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How to Become a Travel Agent: Turn Your Passion Into Perks and Cash

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Raise your hand if you love to travel. Whether you’re often on the road or take a vacation just once a year, you’ve probably heard of travel agents. These folks help plan and book itineraries for you, eliminating a lot of the pain points when it comes to traveling.

These days many people skip out on a travel agent in lieu of booking their trip online, but if you’re a frequent traveler, you may want to become a travel agent yourself. Why? Because it can save you a lot of money — and may even earn you some in the process.

Let’s take a look at how to become a travel agent, why it’s something you may want to consider and the ways it can work for you.

Why become a travel agent?

Have you ever obsessively researched the best hotels in a city you’re planning to visit? How about checking seat maps on an airplane? If getting into the nitty-gritty of travel logistics is something you do in your spare time, you might also enjoy becoming a travel agent.

Not only do you get to plan trips for others, but you’ll also be able to take advantage of special discounts on many facets of travel.

This is true for your clients, but also for yourself. Travel agents have access to a variety of discounted rates on both airlines and hotels, even when booking travel for themselves.

» Learn more: How to get a refund from a travel agency

How to become a travel agent

Find a program.

Becoming a travel agent isn’t as simple as declaring yourself one. Typically, the first step is to sign up for a program that’ll teach you the basics of running your own travel business.

There are a variety of programs to choose from, depending on your interests and career goals. Most programs will teach you about the business side of being a travel agent as well as how to plan trips, so your courses in itinerary planning and travel insurance will be coupled with business ethics and customer service.

If you’re wondering how to become a travel agent from home, don’t worry. Many of these courses don’t have to be done in person; there are online programs that will teach you everything you need to know from the comfort of your living room.

Apply for certification

Once you’ve completed your coursework, you’ll want to apply for certification. Although there is no single standard that designates you a travel agent, there are a number of different identifiers that you can acquire. Some of the more common ones are:

International Air Transport Association, or IATA, which allows you to book travel on domestic and international airlines.

Travel Industry Designator Service, or TIDS, which allows agents to book trips with a variety of travel suppliers and receive commissions.

Cruise Lines International Association, or CLIA, which provides agents the ability to book trips on cruises around the world.

In order to access Marriott’s travel advisor rates, for example, you can use any three of these designations, along with a variety of others.

Each of these associations and identifiers have different implications for your business, so you’ll want to be sure you’ve fully researched them before applying for membership.

» Learn more: Do travel agents really save you money?

Save money as a travel agent

Once you’ve qualified as a travel agent, what comes next? If you travel frequently, becoming a travel agent can be a huge benefit to you, as it offers discounted rates and access to luxury travel options.

Discounted rates

Travel agents have access to negotiated rates that aren’t available to the general public. The exact amount will vary depending on the business. Hilton, for example, will give personal travel discounts of 50% off at newly-opened hotels and up to 25% off at the remainder of hotels within Hilton’s portfolio.

Hyatt, meanwhile, will give you a discount on personal travel of up to 50%, but only during select dates of the year. And although not all airlines give discounts to travel agents, many do.

Regardless, these are some pretty spectacular savings, and if you’re looking to save money on your vacations, being a travel agent can help.

Luxury programs

Becoming a travel agent isn’t only about saving money, however. It also grants you access to many hotel chains’ luxury travel programs.

If you’re big into elite status benefits, this is definitely something you’ll want to consider — especially since you don’t need any status at all to receive these perks, as long as you book through the hotel’s agent portal.

Most major hotel chains have these programs, including Hyatt Privé, Hilton Impresario, Marriott STARS & Luminous, Four Seasons Preferred Partner, Belmond Bellini Club, Rosewood Elite, Mandarin Oriental Fan Club and Shangri-La Luxury Circle.

While benefits vary by brand, many of these offers include things like room upgrades, complimentary breakfast, early check-in or late checkout and credits for expenses like dining or spa services. General consumers aren’t eligible for these programs, but once you’ve become a registered travel agent, they become accessible to you; however, some programs — such as Hyatt Privé — are invitation only.

For the most part, booking rooms through these programs shouldn’t cost more than the standard rate you’d be paying anyway, so you have the potential to get big benefits without shelling out any additional money.

However, note that these numbers don’t take into account any other discounted rates for which you may be eligible, such as those offered to American Automobile Association members and veterans .

» Learn more: Uncommon tips for saving money on travel

Earn money as a travel agent

Of course, becoming a travel agent isn’t all about scoring discounts for yourself. If you’re looking to earn some money, being a travel agent can be a good way to do so.

Note that travel agents operate in a customer-facing role, so you’ll also need to be able to build client relationships and be comfortable with sales. Courses such as those mentioned above can help train you to do this and run a successful business.

If booking travel and organizing trips for others is something that appeals to you, there’s definitely money to be earned. Marriott, for example, gives agents a commission of between 8% and 10% for all eligible stays booked.

» Learn more: The pros and cons of booking through online travel agencies

If you’d like to become a travel agent

There are a few good reasons to become a travel agent, especially if you travel a lot. Although it takes time and effort to complete training and apply for accreditation, the benefits you’ll receive as a travel advisor can be significant. This is true whether you’re booking personal travel or have built yourself a client base. Either way, there’s money to be had — and saved.

How to maximize your rewards

You want a travel credit card that prioritizes what’s important to you. Here are our picks for the best travel credit cards of 2024 , including those best for:

Flexibility, point transfers and a large bonus: Chase Sapphire Preferred® Card

No annual fee: Bank of America® Travel Rewards credit card

Flat-rate travel rewards: Capital One Venture Rewards Credit Card

Bonus travel rewards and high-end perks: Chase Sapphire Reserve®

Luxury perks: The Platinum Card® from American Express

Business travelers: Ink Business Preferred® Credit Card

on Chase's website

1x-5x 5x on travel purchased through Chase Travel℠, 3x on dining, select streaming services and online groceries, 2x on all other travel purchases, 1x on all other purchases.

60,000 Earn 60,000 bonus points after you spend $4,000 on purchases in the first 3 months from account opening. That's $750 when you redeem through Chase Travel℠.

1.5%-6.5% Enjoy 6.5% cash back on travel purchased through Chase Travel; 4.5% cash back on drugstore purchases and dining at restaurants, including takeout and eligible delivery service, and 3% on all other purchases (on up to $20,000 spent in the first year). After your first year or $20,000 spent, enjoy 5% cash back on travel purchased through Chase Travel, 3% cash back on drugstore purchases and dining at restaurants, including takeout and eligible delivery service, and unlimited 1.5% cash back on all other purchases.

$300 Earn an additional 1.5% cash back on everything you buy (on up to $20,000 spent in the first year) - worth up to $300 cash back!

on Capital One's website

2x-5x Earn unlimited 2X miles on every purchase, every day. Earn 5X miles on hotels and rental cars booked through Capital One Travel, where you'll get Capital One's best prices on thousands of trip options.

75,000 Enjoy a one-time bonus of 75,000 miles once you spend $4,000 on purchases within 3 months from account opening, equal to $750 in travel.

7 Best Online Travel Agent Training Programs

Get information on Travel Agent Training programs by entering your zip code and request enrollment information.

With online studies, your career as a travel agent starts with a laptop, access to the internet, and a click.

If you spend hours daydreaming about the perfect vacation and love being a part of every last planning detail, a career in travel is right for you.

If you want smooth sailing and to help vacationers’ trips go off without a hitch, a travel agent career is for you.

Start turning travel dreams into a reality for clients.

How do you get the certification and training you need to launch a career as a travel agent?

Check out these best online travel agent training programs.

1. Penn Foster

2. the travel institute, 3. stratford career institute, 4. travel agent campus, 5. grand canyon university, 6. iap international association of professions career college, 7. ashworth college, what courses are in an online travel agent training program, can you earn an online travel agent training program certification completely online, how long does it take to earn an online travel agent program certification online, how much does an online travel agent training program certification cost, bottom line, best online travel agent training programs.

Most online courses prepare you to sit for the Travel Agent Proficiency TAP exam to earn your travel and tourism certification.

The TAP test takes two hours to complete.

The test consists of 100 multiple-choice questions.

Or, continue your education to get your Bachelor of Science BS degree in hospitality.

After obtaining the necessary credentials, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, 66,300 jobs in travel await those who pursue them, with an anticipated 3 percent job growth.

Travel agents earn an average of $46,400 annually, or $22.31 per hour.

The American Society of Travel Advisors, ASTA, and The Travel Institute developed the TAP certification examination.

Pass the TAP to launch your travel agent career.

Earn your TAP certification and then continue your education by attaining your Certified Travel Associate CTA certification.

Or, specialize in specific types of travel like the following:

• Family travel
• Accessible travel
• Rural tourism
• Pet-friendly travel
• Cruise lines
• Sustainable travel
• Eco-friendly travel
• Solo travel
• Luxury travel
• Romantic getaways
• Destination weddings
• Honeymoon travel

Take a look at the best options for online travel agent training programs.

Check out the following top online training programs:

Penn Foster Online offers courses at levels from high school to college degrees.

Learn everything you need to understand about the travel and tourism industry through this accredited school.

Penn Foster offers an affordable and accredited online Travel Agent Career Diploma.

The program prepares students for entry-level travel agent careers.

Study at your own pace with access to a dedicated faculty.

The Penn Foster online program prepares students for the TAP Travel Agent Proficiency certification exam.

Studying through Penn Foster also allows you free enrollment in a Destination Specialist course at The Travel Institute to help prepare you for the Destination Specialist certification exam.

Fast-paced learners complete the course in as short of time as nine months.

The average student takes 15 months to prepare for work as a travel agent.

Go on to work in an agency, a tour company, an airline, or any travel agent capacity.

The travel agent certificate online program usually costs $989.

Catch a sale to find it as low as $799.

The Travel Institute has a history of preparing individuals for successful and rewarding careers in the travel industry since 1964.

More than 25,000 students claim success through learning with The Travel Institute.

With more than 50 years of training travel agents, the Travel Institute offers certification as a non-profit organization.

The online program aims to develop travel professionals who will better the industry and benefit travelers.

The online training offers their own TRIPKIT Travel Industry Introductory Program.

The Travel Institute also offers certification courses and training in areas of specialization in the travel industry.

Before deciding on a course, sign up for one of many free Webinars.

Gain a solid foundation of knowledge to kick-start your career in travel in up to 12 months of study.

Become a Certified Travel Counselor CTC for $550.

Or, if you already have five years of industry experience, take the Fast Track course.

The Travel Institute also offers Certified Travel Associate CTA and Certified Travel Industry Executive CTIE courses.

Stratford Career Institute is privately owned and established in 1991.

The Institute offers quality at-home vocational training programs to students in North America.

Stratford foresaw the need for emerging education for busy adults and offers distance learning.

SCI provides the opportunity for students to learn in the convenience of their own home with a flexible schedule.

This online school is a member of the United States Distance Learning Association, the Canadian Network for Innovation in Education, and the International Council for Open and Distance Education ICDE.

SCI also has academic affiliations with Institutional Accountants ICIA and The Travel Institute.

If you love to travel and want to turn travel planning into your career, Stratford Career Institute online offers a comprehensive travel and tourism course.

Learn the basics and then move into more advanced topics.

Delve into sales and marketing with this self-paced course.

