the Spanish army and fought in the Italian Wars.

In 1527, he was part of an expedition led by Panfilo de Narvaez to explore and colonize Florida. The expedition was a disaster, and Cabeza de Vaca and a small group of survivors were shipwrecked on the coast of what is now Texas.

Cabeza de Vaca and his companions spent the next eight years traveling through the Southwest, living among the native people.

They became known as "the lost men" and were eventually captured by the Spanish. Cabeza de Vaca returned to Spain in 1536 and wrote a book about his adventures, titled "Naufragios" ("Shipwrecks").

Cabeza de Vaca's book is an important source of information about the native people of the Southwest. It is also a fascinating account of his own personal journey, from shipwrecked castaway to explorer and survivor.

One of the more controversial Spanish Conquistadors is Juan de Onate . 

He is controversial for a good reason. The actions he took against the Pueblo Tribe and the massacre he inflicted on them are still remembered to this day.

In October 1598, a skirmish erupted when a squad of Oñate's men stopped to trade for food supplies from the Acoma Pueblo. The Ácoma themselves needed their stored food to survive the coming winter. The Ácoma resisted, and 11 Spaniards were ambushed and killed, including Oñate's nephew, Juan de Zaldívar.

In January 1599, Oñate condemned the conflict as an insurrection and ordered the pueblo destroyed, a mandate carried out by Juan de Zaldívar's brother, Vicente de Zaldívar, in an offensive known as the Ácoma Massacre. An estimated 800–1,000 Ácoma died in the siege of the Pueblo .

If that is not bad enough, he placed the survivors of the massacre on trial and sentenced those older than 12 to 20 years of forced servitude and also cut off the tips of their toes.

After the massacre, he began his search for the mythical city of gold that he never found. He also explored the Colorado River.

News of his cruelty reached Mexico City, and he was eventually recalled and sent back to Spain, where he died. 

He is often called the Last Conquistador.

Panfilo de Narvaez was a Spanish conquistador who led an expedition to Florida in 1527. The expedition was a disaster, and Narváez and his men were eventually killed by the Apalachee Indians.

Narvaez was born in Valladolid, Spain, around 1478. He was a soldier and a member of the Spanish nobility. In 1510, he was sent to Cuba to help conquer the island. He later served as the lieutenant governor of Cuba.

During these years, he was sent to Mexico to deal with Hernan Cortes, who had disregarded orders. He and his men were defeated. He was imprisoned, and his remaining men joined Cortes. He was later released.

In 1527, Narvaez was appointed governor of Florida by the Spanish king, Charles V. He was given a fleet of five ships and a force of about 600 men. Narváez's mission was to explore Florida and establish a Spanish colony.

Narvaez landed in Florida in April 1528. He and his men marched inland, but they were soon met by hostile Apalachee Indians . The natives attacked the Spaniards, and Narvaez was wounded in the eye. He and his men were forced to retreat to the coast.

Narváez decided to build boats and sail to Mexico. He and his men built five boats, but they were soon caught in a storm. The boats were destroyed, and Narváez and his men were stranded on the coast of Florida.

Narvaez and his men spent the next eight years trying to survive in Florida. They ate snakes, lizards, and other animals.

They also ate the flesh of the dead. In 1536, a group of Narvaez's men were rescued by a Spanish ship. Narvaez was not among the survivors.

Diego de Almagro is often overshadowed by Francisco Pizarro because the two Spanish Conquistadors shared a rivalry, participated in the same conquest, and were eventually executed by his rival.

He played a key role in the conquest of the Incan Empire, and after the conquest, he mobilized his men again and began to explore Chile in search of more riches. He did not find any wealth in Chile, and the natives put up stiff resistance. 

He and the Pizarro brothers would have an intense rivalry that would lead to his death and eventually Francisco Pizarro's.

When he returned from his expedition, he took control of Cuzco and imprisoned two of the three Pizarro brothers. Francisco negotiated for the release of his brothers and said he would give up Cuzco in return for his brother's safety. 