Complete the course in a year or shorter.

Some students are ready for the next step after six months.

The Stratford Career Institute Travel and Tourism online course will prepare you to sit for the TAP test.

Learn everything you need about landing a job and continuing work as a successful travel agent for $1,049.

Catch the course on sale for $499 during Black Friday or other sales throughout the year.

The Travel Agent Campus is a highly sought-after travel agent/advisor online training and certification program.

Train with lessons developed by innovators of their independent home-based travel agent learning platform.

Learn from instructors who offer more than 30 years of training to those new to the travel business.

The Travel Agent Campus allows you to work at your own pace.

Learn everything you need to know to earn your online travel agent certification in two weeks.

Or, take less time.

Most students finish the course in about three to ten days.

Pay $995 in full, or break it down into monthly payments.

Once you start your travel career, earn as much as 70 percent to 90 percent commission.

Learn at home about the vast travel industry and tourism at your own pace in partnership with TPI Travel Planners International.

Get started in your career of planning, researching, and booking trips with the help of this online course.

Grand Canyon University GCU offers a private for-profit university.

GCU is the largest Christian university in the world, teaching 70,000 online students and 20,000 on-campus learners.

Take your time and earn a Bachelor of Science degree in Hospitality Management.

By attaining a BS in Hospitality Management, you open doors to a solid career in travel.

With Grand Canyon University, earn your degree after studying 120 credit hours at approximately $485 per credit.

The online courses each last eight weeks and are self-paced.

You may participate in Web chat sessions or view lectures online throughout the courses.

If you have already earned college credit, transfer credit hours to reduce your overall expenses.

Apply for scholarships to save more on tuition costs. Also, enjoy extensive discounted tuition for active military personnel.

Study online to receive your travel consultant certificate from a program featured by Oprah, ABC, CNN, and The Wall Street Journal.

IAP Career College offers a private online career learning opportunity.

This online college allows students to develop skills to advance their careers or start a business.

Learn the principles and techniques of the travel industry through an affordable online program.

IAP Career College online Travel Consultant Certificate Course takes approximately six weeks to complete.

Some students get done faster, by four weeks.

Others take a full 12 weeks to complete.

Work online at your own pace without teaching assistance.

The IAP course costs approximately $377.

Catch a special sale to get it for as inexpensive as $149.00.

Ashworth College offers career education that teaches practical skills employers want without breaking the bank.

This online school is among the most affordable online schools available to gain travel agent certification.

All of the career-focused courses at Ashworth College include books, lessons, study guides, and academic guidance.

Earn your certification among more than 300,000 students who have graduated from Ashworth.

Ashworth College offers an online travel agent training program to prepare you for work in the travel industry.

The course of study covers reservations, customer service, and geography.

Study entirely at your own pace to prepare for the TAP test certification in less than a year.

Earn your travel and tourism diploma to work with planning tours and management positions.

Pay $989 with monthly payments of $799 paid in full.

Ready yourself to take the Travel Institute Travel Agent Proficiency Test after completing the course.

Ashworth College additionally provides a toolkit with resume templates and other resources to help you land a travel career.

Online travel agent training programs offer courses that teach everything you need to prepare you as a travel agent.

Some of the typical courses included in travel agent training programs include:

• Air travel ticketing, reservations, and baggage handling, including North American Air Travel
• Geographic studies, including popular travel destinations, cultures, customs, and top attractions while exploring the world
• Tourism and the History of tourism, including types of tourism and how travel impacts the economy
• TAP Travel Agent Proficiency Certification studies include customer service, consumer-focused professionalism, specialized travel sales techniques, marketing, office skills, and time management.
• Advanced skills in journey pricing and ticketing
• BSP Agent billing reports and agent remittance procedures
• Learn about required documents for international trips
• Intro to Tourism Management to establish a foundational understanding of the tourism business
• Delve into the challenges of the hospitality industry as a career
• Aspects of Transportation Learning how to navigate domestic and foreign transportation systems such as air, railway, or cruises
• Convention and Special Event Planning, including conferences, trade shows, arranging travel, lodging, booking the best venue, and organizing food services
• World Regions, including time zones, weather, and climate
• International Travel Documentation
• Customer-focused selling and understanding customer needs
• Accepting and processing payments
• Travel Insurance
• Car Rentals
• Tour Sales and Niche Marketing
• Hospitality
• Global Distribution System GDS and establishing Passenger Name Record PNR
• Career Options in Travel
• Types of Tours and Tour Operators
• Fares and ticketing
• How to start an at-home travel agency
• Business Ethics and writing skills
• The Art of listening and communicating

Several online colleges, universities, and career training centers offer a complete program to attain the skills needed in the travel industry.

One of the benefits of studying online is that you learn at your own pace.

Earning an online travel agent certification varies in how long it takes .

Spend a few days, two to three weeks, or stretch it out.

Combine your studies with an Associate’s or a Bachelor’s degree, and take two to four years.

Pursue one or all of the travel agent certifications, including the following:

• Travel Agent Proficiency TAP
• The Certified Travel Associate CTA – Requires one year of industry experience or completion of the Travel Agent Proficiency TAP exam.
• Certified Travel Counselor
• Certified Travel Industry Executive
• ASTA Verified Travel Advisor VTA from the American Society of Travel Advisors ASTA
• International Air Transport Association IATA
• Travel Industry Designator Service TIDS
• Certified Cruise Counselor CCC from the Cruise Lines International Association CLIA
• Accredited Cruise Counselor ACC
• Master Cruise Counselor MCC
• Elite Cruise Counselor ECC

Online training costs in the travel industry vary based on how long the program is, whether the institution is accredited, and any specializations you pursue.

It ranges in cost from approximately $100 to about $1,000 to complete certification.

Some online programs include an exam fee, so expect to spend about $2,000 or more.

Once you obtain the certification, expect ongoing studies to maintain the certification.

Agents must earn ten continuing education credits CEUs per year.

Pursue your dream of adventure and love for travel.

Obtain your certification to start work in the travel and tourism industry fast .

Study through the best online travel agent training programs.

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What education do travel agents have?

Most travel agents have a certificate or associate degree. The most common areas of study are Hospitality Management , and Hospitality Management and Related Studies .

Certificate or associate degree

Degree level, hospitality management, most common degree, what degrees do travel agents have.

The most common degree held by travel agents is Hospitality Management , held by 2% of travel agents. Other common degrees include Hospitality Management and Related Studies .

Get a detailed breakdown of travel agents and the different types of degrees they hold:

Degrees that travel agents hold

What level of education do travel agents have.

Travel Agents often have similar levels of education. 55% of travel agents have a certificate or associate degree, with the second most common being a high school diploma at 31%.

Level of education that travel agents have

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Everything You Need to Know About Becoming a Travel Agent

Here's what you should know before becoming a travel agent.

If you're someone who spends your days scanning flights , loves hotel rewards points, and in general, is a fervent traveler, you've probably wondered how to become a travel agent.

And, while it's true that living in the age of Expedia means travel agents are not as vital as they once were, people use them a lot more than you might think. Just because travelers aren't calling up an agent every time they need to book a quick flight doesn't mean they don't want to consult an expert for a big trip. This holds especially true when it comes to honeymoons or experiential trips that have a lot of moving parts — coordinating tour companies , translators, or multiple resort stays, for example. It's often easier to leave the logistics to someone else: travel agents.

You don't need a specific employment background to become a travel agent, so if you're looking for a fresh career start, that's totally OK. You have to start somewhere on your path to becoming a travel agent, and the sooner you jump in, the sooner you'll build your client base. On the other hand, if you're hoping to parlay your experience in a semi-related industry, be it marketing or hospitality, that can help because you'll have even more context for your new gig. Either way, this can be a rewarding career path (with some fun perks), so here's what you need to know to become a travel agent.

Formal Training Needed to Become a Travel Agent

While some four-year colleges, community colleges, and trade schools offer tourism certifications, it is not a requirement for those trying to become travel agents. Certificates of tourism can be very helpful, but so can previous training in marketing, hospitality, or even event planning. Ultimately, your knowledge of destinations, sales, itinerary planning, and booking software will be crucial for your career as a travel agent.

In terms of the training time you need to put in before becoming a fully-fledged travel agent, it depends. You could start your career right after high school, or you could put in one to four years to earn a certificate, associate's, or bachelor's degree in tourism. Of course, you could also change course from a related job, and morph your experience as, say, a destination wedding planner into a career as a travel agent.

Training Programs Available

You could take classes with a company like The Travel Institute to earn your certification. Not only will they teach you the basics of planning itineraries, but they'll also make sure you're learning about new cultures, world geography, and experiences you can have all over the world. They'll also help you decide what business route you want to take.

How to Become a Travel Agent: The Logistics

Becoming a travel agent will likely mean starting your own business . On the plus side, it requires relatively little overhead. If you're becoming a small business owner by opening a yoga studio, for example, you will need to rent a space, deal with permits, buy supplies, build a website, and pay yoga teachers and someone to work the front desk. However, if you're starting a travel agent business, you can operate from your living room and there aren't nearly as many upfront costs.

You will have to think about what type of business you want to become. Do you want to incorporate or become an LLC? Would you rather be a sole proprietor? Incorporating takes the most effort, and is often the most expensive. Becoming an LLC is a good happy medium because it can help protect you as a business entity without having as many associated costs. Small business owners typically become an LLC to protect their personal assets. If you get sued as an LLC, someone can come after your business holdings, but can't come after your house, car, or personal savings.

If you choose to remain a sole proprietor (which doesn't require any fees or legwork), you are essentially a freelancer or independent contractor. You can be an LLC and an independent contractor, too — they aren't mutually exclusive. If you want to be an independent contractor, it likely means you're working as part of a larger host agency, which is smart to do when you're starting out as a travel agent. Down the road, you can also own a travel agency franchise. Owning a franchise might come with more overhead costs, and that would be a reason to incorporate.

If you're an independent contractor, you should know that your taxes aren't going to be as straightforward as a full-time employee's might be. You may have to start keeping track of your business expenses, as you might be able to write them off. You also might not get things like health benefits from your employer. As you plan your new career, consider sitting down with an established travel agent to ask them some logistical questions: Where do they get their health insurance? How do they keep track of their income and expenses? Do they use an accountant to do their taxes? While meeting with the travel agent, you can discuss the pros and cons of working for a larger agency, too. If you're not sure how to get in touch with other travel agents, consider using social media, like LinkedIn or even Instagram.

What to Think About When You Become a Travel Agent

Once you've secured work as a travel agent, you'll want to think about how you can earn more money and distinguish yourself from other agents. Here are three things to consider as you start your career.

Making Commissions: If you're working for a larger travel agency as an independent contractor, how do commissions work? Make sure you have this conversation early on before accepting the position. When you're starting out, you want to make sure the commission rate you're receiving is similar to the industry standard.

Growing Your Client Base: How do you make more money as a travel agent? Clients, clients, clients. You want happy customers who will return to you every time they want to book a travel experience. You'll want to keep your clients happy by finding them great deals, curating unbelievable experiences for them, and simply being great to work with.

Establishing a Niche: This is by no means a requirement for becoming a travel agent, but as you establish your career, you may want to consider focusing on a specific niche. For example, perhaps you're someone who focuses on honeymoon travel , luxury travel, or adventure travel . Your niche can help you attract clients, and it can be anything in the travel realm, as long as there's a need for it.

How to Become a Travel Agent

Learn what it takes to become a Travel Agent in 2024, and how to start your journey.

• What is a Travel Agent
• How to Become
• Certifications
• Tools & Software
• LinkedIn Guide
• Interview Questions
• Work-Life Balance
• Professional Goals
• Resume Examples
• Cover Letter Examples

Land a Travel Agent role with Teal

How do I become a Travel Agent?

Gain relevant education, develop essential travel agent skills, gain practical experience in the travel industry, build your professional network, create a portfolio of your travel planning, stay informed and continue learning, typical requirements to become a travel agent, educational requirements and academic pathways, building experience in the travel industry, key skills for aspiring travel agents, additional qualifications for a competitive edge, alternative ways to start a travel agent career, building on hospitality or customer service experience, utilizing language skills and cultural knowledge, transitioning from a different sector, embracing digital nomadism and travel blogging, education and specialized training, how to break into the industry as a travel agent - next steps, faqs about becoming a travel agent, how long does it take to become a travel agent, do you need a degree to become a travel agent, can i become a travel agent with no experience.

Travel Agent Skills

Related Career Paths

Creating memorable guest experiences, driving service excellence in the hospitality sector

Driving customer satisfaction, resolving issues with empathy and efficiency

Fostering customer loyalty and business growth through personalized relationship management

Driving customer satisfaction and loyalty through proactive relationship management

Ensuring passenger safety and comfort, creating memorable travel experiences

Crafting unforgettable journeys, tailoring travel experiences to individual desires

Start Your Travel Agent Career with Teal

The 10 Best Schools For Becoming a Travel Agent: Degree and Job Info

Find your perfect school.

Do you like to travel? If so, you should consider pursuing employment as a Travel Agent. What better way to combine your hobby with a career, right? If you are interested, check out our guide below and get started today!

Methodology

If you’re ready… Get ready for take-off… into an exciting new career in travel. These fine schools display the best programs for those interested in the field based on the following:

• Provides a comprehensive program in the field of travel, primarily for those interested in becoming a Travel Agent or would like to focus on Hospitality Management and the like,
• Displays proper accreditation to become a qualified Travel Agent,
• The curriculum ensures that the program covers topics such as travel industry regulations, booking procedures, customer service, sales, and marketing,
• Provides possible internship opportunities that offer internships with travel agencies or other related organizations to give students hands-on experience,
• Provides learning options, such as on-campus and online formats,
• Offers job placement services and networking opportunities.

To learn more, see our Methodology page.

10 BEST SCHOOLS FOR A TRAVEL AGENT DEGREE

Casper college.

(Online) Associate in Hospitality And Tourism Management

Casper College’s online associate in hospitality and tourism management degree is a 63-66 credit program that allows students to graduate without visiting the campus. Students who finish the program, taught by faculty members with industry expertise, can exhibit a current understanding of products and services supplied by various tourism/hospitality industry segments.

Students will also learn how to explain tourism/hospitality products and services that are distributed, advertised, and sold, appreciate the value of service in tourism/hospitality, display destination knowledge, and correctly use the specialist vocabulary used by industry professionals.

Students will be asked to contact local and regional business leaders for interviews, visits, evaluations, planning, and analytical-based projects.

Courses relevant to travel careers are:

• Introduction to Hospitality and Tourism Management
• Hotel Operations Management
• Sales and Customer Relationship Management
• Convention Sales and Management
• Tourism Management
• Legal Environment of Business 

The goals of this degree include delivering exceptional client service, managing accommodations, developing novel income streams, and conducting economic analysis, all of which are important in becoming a travel agent.

Check out Casper’s Online Associate In Hospitality And Tourism Management , see if the requirements meet your standards, and start making your dream come true. 

Highline College

(On-campus) Associate of Applied Science degrees in Hospitality and Tourism Management

An Associate of Applied Science in Hospitality and Tourism Management from Highline College is one of the best degrees to help you become a successful travel agent. Each student is given the option to work with a HOST advisor to create their specific degree plan. Because you will specialize in your chosen job route, you will only attend classes directly related to your path.

A Flight Certificate program, also offered at Highline College, is intended for those who are interested in the aviation industry and its three focus areas:

• Airport operations and management

Individuals who complete this course of study will be adequately schooled in the logistical parts of the three aforementioned focus areas, resulting in a comprehensive understanding of the flight business. This course option includes all of the elements required to succeed as a professional in the aviation, airline, or airport industry.

Program courses include:

• Travel Geography
• Customer Service Operations
• Airline and Aviation Operations
• Airport Operations
• Travel Counselor
• Destination Marketing Organization

Highline College’s Flight Certificate is one of the most well-known certificates for those looking for work in a travel agency. This degree and certificate will undoubtedly enhance your resume. Learn about the school’s Associate of Applied Science in Hospitality and Tourism Management and Flight Certificate program .

Georgia Piedmont Technical College

(Online) Associate In Marketing Management 

Marketing and branding tactics, finding new ways to sell products and services, and remaining competitive are critical components of sustaining a positive client relationship in the travel agency industry. These topics are covered in the Associate in Marketing Management online program at Georgia Piedmont Technical College for aspiring professional travel agents.

The online associate in marketing management degree at GPTC offers several concentration options, including retail management and entrepreneurship. Students acquire hands-on experience by participating in a marketing internship or practicum.

Core courses include:

• Professional selling
• Business regulations and compliance
• Digital technologies in business

Pursuing this marketing degree is one approach to honing your customer service and sales abilities. It provides a curriculum that will assist you in understanding consumer behavior, needs, or desires and developing solutions to address them.

The career center at the college fosters favorable results by assisting students in developing resume writing, interviewing, and job-hunting skills. Go to the Associate In Marketing Management page to learn more if you’re ready to join GPTC’s nearly 100 percent success record after graduation.

Westchester Community College

(On-campus) AS in Marketing

The Associate of Science in Marketing program combines hands-on experience with academics to prepare students for a career in marketing and various industries in the twenty-first century. The program includes hands-on class projects with real-world applications, a core set of general education courses, and specialized marketing courses in consumer behavior, advertising, professional selling, and strategic marketing management.

Students will work in groups to develop new product developments, sales presentations, and advertising media plans, all critical components when selling tickets or vacation packages. The curriculum is intended to prepare students for transfer to SUNY and private four-year institutions.

Students can join the American Marketing Association and the Marketing Club and gain experience in internship positions in manufacturing, consumer goods, services, retailing, distribution, advertising, promotion, direct marketing, e-commerce, international marketing, and many other industries.

Program electives include:

• Entrepreneurship
• Professional Selling
• Digital Marketing
• Market Research
• Market Internship

An aspirant travel agent with a marketing degree may work with a tour company, cruise line, or resort. Visit Westchester Community College and begin your career with one of the best AS in Marketing programs available.

Seminole State College of Florida

(On-campus, hybrid, and online) AA in Advertising/Public Relations

Advertising and public relations are critical in generating more revenue for any travel company. Travel agencies require public relations to help them gain recognition and establish a brand for themselves. This AA degree teaches you marketing communications, how to deal with various types of customers, and how to defend your company’s reputation.

Professors who are specialists in their fields will also teach you how to create, develop, and launch campaigns. You’ll get hands-on experience with television and digital design projects here. This AA in Advertising/Public Relations is a great place to start a variety of vocations.

Available courses include:

• Principles of Public Relations
• Research Methods for Communication
• Digital Editing
• Advertising
• Interpersonal Communication
• Principles of Marketing
• Client Engagement

With 60 credit hours to complete, you will gain competencies needed in real-life circumstances, prepare to communicate the right message to clients to build long-term connections and discover how to develop travel promotion plans.

Students must collaborate with Student Affairs advisors, counselors, or specialists to ensure that required courses are taken and entry requirements for their desired college/university program are met.

Get a strong start as a travel agent at Seminole State College of Florida . 

Community College of Baltimore Country

(Online) Travel Agent Training Certificate

Community College of Baltimore Country has designed the Online Travel Training Certificate for students seeking a career in this rapidly growing industry. The program constitutes airline, ground transportation, hotels and resorts, cruises and tours, international and domestic travel, reservations and pricing, specialty travel, and other topics.

This certificate leads to a Travel Agent Proficiency qualification, recognized internationally by the travel industry, and ranges from entry-level travel agent knowledge to senior management for agencies or tour operations. ​

This online curriculum is divided into two modules, with students having up to six months to complete the course material. The first lesson is intended to teach students how to begin a travel career and the basic and destination geography that a travel agent is most likely to recommend and sell to their clients. Introduction to the travel industry, basic geography, professional skills, and destination geography are among the topics to be covered.

The second lesson will teach you how to establish a travel job and domestic and worldwide travel locations. The travel business will be discussed, including airlines, ground transportation, hotels and resorts, cruises, excursions, specialized travel, and more.

Jumpstart your travel career with a Travel Agent Training Certificate and be competitive in the industry. 

LeTourneau University

(On-campus or online) AS in Airport Management

The airport management associate degree program prepares students for careers in airports and related client businesses and industries. Students are immersed in real-world learning environments. Furthermore, LeTourneau University’s Associate of Science in Aviation Management degree blends the finest of LETU’s nationally known aviation program with excellent business training, resulting in a program poised to drive you into leadership positions in the aviation sector.

The associate degree in airport management program was created with a strong career focus in mind, giving graduates the knowledge and skills needed to enter the profession in entry-level employment. Many graduates of the associate degree in airport management program have gone on to work in airport management at surrounding airports, start their travel agency, work in national organizations, and even travel internationally.

As an airport manager and analyst student with a special focus on airport operations, you will gain extensive experience. This degree major will further provide you with the knowledge needed to handle the many areas of airport operation. Your courses will teach you how over 40,000 airports and airfields worldwide make daily and anticipated business choices.

Classes include:

• Aviation Management
• Flight Science
• Aviation Safety Factors

Check out the AS in Airport Management and get ready to build a strong foundation in various functional areas of aviation.

University of Massachusetts Amherst

(Online and on-campus) BS in Hospitality and Tourism Management

UMass offers one of the best Bachelor of Science in hospitality and tourism management and has been a doorway to student achievement for over 75 years!

Through coursework, industry leaders, hands-on experience, and international travel, you will discover how to be a great leader. The curriculum covers managerial areas such as lodging, food and beverage, customer experience, events, clubs, and revenue and data analytics. Take advantage of experiential learning opportunities by attending HTM Career Day and Marriott Meals, among other similar events.

The HTM major includes upper-level elective courses that allow you to tailor your academic curriculum to your own goals, interests, and needs. Among the HTM electives are:

• Convention Sales
• Club Management
• Beverage Management
• Special Event Management

Another advantage is that UMass offers this curriculum both on-campus and online. UMass Amherst grads are in high demand for careers! Ninety-five percent of alumni get employed by top firms such as Hillstone Restaurant Group, Encore Boston Harbor, Marriott International, and even Expedia and Twitter shortly after graduation!

Get your hospitality degree from the University of Massachusetts, Amherst , and open the door to a rewarding career in travel agencies.