Pizarro did not have any intention to give up the city and used the passing of time to prepare his army. Diego de Almagro became very sick, and the Pizarro brothers jumped at the opportunity and defeated his men.

Diego was eventually caught by Francisco Pizarro and then executed by decapitation. 

Francisco Coronado , like all Spanish Conquistadors, had plans for fame and fortune, but his expedition would not give him what he desired.

He traveled from Mexico to the Southwest United States, where he came in contact with many Native Americans. His goal was to find the mythical cities of gold.

His first contact was with the Zuni Tribe , who did not allow his men to enter their city. Coronado and his men were starving and made unrealistic demands that would lead to a battle with the tribe. The ensuing skirmish constituted the extent of what can be called the Spanish Conquest of Cíbola. He never personally led his men-at-arms in any subsequent battles.

Coronado was injured in the fighting and sent scouts ahead. The scouts came in contact with the Hopi tribe , which was just as poor in precious metals as the Zunis.

Coronado continued his expedition north and soon realized that fortune was not going to happen for him. Instead, his mission changed into a reconnaissance one.

He saw bison, met other Native American tribes, explored the Colorado River, found the Grand Canyon, and became the first Spaniard to see multiple sights in the New World. 

Unfortunately, the violence from Coronado would continue with the Tiguex War, which resulted in the death of hundreds of natives.

Coronado's expedition was a failure. It left him in bankruptcy and gave no value to the Spanish crown. He was one of the worst Spanish Conquistadors.

Francisco Hernandez de Cordoba would be the first of the Spanish Conquistadors to travel to the Yucatan Peninsula.

He resided in Cuba, but he and 110 others were disgruntled and wanted to find a new place to settle. He was granted permission by the Governor of Cuba and set off to find a place to settle.

The expedition was quick and ended terribly for Cordoba and the others with him. 

He arrived in the Yucatan Peninsula and was greeted by hostile Maya natives. These natives were the first advanced civilization that the Spanish encountered in the New World. They had buildings that resembled the ones seen in Spain.

At first, the natives seemed friendly, but relations with them quickly soured, and despite the better weapons that the Spanish Conquistadors had, the Mayans had them outnumbered 300 to 1. 

Francisco Hernandez de Cordoba was struck with 12 arrows and somehow managed to get back to his ship and make it to Cuba, where he died.

Cordoba's expedition was a failure, but news of the advanced civilizations reached the Spanish and would set the table for Hernan Cortes.

Alonso de Alvarado was born in Secadura de Trasmiera in 1500. He fought in Mexico under the orders of Hernán Cortés before joining the campaign of Francisco Pizarro in Peru.

Alvarado arrived in Peru in 1534 with his uncle Pedro de Alvarado in search of gold. He fought against the armies of Manco Inca Yupanqui that were besieging Lima in 1536. He also fought against Diego de Almagro in 1537 and at the Battle of Las Salinas in 1538.

He later fought at Chupas and Jaquijahuana.

In 1537, Alvarado commanded the troops of Pizarro's followers when Diego de Almagro claimed the mythical Inca city of Cuzco. He was defeated and captured by Almagro at the Battle of Abancay.

He escaped and rejoined Pizarro, whom he believed to be the legitimate governor of Peru. He took part in all the bloody troubles that followed, always as a prominent military leader.

He was unsuccessful when in immediate command, but he was still counted upon as a mainstay of the Spanish cause. He occupied a high military position.

A rebellion was initiated by another Conquistador in 1553, and Alvarado was put in command of the forces to put down the rebellion. He suffered a defeat which brought on a great depression and would result in his death.

Pedro Menendez de Aviles is notable for planning the first regular trans-oceanic convoys, which became known as the Spanish treasure fleet, and for founding St. Augustine, Florida, in 1565.

This was the first successful European settlement in La Florida and the most significant city in the region for nearly three centuries.

St. Augustine is the oldest continuously inhabited, European-established settlement in the continental United States.

Avilés was also the first governor of Florida. By his contract with Philip II, he was appointed Adelantado and was responsible for implementing royal policies to build fortifications for the defense of conquered territories in Florida and to establish Castilian governmental institutions in desirable areas.