Boston University

(On-campus) BS in Hospitality Administration

This degree is for students who enjoy traveling and learning about various cultures. Boston University’s Bachelor of Science in Hotel Administration program requires overseas travel, which is advantageous for aspiring travel agents. You will firsthand experience what it is like to travel, and you will have a better understanding of the do’s and don’ts, which you can subsequently share with your clients.

You can specialize in either hospitality marketing, event management, hospitality real estate development, or revenue management. You will complete a blend of fundamental courses and SHA core and optional courses, including Hospitality Sales Management and Private Club Management, as part of this 128-credit hour program.

Hospitality Concentrations helpful in being a travel agent include:

• Hospitality Marketing
• Event Management
• Revenue Management & Analytics
• Hospitality Accounting & Finance
• Hospitality Entrepreneurship
• Hospitality Retailing

You will engage in the study abroad program in addition to two 400-hour work experiences – a fantastic opportunity! You can finish the dual degree, include hospitality management as a minor, or even take advantage of the 4+1 option, which allows you to complete both a bachelor’s and a master’s degree in just five years.

Visit BUS’s BS in Hospitality Administration and learn more about the program along with their admission requirements. 

Arizona State University

(On-campus) BS in Tourism Development and Management

The Bachelor of Tourist Development and Management degree program at the W.P. Carey School of Business teaches students the marketing tactics and sound business foundations required for success in the tourism sector and allied professions. It covers core courses in tourism planning, convention sales and management, tourism and recreation policy, tourism marketing, and community development.

Students must take an honors thesis course and complete one- to twelve credits of internship work in the tourist industry to complete the program. Graduates can find a job in resorts, commercial recreation firms, tourism development corporations, and travel agencies.

This degree program offers the following concentrations:

• Tourism Development and Management (Meetings and Events)
• Tourism Development and Management (Resort and Hotel Leadership)
• Tourism Development and Management (Sustainable Tourism)

Visit ASU’s BS in Tourism Development and Management , learn more about this degree, and see if it fits your standards. 

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

Aren’t vacations supposed to be fun and relaxing? Planning a trip can be stressful. You must secure a plane ticket, get a hotel reservation, plan activities, and everything in between. Most people let Travel Agents handle the arrangements to avoid stress.

What a fun industry to consider if you like to travel… or help others enjoy their vacations! There are many travel industry jobs to consider, such as: 

• Travel Agent
• Director of Tourism
• Event & Meeting Planner
• Spa Manager
• Cruise Ship Director
• Amusement Park Worker
• Casino Worker
• Recreation Director
• Flight Attendant
• Customer Service Agent
• Hotel Manager

Travel Agents wear many hats. They help their clients plan trips for business or pleasure. They offer valuable advice about travel destinations, as well as the best attractions and hotels. 

Travel Agents also assist with: 

• Setting a travel budget
• Getting the best deals
• Planning excursions
• Book reservations 
• Provide proper documentation requirements, such as health, passport, or security details
• Researches group rates and travel package deals

As a Travel Agent, you very well may get to visit the destinations in which you are trying to market to others. As you experience destinations yourself, you will know what to recommend based on what you see.

Generally, travel can be categorized into two categories, such as: 

• Corporate – Focuses on making travel arrangements for employees who need to go on business trips. They arrange for travel and hotel accommodations while business is being conducted.
• Fun & Leisure – Focuses on making dream vacations coming true for individuals or families. They book air flights, rental cars, hotel accommodations, day excursions, amusement park attractions, and much more! 

To enter into a career as a Travel Agent, you will need a high school or equivalent education. In some instances, employers may require a certificate from a technical training program in the field. Often, you can locate a program at your local community college or online. 

If you would like, you can also earn a bachelor’s degree in hospitality and tourism. 

According to the BLS , Travel Agents earned $46,400 per year, as of May 2022. The highest 10% earned upwards of $64,100 annually.

Between 2022 and 2032, the BLS estimates a job growth rate of 3%, adding 8,600 new options over the next decade.

Although the COVID-19 pandemic put a damper on the travel agency, things are on the upswing… which is contributing to the increased job growth rate.

While licensure is not required, earning certifications will help you exhibit your skills and knowledge. There are a couple to consider, such as: 

• Travel Agent Proficiency Test
• American Society of Travel Advisors

Perhaps first and foremost, you must like to travel yourself. That’s the fun part, right? However, while working with clients you will need to excel in communication, organization, and sales skills. You also need to be detail-oriented, personable and have excellent customer service skills.

Related Article: The 40 Highest Paying Jobs With a Trade School Education

Malcolm Peralty Chief Editor

Here’s How To Become a Travel Agent and Earn $3,000 Monthly

N o matter the type of travel you enjoy doing travel planning takes attention to detail mixed with a bit of the spirit of adventure. Every once in a while when the stars align you can take what you love to do and turn it into a living. It’s time to pack your go bag and explore the travel agency world .

See Also: 6 Unusual Ways To Make Extra Money (That Actually Work)

Sponsored: Protect Your Wealth With A Gold IRA. Take advantage of the timeless appeal of gold in a Gold IRA recommended by Sean Hannity.

How To Become a Travel Agent

Just because someone has travel experience does not mean they can automatically become a travel agent. However, if you are interested in becoming a travel agent there are many programs you can take to help you become one, or even start your own business. Skills you will learn include how to organize travel arrangements, business ethics, customer service, itinerary planning and the ins and outs of travel insurance.

No matter your career goals, whether you want to focus on luxury travel or more of a local tour operation, the following programs and certifications, which can be done in person or remotely, can get you started on the right path.

• Departure Lounge: Learn how to navigate the hotel industry as an independent contractor as well as get tips on tour operating.
• Premier Cruise Lines: Many lines such as Virgin Voyages, Cunard or Ritz-Carlton Yachts provide training programs for travel agents to help them sell their products and services more efficiently.
• Get Certified: When your training and coursework are complete a certification helps distinguish you in the field with these designations. Some popular ones include the International Air Transport Association, Cruise Line International Association or Travel Industry Designator Service. Be sure to research which certification makes the most sense for you as it will imply different things for your business.

How Much Do Travel Agents Make?

The median pay for what travel agents get paid in the United States is estimated to be about $46,400 annually which is over $3,000 monthly. This may seem underwhelming, but this is an estimate by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics which means is only based on what full-time employees make and not self-employed people. In other words, you can make a lot more money as an independent travel advisor as opposed to working for a host agency. 

Travel agents make money by earning commissions on trips they book as well as charging fees such as booking or service fees. This is a great way to also set your own schedule and only choose the gigs you like. 

Final Take To GO: Love To Travel?

When it comes to starting as a travel agent, a good rule to follow is to try to sell and book trips you yourself would want to take. If you already love to travel this could be a natural next step in your career or a budding side business. 

A great way to sell yourself as a travel agent is to define your unique selling point. Essentially what is it about you that will make people want to book trips with you? It also helps to optimize your website, create high-quality content from trips you’ve booked or been on and leverage your social media platforms. Once you have your foundation firmly established, everything else is booking a day at the beach. 

• Full-time travel agents make roughly $46,400 a year which is over $3,000 a month. However, there is a chance to make more money than this estimate by starting your own travel agency and working for yourself. This way you can set your own schedule and don't have to worry about splitting your commissions.
• You don't need a specific degree to get started as a travel agent, but finding a training program and getting certified with varying destinations does help distinguish you as a trusted travel agent to your potential clients.
• Selling yourself as a travel agent, much like with any job or small business, starts with defining your unique selling point. Essentially what is it about you that will make people want to book trips with you? It also helps to optimize your website, create high-quality content from trips you've booked or been on and leverage your social media platforms.
• Get Certified: When your training and coursework are complete a certification helps distinguish you in the field with these designations. Some popular ones include the International Air Transport Association, Cruise Line International Association or Travel Industry Designator Service. Research which certification makes the most sense for you as it will imply different things for your business.

This article originally appeared on GOBankingRates.com : Here’s How To Become a Travel Agent and Earn $3,000 Monthly

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OpenAI’s GPT-4 Can Autonomously Exploit 87% of One-Day Vulnerabilities, Study Finds

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The GPT-4 large language model from OpenAI can exploit real-world vulnerabilities without human intervention, a new study by University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign researchers has found. Other open-source models, including GPT-3.5 and vulnerability scanners, are not able to do this.

A large language model agent — an advanced system based on an LLM that can take actions via tools, reason, self-reflect and more — running on GPT-4 successfully exploited 87% of “one-day” vulnerabilities when provided with their National Institute of Standards and Technology description. One-day vulnerabilities are those that have been publicly disclosed but yet to be patched, so they are still open to exploitation.

“As LLMs have become increasingly powerful, so have the capabilities of LLM agents,” the researchers wrote in the arXiv preprint. They also speculated that the comparative failure of the other models is because they are “much worse at tool use” than GPT-4.

The findings show that GPT-4 has an “emergent capability” of autonomously detecting and exploiting one-day vulnerabilities that scanners might overlook.

Daniel Kang, assistant professor at UIUC and study author, hopes that the results of his research will be used in the defensive setting; however, he is aware that the capability could present an emerging mode of attack for cybercriminals.

He told TechRepublic in an email, “I would suspect that this would lower the barriers to exploiting one-day vulnerabilities when LLM costs go down. Previously, this was a manual process. If LLMs become cheap enough, this process will likely become more automated.”

How successful is GPT-4 at autonomously detecting and exploiting vulnerabilities?

Gpt-4 can autonomously exploit one-day vulnerabilities.

The GPT-4 agent was able to autonomously exploit web and non-web one-day vulnerabilities, even those that were published on the Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures database after the model’s knowledge cutoff date of November 26, 2023, demonstrating its impressive capabilities.

“In our previous experiments, we found that GPT-4 is excellent at planning and following a plan, so we were not surprised,” Kang told TechRepublic.

SEE: GPT-4 cheat sheet: What is GPT-4 & what is it capable of?

Kang’s GPT-4 agent did have access to the internet and, therefore, any publicly available information about how it could be exploited. However, he explained that, without advanced AI, the information would not be enough to direct an agent through a successful exploitation.

“We use ‘autonomous’ in the sense that GPT-4 is capable of making a plan to exploit a vulnerability,” he told TechRepublic. “Many real-world vulnerabilities, such as ACIDRain — which caused over $50 million in real-world losses — have information online. Yet exploiting them is non-trivial and, for a human, requires some knowledge of computer science.”

Out of the 15 one-day vulnerabilities the GPT-4 agent was presented with, only two could not be exploited: Iris XSS and Hertzbeat RCE. The authors speculated that this was because the Iris web app is particularly difficult to navigate and the description of Hertzbeat RCE is in Chinese, which could be harder to interpret when the prompt is in English.

GPT-4 cannot autonomously exploit zero-day vulnerabilities

While the GPT-4 agent had a phenomenal success rate of 87% with access to the vulnerability descriptions, the figure dropped down to just 7% when it did not, showing it is not currently capable of exploiting zero-day vulnerabilities . The researchers wrote that this result demonstrates how the LLM is “much more capable of exploiting vulnerabilities than finding vulnerabilities.”

It’s cheaper to use GPT-4 to exploit vulnerabilities than a human hacker

The researchers determined the average cost of a successful GPT-4 exploitation to be $8.80 per vulnerability, while employing a human penetration tester would be about $25 per vulnerability if it took them half an hour.

While the LLM agent is already 2.8 times cheaper than human labour, the researchers expect the associated running costs of GPT-4 to drop further, as GPT-3.5 has become over three times cheaper in just a year. “LLM agents are also trivially scalable, in contrast to human labor,” the researchers wrote.

GPT-4 takes many actions to autonomously exploit a vulnerability

Other findings included that a significant number of the vulnerabilities took many actions to exploit, some up to 100. Surprisingly, the average number of actions taken when the agent had access to the descriptions and when it didn’t only differed marginally, and GPT-4 actually took fewer steps in the latter zero-day setting.

Kang speculated to TechRepublic, “I think without the CVE description, GPT-4 gives up more easily since it doesn’t know which path to take.”

How were the vulnerability exploitation capabilities of LLMs tested?

The researchers first collected a benchmark dataset of 15 real-world, one-day vulnerabilities in software from the CVE database and academic papers. These reproducible, open-source vulnerabilities consisted of website vulnerabilities, containers vulnerabilities and vulnerable Python packages, and over half were categorised as either “high” or “critical” severity.

Next, they developed an LLM agent based on the ReAct automation framework, meaning it could reason over its next action, construct an action command, execute it with the appropriate tool and repeat in an interactive loop. The developers only needed to write 91 lines of code to create their agent, showing how simple it is to implement.

The base language model could be alternated between GPT-4 and these other open-source LLMs:

• OpenHermes-2.5-Mistral-7B.
• LlaMA-2 Chat (70B).
• LLaMA-2 Chat (13B).
• LLaMA-2 Chat (7B).
• Mixtral-8x7B Instruct.
• Mistral (7B) Instruct v0.2.
• Nous Hermes-2 Yi 34B.
• OpenChat 3.5.

The agent was equipped with the tools necessary to autonomously exploit vulnerabilities in target systems, like web browsing elements, a terminal, web search results, file creation and editing capabilities and a code interpreter. It could also access the descriptions of vulnerabilities from the CVE database to emulate the one-day setting.

Then, the researchers provided each agent with a detailed prompt that encouraged it to be creative, persistent and explore different approaches to exploiting the 15 vulnerabilities. This prompt consisted of 1,056 “tokens,” or individual units of text like words and punctuation marks.

The performance of each agent was measured based on whether it successfully exploited the vulnerabilities, the complexity of the vulnerability and the dollar cost of the endeavour, based on the number of tokens inputted and outputted and OpenAI API costs.

SEE: OpenAI’s GPT Store is Now Open for Chatbot Builders

The experiment was also repeated where the agent was not provided with descriptions of the vulnerabilities to emulate a more difficult zero-day setting. In this instance, the agent has to both discover the vulnerability and then successfully exploit it.

Alongside the agent, the same vulnerabilities were provided to the vulnerability scanners ZAP and Metasploit, both commonly used by penetration testers. The researchers wanted to compare their effectiveness in identifying and exploiting vulnerabilities to LLMs.

Ultimately, it was found that only an LLM agent based on GPT-4 could find and exploit one-day vulnerabilities — i.e., when it had access to their CVE descriptions. All other LLMs and the two scanners had a 0% success rate and therefore were not tested with zero-day vulnerabilities.

Why did the researchers test the vulnerability exploitation capabilities of LLMs?

This study was conducted to address the gap in knowledge regarding the ability of LLMs to successfully exploit one-day vulnerabilities in computer systems without human intervention.

When vulnerabilities are disclosed in the CVE database, the entry does not always describe how it can be exploited; therefore, threat actors or penetration testers looking to exploit them must work it out themselves. The researchers sought to determine the feasibility of automating this process with existing LLMs.

SEE: Learn how to Use AI for Your Business

The Illinois team has previously demonstrated the autonomous hacking capabilities of LLMs through “capture the flag” exercises , but not in real-world deployments. Other work has mostly focused on AI in the context of “human-uplift” in cybersecurity, for example, where hackers are assisted by a GenAI-powered chatbot .

Kang told TechRepublic, “Our lab is focused on the academic question of what are the capabilities of frontier AI methods, including agents. We have focused on cybersecurity due to its importance recently.”

OpenAI has been approached for comment.

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Could Trump Go to Prison? If He Does, the Secret Service Goes, Too

Officials have had preliminary discussions about how to protect the former president in the unlikely event that he is jailed for contempt during the trial.

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By William K. Rashbaum

The U.S. Secret Service is in the business of protecting the president, whether he’s inside the Oval Office or visiting a foreign war zone.

But protecting a former president in prison? The prospect is unprecedented. That would be the challenge if Donald J. Trump — whom the agency is required by law to protect around the clock — is convicted at his criminal trial in Manhattan and sentenced to serve time.

Even before the trial’s opening statements, the Secret Service was in some measure planning for the extraordinary possibility of a former president behind bars. Prosecutors had asked the judge in the case to remind Mr. Trump that attacks on witnesses and jurors could land him in jail even before a verdict is rendered.

(The judge, who held a hearing Tuesday morning to determine whether Mr. Trump should be held in contempt for violating a gag order, is far more likely to issue a warning or impose a fine before taking the extreme step of jailing the 77-year-old former president. It was not immediately clear when he would issue his ruling.)

Last week, as a result of the prosecution’s request, officials with federal, state and city agencies had an impromptu meeting about how to handle the situation, according to two people with knowledge of the matter.

That behind-the-scenes conversation — involving officials from the Secret Service and other relevant law enforcement agencies — focused only on how to move and protect Mr. Trump if the judge were to order him briefly jailed for contempt in a courthouse holding cell, the people said.

The far more substantial challenge — how to safely incarcerate a former president if the jury convicts him and the judge sentences him to prison rather than home confinement or probation — has yet to be addressed directly, according to some of a dozen current and former city, state and federal officials interviewed for this article.

That’s at least in part because if Mr. Trump is ultimately convicted, a drawn-out and hard-fought series of appeals, possibly all the way up to the U.S. Supreme Court, is almost a certainty. That would most likely delay any sentence for months if not longer, said several of the people, who noted that a prison sentence was unlikely.

But the daunting challenge remains. And not just for Secret Service and prison officials, who would face the logistical nightmare of safely incarcerating Mr. Trump, who is also the presumptive Republican nominee for President.

“Obviously, it’s uncharted territory,” said Martin F. Horn, who has worked at the highest levels of New York’s and Pennsylvania’s state prison agencies and served as commissioner of New York City’s correction and probation departments. “Certainly no state prison system has had to deal with this before, and no federal prison has had to either.”

Steven Cheung, the communications director for Mr. Trump’s campaign, said the case against the former president was “so spurious and so weak” that other prosecutors had refused to bring it, and called it “an unprecedented partisan witch hunt.”

“That the Democrat fever dream of incarcerating the nominee of the Republican Party has reached this level exposes their Stalinist roots and displays their utter contempt for American democracy,” he said.

Protecting Mr. Trump in a prison environment would involve keeping him separate from other inmates, as well as screening his food and other personal items, officials said. If he were to be imprisoned, a detail of agents would work 24 hours a day, seven days a week, rotating in and out of the facility, several officials said. While firearms are obviously strictly prohibited in prisons, the agents would nonetheless be armed.

Former corrections officials said there were several New York state prisons and city jails that have been closed or partly closed, leaving wings or large sections of their facilities empty and available. One of those buildings could serve to incarcerate the former president and accommodate his Secret Service protective detail

Anthony Guglielmi, the spokesman for the Secret Service in Washington, declined in a statement to discuss specific “protective operations.” But he said that federal law requires Secret Service agents to protect former presidents, adding that they use state-of-the-art technology, intelligence and tactics to do so.

Thomas J. Mailey, a spokesman for New York State’s prison agency, said his department couldn’t speculate about how it would treat someone who has not yet been sentenced, but that it has a system “to assess and provide for individuals’ medical, mental health and security needs.” Frank Dwyer, a spokesman for the New York City jails agency, said only that “the department would find appropriate housing” for the former president.

The trial in Manhattan, one of four criminal cases pending against Mr. Trump and possibly the only one that will go to a jury before the election, centers on accusations he falsified records to cover up a sex scandal involving a porn star. The former president is charged with 34 counts of felony falsifying business records. If convicted, the judge in the case, Juan M. Merchan, could sentence him to punishments ranging from probation to four years in state prison, though for a first-time offender of Mr. Trump’s age, such a term would be extreme.

If Mr. Trump is convicted, but elected president again, he could not pardon himself because the prosecution was brought by New York State.

Under normal circumstances, any sentence of one year or less, colloquially known as “city time,” would generally be served on New York City’s notorious Rikers Island, home to the Department of Correction’s seven jails. (That’s where Mr. Trump’s former chief financial officer, Allen H. Weisselberg, 76, is currently serving his second five-month sentence for crimes related to his work for his former boss.)

Any sentence of more than a year, known as state time, would generally be served in one of the 44 prisons run by New York State’s Department of Corrections and Community Supervision.

The former president could also be sentenced to a term of probation, raising the bizarre possibility of the former commander in chief reporting regularly to a civil servant at the city’s Probation Department.

He would have to follow the probation officer’s instructions and answer questions about his work and personal life until the term of probation ended. He would also be barred from associating with disreputable people, and if he committed any additional crimes, he could be jailed immediately.

Maggie Haberman contributed reporting.

William K. Rashbaum is a Times reporter covering municipal and political corruption, the courts and broader law enforcement topics in New York. More about William K. Rashbaum

Our Coverage of the Trump Hush-Money Trial

News and Analysis

Jurors heard riveting testimony from Keith Davidson , the lawyer who had arranged the hush-money payment  between Donald Trump and a porn star, Stormy Daniels. Davidson also described an earlier deal to buy the silence of another woman, Karen McDougal.

The judge overseeing the trial held Trump in contempt and fined him $9,000 , punishing him for repeatedly violating a gag order . The judge threatened jail time if the violations continue.

Todd Blanche upended his career to represent Trump and has been the former president’s favorite lawyer. But Trump has also made him a focus of his episodic wrath .

More on Trump’s Legal Troubles

Key Inquiries: Trump faces several investigations  at both the state and the federal levels, into matters related to his business and political careers.

Case Tracker:  Keep track of the developments in the criminal cases  involving the former president.

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Biden-Harris Administration Announces Final Rule Requiring Automatic Refunds of Airline Tickets and Ancillary Service Fees

Rule makes it easy to get money back for cancelled or significantly changed flights, significantly delayed checked bags, and additional services not provided  

WASHINGTON – The Biden-Harris Administration today announced that the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) has issued a final rule that requires airlines to promptly provide passengers with automatic cash refunds when owed. The new rule makes it easy for passengers to obtain refunds when airlines cancel or significantly change their flights, significantly delay their checked bags, or fail to provide the extra services they purchased.

“Passengers deserve to get their money back when an airline owes them - without headaches or haggling,” said U.S. Transportation Secretary Pete Buttigieg . “Our new rule sets a new standard to require airlines to promptly provide cash refunds to their passengers.”  

The final rule creates certainty for consumers by defining the specific circumstances in which airlines must provide refunds. Prior to this rule, airlines were permitted to set their own standards for what kind of flight changes warranted a refund. As a result, refund policies differed from airline to airline, which made it difficult for passengers to know or assert their refund rights. DOT also received complaints of some airlines revising and applying less consumer-friendly refund policies during spikes in flight cancellations and changes. 