Later in life, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés traveled to southwest Florida in search of his son, Juan. There, he met with the Calusa tribe, an advanced maritime people, at what is now known as Charlotte Harbor.

Aviles negotiated an initial peace with the Calusas' leader, Carlos, and solidified the peace by marrying Carlos's sister, who took the baptismal name Doña Antonia.

The peace between the Spanish and the Calusas was uneasy. Menéndez's use of his new wife as a hostage in negotiations with her people, as well as his negotiating with the Calusas' enemies, the Tocobagas, helped to deteriorate relations between the two groups.

This eventually led to an all-out war, which continued intermittently for the next century.

Aviles was unsuccessful in locating his son Juan.

Throughout the rest of his life, he continually made progress in Florida. The founding of St. Augustine had proven to be successful, and despite hostile natives, the colony continued to grow.

At the end of his life, he was appointed governor of Cuba. He arrived in Cuba and unfortunately caught typhoid fever, which would end his life.

He was the Spanish Conquistador who founded the city of Cartegena de Indias in Colombia. He would explore the interior of Colombia as well. 

Pedro de Heredia sailed from Santo Domingo on Christmas Day 1532, bound for the mainland of South America. He cruised off the coast of Santa Marta and past the mouth of the Magdalena River.

On January 14, 1533, he reached Calamari, a large village of the Mokaná Indians, on the sandy inner shore of Cartagena Bay.

Heredia and his men fought fiercely with the natives of the territory of Turbaco but eventually prevailed.

They founded a city on the site of Calamari, naming it after Cartagena in Spain because it had a similar bay. However, Heredia called it "Cartagena de Poniente" to distinguish it from that city.

After the capture and founding of the city, he continued to plunder the coast of Colombia for gold. his plunders were successful and would cause much controversy in Spain, where he would face charges.

In 1552, Heredia faced 289 new charges. 

The accusations included:

• Illegal appropriation of royal funds
• Obstruction of municipal chapter deliberations
• Severe abuses directed toward the native population, such as burning alive, mutilations, and torture.

Heredia was found guilty and discharged from office, and returned to Spain to appeal his sentence. On January 27, 1554, his ship La Capitana , part of Cosme Farfán's fleet, sank off the coast of Zahara de los Atunes.

He tried to swim ashore, but his body was never found.

Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo was a Portuguese explorer who led the first European expedition to explore the coast of California in 1542-1543. He is credited with discovering San Diego Bay and Monterey Bay, and he is considered the "Father of California Exploration."

Cabrillo was born in Portugal in c. 1499. He moved to Spain as a young man and joined the Spanish Navy. He served in the conquest of Mexico and Guatemala, and he eventually became a wealthy landowner.

In 1542, Cabrillo was appointed by the Spanish governor of Mexico to lead an expedition to explore the coast of California. He set sail from Mexico in June 1542 with three ships: the San Salvador, the San Miguel, and the Victoria.

Cabrillo's expedition sailed north along the coast of California, and they made landfall at San Diego Bay on September 28, 1542. They explored the bay and the surrounding area, and they named it San Miguel. Cabrillo and his men also made contact with the local Kumeyaay people.

The expedition continued north, and they reached Monterey Bay on October 19, 1542. They explored the bay and the surrounding area, and they named it San Carlos. Cabrillo and his men also made contact with the local Ohlone people.

Cabrillo's expedition continued north, but they were soon forced to turn back due to bad weather. Cabrillo died on January 3, 1543, off the coast of northern California. He is buried on a small island in the Santa Barbara Channel.

Philipp von Hutten was a German adventurer and explorer who played a significant role in the early history of Venezuela. He was born in Königshofen, Germany, in 1505.

He came to Venezuela in 1535 as part of an expedition led by Georg von Speyer, who had been granted a concession to colonize the region by the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V.

Hutten was a skilled soldier and explorer, and he soon became one of the leaders of the expedition. He led several expeditions into the interior of Venezuela, searching for gold and El Dorado, the legendary city of gold.

He also fought against the indigenous people of Venezuela, and he was known for his ruthlessness and brutality.

In 1540, von Speyer died, and Hutten became the leader of the expedition. He continued to explore Venezuela, but he was never able to find El Dorado.

He also faced increasing opposition from the Spanish authorities, who were concerned about his brutal treatment of the indigenous people.

In 1546, Hutten was captured by the Spanish and executed. He died a broken man, having failed to achieve his dreams of gold and glory.

• International edition
• Australia edition
• Europe edition

Race Across the World series four review – TV that makes you feel that there is hope

It’s back! The BBC’s smartphone-free travel sends contestants racing from Japan to Indonesia, and it’s as full of human kindness and intimate relationship portraits as ever

R ace Across the World might be one of television’s most wholesome shows. Now into its fourth series proper, after a Covid-delayed celebrity spin-off last year, it follows paired teams as they attempt to travel thousands of miles without some of the comfortable trappings of modern life. Contestants hand over their smartphones and bank cards and are given the cash equivalent of the cost of a one-way flight to their final destination. They must get to the end through a series of checkpoints using public transport and ingenuity, taking on odd jobs to earn extra funds, and, crucially, relying on the kindness of strangers along the way.

Since it made its debut in 2019, the series has grown in popularity, and by 2023, moved from its original BBC Two home to BBC One, much like Bake Off and Peaky Blinders before it. During the pandemic, it offered much-needed escapism. It even got a celebrity version, as all successful TV competitions must. Better still, the celebrity version wasn’t a substandard cash-in. Watching an All Saint and a member of McFly carting their mums from Marrakech to the Arctic Circle on a series of exhausting overnight rail journeys might not sound like gripping TV, but the show was remarkable. Its challenge highlights the kindness of strangers and plumbs the psychology of some of our closest relationships.

Series four offers more of the same, with a few subtle differences. The competitors seem a little younger, and Japan’s bullet trains are forbidden. Otherwise, it is business as usual, and this suits it very well.

Over the course of eight episodes, the five teams must travel from the island of Hokkaido, in the north of Japan, to the Indonesian island of Lombok, a journey of roughly 9,300 miles (15,000km), across seven countries, over 50 days. Last series, the pairs travelled across Canada, where most people they encountered spoke English. But this journey entails linguistic barriers, and a need to navigate what may be, for some, brand new cultural norms.

Episode one introduces us to the teams and sets them off on a voyage through Japan. At the start, they are usually jittery and error-prone. One of the teams, best friends Alfie and Owen, are the show’s youngest participants to date. They are baby-faced 20-year-olds who are the most overtly competitive and they have, perhaps, the most to learn – about the world and about themselves.

“We have got to budget our bums off,” insists Alfie, sweetly, before either he or Owen – they’re not going to argue about it, although they clearly will – misplaces the all-important map.

At the other end of the age spectrum are Stephen and Viv, an older married couple who have both recently suffered health problems, and whose approach is more laid back. As Alfie and Owen frantically yoyo between Tokyo and other destinations, Stephen and Viv enjoy a bath in hot springs. Betty and James are siblings, aged 25 and 21, who have polar-opposite approaches to travel: Betty likes to take in other cultures; James prefers an Ayia Napa trip with the lads. And there are two mother-daughter teams, Eugenie and Isabel, and Brydie and Sharon.

Travelling in this manner is high-pressured and alien, even for contestants with globetrotting experience, and Race Across the World shows just how illuminating and revelatory it can be to take people out of a familiar environment and task them with making their way in a wholly new one. Isabel turns out to be a language savant, picking up Japanese at a rate that impresses her stunned mother. Brydie, who has severe dyslexia, says that she is so used to asking people for help that she has no problem doing so on this adventure. And even for people who know each other very well, the challenge creates supercharged intimacy.

after newsletter promotion

Race Across the World is a travelogue, a history lesson, an exploration of psychology, and a thrilling competition (the programme-makers are very good at making it all seem impossibly close in the edit, even when teams are hours apart). But I love that it is also humanitarian, when all can seem so very bleak, and suggests there is still hope in the world, if we open our horizons.