Under the rule, passengers are entitled to a refund for:

• Canceled or significantly changed flights: Passengers will be entitled to a refund if their flight is canceled or significantly changed, and they do not accept alternative transportation or travel credits offered. For the first time, the rule defines “significant change.” Significant changes to a flight include departure or arrival times that are more than 3 hours domestically and 6 hours internationally; departures or arrivals from a different airport; increases in the number of connections; instances where passengers are downgraded to a lower class of service; or connections at different airports or flights on different planes that are less accessible or accommodating to a person with a disability.  
• Significantly delayed baggage return: Passengers who file a mishandled baggage report will be entitled to a refund of their checked bag fee if it is not delivered within 12 hours of their domestic flight arriving at the gate, or 15-30 hours of their international flight arriving at the gate, depending on the length of the flight.  
• Extra services not provided: Passengers will be entitled to a refund for the fee they paid for an extra service — such as Wi-Fi, seat selection, or inflight entertainment — if an airline fails to provide this service.

DOT’s final rule also makes it simple and straightforward for passengers to receive the money they are owed. Without this rule, consumers have to navigate a patchwork of cumbersome processes to request and receive a refund — searching through airline websites to figure out how make the request, filling out extra “digital paperwork,” or at times waiting for hours on the phone. In addition, passengers would receive a travel credit or voucher by default from some airlines instead of getting their money back, so they could not use their refund to rebook on another airline when their flight was changed or cancelled without navigating a cumbersome request process.  

The final rule improves the passenger experience by requiring refunds to be:

• Automatic: Airlines must automatically issue refunds without passengers having to explicitly request them or jump through hoops.   
• Prompt: Airlines and ticket agents must issue refunds within seven business days of refunds becoming due for credit card purchases and 20 calendar days for other payment methods.  
• Cash or original form of payment: Airlines and ticket agents must provide refunds in cash or whatever original payment method the individual used to make the purchase, such as credit card or airline miles. Airlines may not substitute vouchers, travel credits, or other forms of compensation unless the passenger affirmatively chooses to accept alternative compensation.    
• Full amount: Airlines and ticket agents must provide full refunds of the ticket purchase price, minus the value of any portion of transportation already used. The refunds must include all government-imposed taxes and fees and airline-imposed fees, regardless of whether the taxes or fees are refundable to airlines.

The final rule also requires airlines to provide prompt notifications to consumers affected by a cancelled or significantly changed flight of their right to a refund of the ticket and extra service fees, as well as any related policies.

In addition, in instances where consumers are restricted by a government or advised by a medical professional not to travel to, from, or within the United States due to a serious communicable disease, the final rule requires that airlines must provide travel credits or vouchers. Consumers may be required to provide documentary evidence to support their request. Travel vouchers or credits provided by airlines must be transferrable and valid for at least five years from the date of issuance.

The Department received a significant number of complaints against airlines and ticket agents for refusing to provide a refund or for delaying processing of refunds during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. At the height of the pandemic in 2020, refund complaints peaked at 87 percent of all air travel service complaints received by DOT. Refund problems continue to make up a substantial share of the complaints that DOT receives.

DOT’s Historic Record of Consumer Protection Under the Biden-Harris Administration

Under the Biden-Harris Administration and Secretary Buttigieg, DOT has advanced the largest expansion of airline passenger rights, issued the biggest fines against airlines for failing consumers, and returned more money to passengers in refunds and reimbursements than ever before in the Department’s history.

• Thanks to pressure from Secretary Buttigieg and DOT’s flightrights.gov dashboard, all 10 major U.S. airlines guarantee free rebooking and meals, and nine guarantee hotel accommodations when an airline issue causes a significant delay or cancellation. These are new commitments the airlines added to their customer service plans that DOT can legally ensure they adhere to and are displayed on flightrights.gov .  
• Since President Biden took office, DOT has helped return more than $3 billion in refunds and reimbursements owed to airline passengers – including over $600 million to passengers affected by the Southwest Airlines holiday meltdown in 2022.   
• Under Secretary Buttigieg, DOT has issued over $164 million in penalties against airlines for consumer protection violations. Between 1996 and 2020, DOT collectively issued less than $71 million in penalties against airlines for consumer protection violations.  
• DOT recently launched a new partnership with a bipartisan group of state attorneys general to fast-track the review of consumer complaints, hold airlines accountable, and protect the rights of the traveling public.  
• In 2023, the flight cancellation rate in the U.S. was a record low at under 1.2% — the lowest rate of flight cancellations in over 10 years despite a record amount of air travel.  
• DOT is undertaking its first ever industry-wide review of airline privacy practices and its first review of airline loyalty programs.

In addition to finalizing the rules to require automatic refunds and protect against surprise fees, DOT is also pursuing rulemakings that would:

• Propose to ban family seating junk fees and guarantee that parents can sit with their children for no extra charge when they fly. Before President Biden and Secretary Buttigieg pressed airlines last year, no airline committed to guaranteeing fee-free family seating. Now, four airlines guarantee fee-free family seating, and the Department is working on its family seating junk fee ban proposal.  
• Propose to make passenger compensation and amenities mandatory so that travelers are taken care of when airlines cause flight delays or cancellations.   
• Expand the rights for passengers who use wheelchairs and ensure that they can travel safely and with dignity . The comment period on this proposed rule closes on May 13, 2024.

The final rule on refunds can be found at https://www.transportation.gov/airconsumer/latest-news and at regulations.gov , docket number DOT-OST-2022-0089. There are different implementation periods in this final rule ranging from six months for airlines to provide automatic refunds when owed to 12 months for airlines to provide transferable travel vouchers or credits when consumers are unable to travel for reasons related to a serious communicable disease. 

Information about airline passenger rights, as well as DOT’s rules, guidance and orders, can be found at   https://www.transportation.gov/airconsumer .

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Welcome to visit moscow tours.

We provide authentic, informative and memorable tour packages and city tours, at very competitive prices. Visit Moscow Tours are available not only in Moscow, but also in other cities: Saint Petersburg, Kazan, Suzdal and Sergiev Posad.  We also organise customised individual programs tailored just for you.

Our guests come in large groups, small private groups, as couples or as single travellers. We take care of and treat our guests with respect in a friendly and warm family environment. We show people our beautiful cities with passion and deep knowledge of their history, culture and traditions.

Our guides are extremely hospitable, helpful and well-informed. They are simply the best because only by providing the best services can we make the world fall in love with Russia. And we are very happy when our guests say that they will definitely come back to Russia and that they will tell all their friends how great Russia is! That is what inspires us to put even more dedication and hard work into our tours, knowing that what we do is positive and meaningful.

Our classic tours include tours of Moscow and Saint Petersburg, two main Russian cities.

Moscow is a big and busy  megalopolis and Russia’s capital city, where more than 12 million people live and work. Our capital city is happening place; it is mysterious, elegant, luxurious, fashionable, clean and bright, with its unique legends, traditions and events. It is with great pride that we show the Red Square and the Kremlin, our Underground and Tretyakovskaya Gallery, among other stunning attractions.

Saint Petersburg is our second capital,  the second largest city in the Russian Federation. This wonderful city has a strong and lively aristocratic spirit, uniquely Russian royal architecture, magnificent museums and theatres. Saint Petersburg bears the royal heritage of Russia, which can be felt in its air, its streets, parks, monuments, museums and citizens.  In Saint Petersburg tours, we will take you to the Hermitage, Peter and Paul Fortress, Faberge Museum and Orthodox Cathedrals. We’re sure you will love it!

If you have a few more days to spare, venture into the dreamy Russian countryside in Suzdal or Sergiev Posad. Suzdal is a small town with a population of about ten thousand people, situated on less than 15 square kilometres. This tiny area is home to 53 historic cathedrals, five monasteries and a kremlin. Church domes are visible like mushrooms from anywhere and everywhere in the town like in a fairy tale. No wonder Suzdal is called the ‘Town Museum”.  It is definitely worth visiting!

Just try any of Visit Moscow Tours’ tour packages or any individual city tour, and we promise that you will want to come back to Russia again.  Russia is huge with countless amazing places to visit. There are so many unique experiences to be had and energies to be felt that one tour is definitely not enough to explore this vast land. It is also a very safe destination to travel, and we have a tradition of warm hospitality. Our people adore and take care of visitors as our own guests, and even if they do not know your language very well, they still try to be helpful and hospitable.

Our guides will show you the most interesting attractions and historical places, taking you on a journey to the past to enjoy stories of medieval times, the Romanov monarchy, the Soviet Era. And of course, we will show you the contemporary life of our country through authentic local experiences.

We look forward to meeting you soon!

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Exchange Programs for Foreigners Who Want to Study in Russia

1 Comment · Posted by Alex Smirnov in Education

Nowadays, going abroad for studying is not a problem. Many countries are introducing quarantine restrictions, so taking part in a student exchange program opens an array of benefits.

Adventurous students can get not only a brilliant education but also an eye-opening travel experience. For some students, this is an opportunity to immerse themselves in the culture of another country. Moreover, a chance to improve your skills in a foreign language is an advantage.

Russia is known for its centuries-old history and classical traditions. The country can also boast its strong scientific community and high level of education. Years of educational experience combine with modern technology, comfortable campuses, and innovation laboratories.

Today, it is much easier for foreign applicants to get higher education in Russia. You can do it as easily as it would be to find a tutor or other type of external academic help online. Students can enter either on a commercial basis or with a scholarship.

Medicine, engineering specialties and IT are especially popular among the areas of studying. Foreigners also focus on economics, finance, and natural sciences. Still, for those willing to become professional writers or artists, there is a choice of more creative programs.

Below we provide you with a list of the most prestigious opportunities for those who want to get an education in Russia. Find the exchange program that suits you and make your student life unforgettable!

You might have already heard something about Erasmus. This is one of the most famous exchange programs organized by the EU. It gives the opportunity to study, internship, or teach in another country. Yet a target state must take part in the Erasmus program. The terms of study and internship vary from 3 months to 1 year each, up to 2 years in total.

The geography of Erasmus+ has expanded throughout the years. It now encompasses not only the member states of the European Union but also partner countries. These are divided into 13 geographic regions. And the Russian Federation is one of them. The country’s capital, Moscow, is famous for its array of prestigious educational institutions. The top-ranking are:

• MIPT (Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology);
• MGIMO (Moscow State Institute of International Relations);
• MEPhL (National Research Nuclear University);
• MSLU (Moscow State Linguistic University);
• REA (Plekhanov Russian Academy of Economics);
• BMSTU (Bauman Moscow State Technical University).

All these institutions of higher education cooperate with many foreign universities. This contributes to the improvement of the qualifications of students in the framework of international exchange programs, such as Erasmus+.

AIFS Study Abroad in Russia

AIFS (American Institute for Foreign Study) is a company that manages various educational exchange programs. It was founded in 1964 and has already helped more than 1.5 million students with their international education goals.

Built on the values of cultural exchange, AIFS offers foreign students an interesting opportunity to spend a semester or year in the Russian Federation. It cooperates with Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University. Thus, many academic program options are available. The program covers arts and humanities. These are political science, history, sociology, Russian language, Classic Literature.

The period of studying is not consistent, depending on the program you choose. Have you ever admired the works of legendary Russian poets or expressed interest in the country’s history? If yes, you are welcome to take part in any of these programs.

Council of International Educational Exchange (CIEE)

CIEE partner institutions are also located in the cultural capital of the Russian Federation, Saint Petersburg. The programs are aimed at strengthening the existing skills in the Russian language. Even so, the students have the opportunity to attend lessons in the English language as well as Russian classes, depending on the level.

Apart from education, international exchange students will take part in the volunteering process. It not only allows you to use all your skills in practice but also helps to integrate into the local community.

The period of studying at St. Petersburg State University varies from 11 and up to 37 weeks. Different cultural activities are also included in the agenda.

Indeed, the city has a lot to offer: from the Hermitage Museum to the Peterhof Palace, from the Peter and Paul Fortress to the Pushkin’s Apartment Museum and the list is non-exhaustive.

SPAS is an American organization conducting international exchange programs to Russia and Eurasia. If you express interest in political studies and diplomacy, the offer of this provider is for you. SPAS cooperates with the Moscow State Institute of International Relations (MGIMO).

It is Eurasia’s leading institution for international studies. Despite the limited field of study, students can still choose the course that suits their interests. The courses available include the following subjects:

• International Relations;
• International Policy & Diplomacy;
• International Business;
• Russian Language;
• Russian & East European Studies.

The only rule for the applicants is to know the English language. This is crucial as some lessons, as well as meetings with politicians, experts, and other leaders, are in English.

KEI is the Knowledge Exchange Institute that has been serving the students’ needs since its foundation in 1997. The main goal of its programs is to provide students with an opportunity to gain industry-specific knowledge. Apart from that, it aims to give them some practical skills for the future profession.

The most popular programs at Moscow State University are connected to either medicine and health or science, mathematics, and engineering. Even so, the list of courses available for study is much more extensive.

International exchange students interested in business, culture, history, politics, or international relations will also find suitable subjects.

It is worth noting that the courses are in both Russian and English. So proficiency or at least intermediate level is necessary. The host university is MSU (Lomonosov Moscow State University). It is a leading higher educational institution not only in the Russian Federation but also in the whole world.

Final Words

Studying in the Russian Federation is prestigious and profitable. You can be sure that you will receive all the necessary knowledge in the chosen specialty. There is a wide choice of international exchange organizations providing their services.

You are only required to follow a simple scheme. Step one: choose a suitable exchange program. Step two: prepare the necessary documents. Apply and come to Russia and start studying!

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• Published: 30 April 2024

Effects of washing agents on the mechanical and biocompatibility properties of water-washable 3D printing crown and bridge resin

• Yunqi Liu 1 ,
• Gan Jin 1 ,
• Jung-Hwa Lim 1 &
• Jong-Eun Kim 1  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  9909 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Dental materials
• Prosthetic dentistry
• Restorative dentistry

Three-dimensional (3D) printing, otherwise known as additive manufacturing in a non-technical context, is becoming increasingly popular in the field of dentistry. As an essential step in the 3D printing process, postwashing with organic solvents can damage the printed resin polymer and possibly pose a risk to human health. The development of water-washable dental resins means that water can be used as a washing agent. However, the effects of washing agents and washing times on the mechanical and biocompatibility properties of water-washable resins remain unclear. This study investigated the impact of different washing agents (water, detergent, and alcohol) and washing time points (5, 10, 20, and 30 min) on the flexural strength, Vickers hardness, surface characterization, degree of conversion, biocompatibility, and monomer elution of 3D printed samples. Using water for long-term washing better preserved the mechanical properties, caused a smooth surface, and improved the degree of conversion, with 20 min of washing with water achieving the same biological performance as organic solvents. Water is an applicable agent option for washing the 3D printing water-washable temporary crown and bridge resin in the postwashing process. This advancement facilitates the development of other water-washable intraoral resins and the optimization of clinical standard washing guidelines.

Introduction

The worldwide digital revolution and associated developments in manufacturing have resulted in rapid advancements in three-dimensional (3D) manufacturing techniques in recent years 1 . Additive manufacturing (AM) is defined as “a method based on adding materials layer upon layer to form 3D objects from 3D model data” by the American Society for Testing and Materials 2 . AM has found significant use in the medical field due to its capacity to control the addition of materials and customize complex geometries that cater to the specific requirements of individual patients with different conditions 3 , 4 . Some of the most common medical applications of AM include producing medical models, implants, and surgical instruments 4 . Specifically, AM can obtain patient geometry through data acquisition methods such as CT scans, and rebuild real anatomical models. Not only does it provide surgeons with preoperative practice opportunities, but it can also be used to design patient-specific implants 3 . However, AM processing in medical applications can cause damage to mechanical properties, resulting in undesirable transformations and distortion 4 . In dentistry, additive manufacturing offers a variety of material options like polymers, ceramics, and alloys, and can be used to produce splints, orthodontic appliances, and surgical guides 5 .

3D printing, using standardized materials to create individual 3D objects through a specific automated process, supported by a computer-aided design digital model, is basically an AM process 6 . Vat polymerization is a popular 3D printing additive manufacturing technology in the dental field 7 . Two representative methods are stereolithography apparatus (SLA) and digital light processing (DLP), with a slight difference. The SLA printer performs ultraviolet (UV) laser to polymerize photocurable resin and manufacture high-accuracy products 8 , but the process lacks time efficiency as the object is created one layer at a time 7 . The DLP printer uses high-resolution digital light projectors to harden the liquid resin with plane-exposure molding technology, which makes it possible to cure an entire layer each time the light beam is transmitted and thereby speed up the production process 7 , 9 . This has the advantages of fast processing, low cost, and high resolution 10 . In dentistry, DLP printers can create objects such as restorations, implants, aligners, models, surgical guides, and splints 9 , 11 .

The workflow of producing dental restorations with a 3D printer using photopolymerizable resin can be summarized into printing, postwashing, and postcuring 12 . After finishing the printing process, the object must undergo postwashing to remove any residual uncured resin that may adhere to its surface 13 . An effective washing method is to rinse or immerse the printed object in an organic solvent, which is usually isopropyl alcohol (IPA), tripropylene glycol monomethyl ether (TPM), or ethyl alcohol (ethanol) 14 . This is because the main oligomers or monomers in most resin components are only soluble in organic solvents, allowing the adherent residual resin to be quickly and strongly washed away 15 . However, the use of organic solvents has disadvantages. The previous study observed that the mechanical properties of the 3D printed objects can be weakened by the alcohol-based solvent after the extended washing process 16 . Also, the high volatility of alcohol leads to its accumulation in the air, causing high indoor concentrations and impairing human health 17 . These issues associated with organic-solvent-based washing have resulted in the 3D printing industry exploring and developing organic-solvent-free postwashing methods.

Novel water-washable 3D printing resins make it possible to use water to wash the printed objects 18 . The principle involves constructing a waterborne, water-soluble, and hydrophilic photosensitive curable resin 19 , 20 , 21 to allow the residual unpolymerized resin on the surface of the printed object to be dissolved in water and washed away 20 before performing UV-light postcuring 15 . Waterborne resin raw materials and formulations can help achieve these goals. One current common approach is to use waterborne polyurethane and waterborne polyurethane acrylate as the main raw materials to make water-washable 3D printing photosensitive resin, and achieve the hydrophilic effect by adding hydrophilic groups: –OH, –COOH, and –NH + 19 . The advantages of using water-washable resin include reducing the amount of volatile organic compounds involved, benefiting human health and the working environment 15 , 22 , and improving cost-effectiveness by not needing the manufacturer’s chemical reagent.

Water-washable 3D printing resin materials have also been introduced into the dental field. Dental water-washable 3D printing model resins and temporary crown and bridge (C&B) resin materials are now commercially available. Water-washable temporary C&B resins need more attention, since dental-model resin materials only need to be used extraorally, whereas a temporary C&B resin is an intraoral restorative material requiring mechanical properties consistent with the applied occlusal forces and also biocompatibility 23 . Previous studies have shown that increasing the postwashing time with commonly used organic-based solvents improves the cytocompatibility of printed objects 16 , 24 , but this also loosens the polymer network structure and hence degrades the mechanical properties 25 . In contrast, polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) was found to not exhibit relaxation behavior and plastic deformation after long-term immersion in water 26 . Therefore, extended water washing of the printed object might preserve its original mechanical properties and ensure biocompatibility.

To the best of the authors’ knowledge, little research has been done in this area of dentistry. Further studies are therefore required to evaluate the washing ability of water in removing residual monomer on the surface of objects produced using water-washable resin, and comparing this with using a conventional organic-based solvent. There is also a need to determine the combined influence of water agents and washing time on both the mechanical and biocompatibility properties of water-washable resin printed objects.

This study investigated the influence of different washing agents on a water-washable 3D printing C&B resin under different washing times. The null hypothesis was that the use of different washing agents (95% ethanol, water, and 2% detergent) and different washing times has no effect on the mechanical properties and biocompatibility of water-washable 3D printing C&B resins.

Mechanical tests

A two-way ANOVA was used to evaluate the effects of washing agents and washing times on flexural strength. The flexural strength was significantly affected by the washing agents ( F  = 2490.58, p  < 0.001) and washing times ( F  = 1244.53, p  < 0.001), with a significant interaction between these parameters ( F  = 52.64, p  < 0.001) (Fig.  1 A,B).

Results of mechanical tests and DC: ( A, B ) Results from a two-way ANOVA of the flexural strength according to washing agents and washing times. ( C ) Trends of flexural strength for different washing times and washing agents in water-washable C&B resin material. ( D, E ) Results from a two-way ANOVA of Vickers hardness according to washing agents and washing times. ( F ) Trends of Vickers hardness of water-washable C&B resin material for different washing times and washing agetns. ( G, H ) Results from a two-way ANOVA of the DC according to washing agents and washing times. ( I ) Trends of the DC of water-washable C&B resin material for different washing times and washing agents. Data are mean and standard-deviation values. Different lower-case letters indicate significant differences.

The flexural strength was highest in the OC group (110.31 ± 5.55 MPa), followed by the water and detergent groups, and lowest in the alcohol group (64.30 ± 14.50 MPa) (Fig.  1 A). The flexural strength gradually decreased as the washing time increased, and was lowest in the 30-min washing group (69.53 ± 14.75 MPa) (Fig.  1 B).

Gradual decreases in the flexural strength with increasing washing time in different solutions are evident in Fig.  1 C. The flexural strength in the detergent group decreased steadily with increasing washing time, and was superior to that in the water group before 10 min and lower than that in the water group after 10 min. The flexural strength in the water group had significantly decreased at 30 min and had remained stable before that. The flexural strength in the alcohol group was more severely reduced by the postwashing process, and was significantly lower than that in the other two groups at every time point, and significantly decreased at 20 min.

A two-way ANOVA was used to evaluate the effects of washing agents and washing times on the Vickers hardness. The Vickers hardness was significantly affected by the washing agents ( F  = 2490.58, p  < 0.001) and washing times ( F  = 1244.531, p  < 0.001), with a significant interaction between these parameters ( F  = 52.642, p  < 0.001) (Fig.  1 D,E).