Comments (…)

Most viewed.

NOAA Ship Okeanos Explorer : 2024 Expeditions Overview

Hawai’i and Johnston Atoll (EX2401, EX2402, EX2403, EX2404, EX2405, EX2406, EX2407)

From April 2024 through October 2024, NOAA Ocean Exploration and partners will conduct a series of telepresence-enabled ocean exploration expeditions on NOAA Ship Okeanos Explorer to improve knowledge about unexplored and poorly understood deepwater areas of Hawai’i and Johnston Atoll. Data collected will establish a baseline in these areas to catalyze further exploration, research, and management activities in the region.

The waters in this region span a diverse range of ecosystems and dynamic geological environments, and are home to cultures with long histories of ocean voyaging and exploration. They contain some of the last relatively pristine marine ecosystems on the planet and harbor numerous protected species, as well as undiscovered shipwrecks and cultural landscapes sacred to the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific. The biological, ecological, cultural, and geological significance of these areas has led to the designation of marine protected areas, including the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument and the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument.

These regions were identified as a geographic priority area during the 2020 Consortium for Ocean Leadership Workshop to Identify National Ocean Exploration Priorities in the Pacific and were added to the Strategic Priorities for Ocean Exploration and Characterization by the Interagency Working Group on Ocean Exploration and Characterization. There is still much to be learned about the deep-ocean environment in this region and its geological and biological systems and how they influence each other.

As we increasingly look to the deep ocean for the resources it holds and the services it can provide, more data is needed so we can sustainably manage and protect it. There is a lot of ocean to explore, but exploration in one area can help us better understand similar habitats in other areas and the biodiversity and ecological processes that these habitats support. Exploration also contributes to our understanding of the geological history and processes, including geohazards, of the planet as a whole.

This series of expeditions will contribute to a multiyear, multipartner cooperative research and exploration campaign in U.S. and international waters throughout the remote Pacific Islands. Data and information collected during the Beyond the Blue: Illuminating the Pacific campaign are intended to expand the footprint of coastal and ocean mapping, exploration, and characterization throughout the Pacific Islands region. Throughout the duration of Beyond the Blue , NOAA Ocean Exploration and campaign partners will work to create and maintain meaningful relationships to improve collaboration across the U.S. government, with Indigenous communities, and local stakeholders through thoughtful engagement, inclusive collaboration, and public-private partnerships. Building upon previous work in the region, including the 2015 - 2017 Campaign to Address Pacific monument Science, Technology, and Ocean NEeds (CAPSTONE) and work sponsored by NOAA Ocean Exploration through the Ocean Exploration Cooperative Institute (OECI) and Ocean Exploration Trust, this campaign is intended to provide a foundation of publicly accessible information relevant to a variety of sectors and communities, all with the aim of building our collective knowledge of the Pacific Islands region.

Collectively, these expeditions will use Okeanos Explorer ’s deepwater acoustic systems (Kongsberg EM 304 multibeam sonar, Simrad EK60 and EK80 split-beam fisheries sonars, Knudsen 3260 chirp sub-bottom profiler sonar, and Teledyne acoustic Doppler current profiler), and a high-bandwidth satellite connection for real-time ship-to-shore communications. Conductivity, temperature, and depth (CTD) rosette operations are also expected.

Planned Expeditions

NOAA and partners will conduct seven telepresence-enabled expeditions throughout Hawai’i and Johnston Atoll in support of Beyond the Blue during 2024. Live data from multibeam sonar mapping operations will be shared in real time with shore-based participants and the public. Expedition numbers, ports of call, and operational modes are as follows:

• EX2401: April to May 2024, Vallejo, California, to Honolulu, Hawai'i Mapping shakedown expedition to test mapping systems and collect acoustic data of seafloor and sub-seafloor geomorphology in deep water between the U.S. West Coast and the Hawaiian Islands.
• EX2402: May to June 2024, Honolulu, Hawai'i, to Honolulu, Hawai'i Mapping expedition in Hawaiian waters to collect acoustic data of seafloor and sub-seafloor geomorphology.
• EX2403: June to July 2024, Honolulu, Hawai'i, to Honolulu, Hawai'i Mapping expedition to the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument to collect acoustic data of seafloor and sub-seafloor geomorphology.
• EX2404: July to August 2024, Honolulu, Hawai'i, to Honolulu, Hawai'i Mapping expedition to the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument to collect acoustic data of seafloor and sub-seafloor geomorphology.
• EX2405: August to September 2024, Honolulu, Hawai'i, to Hilo, Hawai'i Mapping expedition to explore deepwater areas of the Johnston Atoll unit of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument.
• EX2406: September to October 2024, Hilo, Hawai’i, to Honolulu, Hawai’i Mapping expedition to explore deepwater areas of the Johnston Atoll unit of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument.
• EX2407: October to November 2024 Honolulu, Hawai’i, to Honolulu, Hawai’i Mapping expedition to the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument to collect acoustic data of seafloor and sub-seafloor geomorphology.

In addition to improving fundamental understanding of the region, mapping data collected during these expeditions will inform future ROV dive planning to support systematic exploration. In subsequent years, ROV dives from 250 to 6,000 meters in depth are expected to explore deep-sea coral and sponge habitats, important areas for marine resources, fracture zones (and related geohazards), and the water column.

NOAA will incorporate the results of the 2024 call for input and priorities from resource managers to establish expedition objectives and refine the operating areas.

NOAA priorities for the deep waters of Hawai’i and Johnston Atoll combine science, education, outreach, and open data to provide a better understanding of this important marine region. Specific goals include:

• Improve knowledge of unexplored deepwater areas in this region to inform management needs for sensitive habitats, geological features, and potential resources.
• Collect high-resolution bathymetry in areas with no or low-quality sonar data to extend bathymetric mapping coverage in support of the National Strategy for Mapping, Exploring, and Characterizing the United States Exclusive Economic Zone and Seabed 2030.
• Characterize water column habitats using acoustics and emerging technologies.
• Collect data to enhance predictive capabilities for vulnerable marine habitats, seafloor composition, seamount formation, plate tectonics, hydrothermal vents, critical minerals, and submarine geohazards.
• Investigate biogeographic patterns of deep-sea ecosystems and connectivity for use in broader comparisons of deepwater habitat throughout the Pacific basin and to better understand how these ecosystems are responding to climate change and other stressors.
• Map, survey, and sample geological features, including fault and fracture zones, hydrothermal vents, and extinct polymetallic sulfide systems to better understand the geological context of the region and improve knowledge of past and potential future geohazards.
• Engage a broad spectrum of the scientific community and public in telepresence-based exploration and provide publicly accessible information and data products to spur further exploration, research, and management activities.
• Conduct operations that are co-developed with Native Hawaiian researchers and community members, emphasizing culturally relevant and respectful approaches.

How to Get Involved

NOAA Ocean Exploration’s expeditions onboard Okeanos Explorer are an open collaboration with the science community and local stakeholders, Indigenous communities, and resource managers. Throughout the field season, there will be a number of opportunities to collaborate in the expeditions. Video feeds and data will be streamed to shore in real time through the oceanexplorer.noaa.gov website, allowing for active engagement of interested participants from shore. Shore-side team members may participate in the expedition by providing input into the day-to-day operations of the ship, reviewing the latest data coming off the ship, and assisting in the generation of a standard suite of products. Participating scientists represent the broad interests of the marine science community, contribute to real-time annotation and data logging, and help identify and engage a community of explorers to contribute to the expedition from shore.

Information about Okeanos Explorer 's capabilities and how to participate in expeditions is available on the NOAA Ocean Exploration website. Individuals interested in actively participating and receiving updates about this series of expeditions should request a collaboration tools account . If you are interested in discussing specific details or have questions, please contact:

Trish Albano Expedition Manager [email protected]

Sam Cuellar EX2405 Expedition Coordinator [email protected]

Thomas Morrow EX2406 Expedition Coordinator [email protected]

Published April 9, 2024