The Vickers hardness was highest in the water (19.09 ± 1.73 GPa) and detergent (18.69 ± 2.07 GPa) groups, followed by the OC group (15.63 ± 0.48 GPa) and then the alcohol group (12.53 ± 2.35 GPa) (Fig.  1 D). The Vickers hardness peaked at 10 min (18.24 ± 3.16 GPa) and then gradually decreased, with the values after 5 min and 30 min not differing significantly from that in the OC group (Fig.  1 E). The Vickers hardness was lowest in the NT group (2.66 ± 3.12 GPa).

The trends of the Vickers hardness for different washing times in different washing solutions are shown in Fig.  1 F. Washing increased the Vickers hardness in both the water and detergent groups, resulting in it being higher in the washed samples than in the OC group (15.63 ± 0.48 GPa). The Vickers hardness initially increased with the washing time in these two groups, peaking at 10 min, and then decreased slowly thereafter. In contrast, washing with alcohol reduced the Vickers hardness, with this being lower in all washed groups than in the OC group. The Vickers hardness in the alcohol group peaked at 14.15 ± 0.58 GPa after 10 min of washing, and then decreased gradually to a lowest value of 10.14 ± 2.12 GPa after 30 min. The average Vickers hardness values in the water and detergent groups were superior to those in the alcohol group for all washing times.

Degree of conversion

A two-way ANOVA indicated that the DC differed significantly with washing agents ( F  = 915.8, p  < 0.01) and washing times ( F  = 631.92, p  < 0.01), with a significant interaction between these parameters ( F  = 31.79, p  < 0.01) (Fig.  1 G,H).

The DC was significantly higher in both the water (49.58 ± 4.06%) and detergent (49.44 ± 4.20%) groups than in the alcohol group (44.89 ± 2.21%) (Fig.  1 G). The DC gradually increased with the washing time, to reach 50.33 ± 3.68% after 20 min and remaining stable thereafter (Fig.  1 H).

The DC showed the same stable trend when washing in different agents before 10 min and then differentiated thereafter (F i g.  1 I). The water and detergent groups showed upward trends after 10 min, peaking at 53.94 ± 1.40% after 20 min and at 54.20 ± 2.59% after 30 min, respectively. Conversely, the DC decreased to 42.42 ± 2.21% after 30 min of washing in the alcohol group.

Scanning electron microscopy

Figure  2 presents a comparison of the surface characterization of all specimens. The samples from the alcohol group had the roughest surface compared to other washing agents (Fig.  2 A–D). The samples from the group washed with water and detergent group showed similar smooth surfaces (Fig.  2 E–L). The NT group exhibited the most obvious texture (Fig.  2 M).

SEM micrographs: SEM micrographs of samples with different washing agents and time. (Magnification 1500× ; scale bar = 30 µm) A , alcohol ( A–D ); W , water ( E–H ); D , detergent ( I–L ); NT non-treatment ( M ); OC only-cured ( N ).

Biocompatibility test: cell viability

A two-way ANOVA was used to evaluate the effects of washing agents and washing times on cell viability. The cell viability was significantly affected by the washing agents ( F  = 2362.34, p  < 0.001) and washing times ( F  = 1503.675, p  < 0.001), with a significant interaction between these parameters ( F  = 35.415, p  < 0.001) (Fig.  3 A,B).

Results of cell viability: ( A, B ) Results from a two-way ANOVA of the cell viability according to the washing agents and washing times. ( C ) Trends of cell viability for different washing times and washing agents applied to water-washable C&B resin material. ( D ) Results from a one-way ANOVA of cell viability of the six separate groups washed in water (W), detergent (D), and alcohol (A) for 20 min (20) and 30 min (30). Data are mean and standard-deviation values. Different lower-case letters indicate significant differences.

The cell viability was highest in the alcohol group (97.23 ± 9.35%), followed by the detergent group (90.05 ± 12.93%) and then the water group (76.52 ± 25.79%) (Fig.  3 A). All of the cells in the NT and OC groups died, with measured viability values of 0.76 ± 1.46% and 0.65 ± 1.47%, respectively. With the exception of the groups in which all cells died, the cell viability was lowest after 5 min of washing (67.88 ± 19.05%), and then gradually increased with the washing time, peaking at 103.72 ± 8.23% after 30 min (Fig.  3 B).

The cell viability increased for all agents with the washing time (Fig.  3 C). Before washing for 20 min there were significant discrepancies in cell viability among the three agent groups, being higher in the alcohol group than in the detergent group, and lowest in the water group. However, the water group exhibited the largest increase in cell viability over time. After 20 min, the cell viability in the water group (99.08 ± 4.22%) was slightly higher than that in the alcohol group (97.95 ± 3.57%) and the detergent group (96.50 ± 10.79%), although without a significant difference.

Figure  3 C shows that the mean values of cell viability for the different agents were very close after 20 min and 30 min. Therefore, a one-way ANOVA of the specific washing agents and washing times as an independent group of washing solutions was carried out (Fig.  3 D). Figure  3 D shows that the cell viability peaked at 109.59 ± 3.61% in the 30 min alcohol group, with a significant difference only relative to the 20 min detergent group.

Cell morphology analysis

The morphology and density of cells cultured in the specimens’ extracts were observed using an inverted microscope (Fig.  4 ).

Cell morphology: Inverted microscopy images of HGFs cultured at (8 × 10 4  cells/mL) in the sample extracts for different washing agents and washing times after 24 h of incubation (scale bar = 200 µm). ( A ) control group, ( F ) non-treatment group, ( K ) only-cured group, ( B–E ) alcohol groups, ( G–J ) water groups, ( L–O ) detergent groups. Notable features are annotated for ( G–J ): round-shaped cell (marked by red circle and arrow), short-spindle shaped cell (highlighted with yellow circles and arrows), elongated-spindle shaped cell (marked by black circle and arrow).

The control group served as a positive control group and represented the cells grown in DMEM for 48 h without changing any resin extracts (Fig.  4 A). The cells were shaped like elongated spindles, highly adherent, and in close contact with adjacent cells. The cells in the alcohol-washed groups were similar to those in the control group, as seen in Fig.  4 B–E. The GS and OC groups served as the negative control groups, all cells in these groups died (Fig.  4 F,K).

In the water groups, the main discrepancy was reflected in the morphologies, sizes, and densities of HGFs as the washing time increased. In the 5 min water-washed group, the cells were round and scattered, with occasional short spindle-shaped cells intermingled (Fig.  4 G). After water washing for 10 min, most of the fibroblasts appeared to have a short spindle shape and their contacts with neighboring cells became closer (Fig.  4 H). After washing for 20 min and 30 min, the density and number of cells both increased (F i g.  4 I,J). The shape of the fibroblasts became like elongated spindles, as observed in the control group.

Gas chromatography analysis

Table  1  presents the GC/MS detection results. The specific concentrations of all groups, except for NT, were below the detection limit. TEGDMA was detected in the NT group at a concentration of 135 ppm. 

This study focused on evaluating the effects of washing agents and washing times on the mechanical properties and biocompatibility of a 3D printing water-washable temporary C&B resin. We found that the type of washing agent and washing time both significantly influenced the biological and mechanical properties of 3D printed samples, and so the null hypothesis was rejected.

The evaluations of mechanical properties revealed that flexural strength and Vickers hardness were higher in the water and detergent groups than in the alcohol group at every time point. Alcohol had a more obvious negative impact on the mechanical properties of 3D dental resin products during the washing process, and this impact increased with time, and especially affected the flexural strength. Due to its diffusion in the PMMA material and component leaching, alcohol creates voids in the material 27 that allow additional solvent to be absorbed and diffused. This lowers the glass transition temperature, leading to phenomena such as plasticization and crazing of the PMMA polymer 28 . A previous study showed that contact with free alcohol causes softening of PMMA and mechanical deformations such as the swelling of sample edges 26 . The mechanical properties would be weakened by the solvent molecules, reducing polymer entanglements and destroying interchain bonds, which cause degradation of the matrix–filler interface 29 , 30 . Conversely, the present study found that alcohol-free agents could better preserve the original mechanical properties or even enhance the Vickers hardness. A previous study showed that even when the polymer was immersed in water for a long period of up for 30 days, although water continued to be absorbed throughout the immersion period, neither relaxation behavior nor plastic deformation could be detected 26 . Although both alcohol and water are known to be absorbed by polymer networks, alcohols would weaken the mechanical properties of the contacted polymer and act more aggressively 31 , potentially even causing visible cracks on the polymer surface 26 . This may explain why the mechanical properties of the samples washed with water were more stable and superior than those washed in alcohol.

SEM evaluation revealed that resin samples washed with alcohol had rougher surfaces compared to the smooth surfaces observed in the water and detergent groups. The common surface characteristics of resins treated with alcohol can be investigated in previous research 32 . It could also be found that PMMA resin experiences greater roughness and lower hardness when rinsed to absolute ethanol compared to distilled water 32 . This is consistent with the results of our experiment that the mechanical properties of the resin in alcohol groups with a rough surface were lower than those of the water groups with a smooth surface. Surface roughness is an important attribute of dental restoration materials that can impact the colonization of microorganisms and plaque adhesion. Highly rough resin surfaces lead to the potential risk of gingival inflammation, secondary caries, and prosthesis discoloration 33 . Under this situation, water-washed resin seems to have a better possibility to resist microbial adhesion, resulting in a superior general clinical restoration effect. However, the related surface roughness and bacterial adhesion are necessary to be assessed in further investigation.

DC represents the degree of monomer conversion to resin polymer, as determined by the ratio of the carbon double bonds (C=C) converted into carbon single bonds (C–C) 34 . Its significance is that a higher DC normally corresponds to a lower level of residual monomers and better biocompatibility 16 , 35 . We found that DC was higher in all of the washing groups than in the nonwashing group. There was no difference in the value up to 10 min of washing, but it increased after 20 min of washing with water and detergent, and it decreased after 30 min of washing with alcohol. DC increased with the washing time in the water and detergent groups, which is consistent with the results of other studies, and can be attributed to the removal of uncured monomers by washing 16 , 24 , 25 . However, alcohol has a stronger swelling capacity and diffuses more easily than water, resulting in the cross-linking density within the polymer decreasing and a lower DC 36 , 37 . Excessive washing may aggravate these effects 35 , as reflected in the present finding of a significant decrease in DC after 30 min of washing in alcohol. A higher DC is often correlated with a better biological outcome. In the present study, the DC of the resin sample increased significantly after washing, and accordingly the cell viability also improved. However, some studies have produced the contrasting result that DC increased after prolonged immersion in alcohol (6 months) relative to short-term immersion (24 h) 38 . This might be attributable to the solvent expanding the material’s matrix and enhancing mobility, with this in turn facilitating the diffusion of small molecules and free radicals within the matrix to react with the remaining double bonds in the network 39 , 40 .

The cell viability test results and cell morphology images indicated that all the cells died in the unwashed groups. With a longer washing time the viability of cells increased, and their morphology and density approached those in the control group (Figs.  3 C and 4 ). Cell viability and morphology varied between washing agents up to 20 min of washing time, with alcohol being the most effective agent for eliminating the toxic resin monomer, and water being the least effective (Fig.  3 C). However, the effects of washing the resin for 20 min were similar for the different washing agents in terms of cell viability, shape, and density (Figs.  3 D and 4 ). The main ingredients of our resin are urethanes, methacrylates, and phosphine oxide. Previous studies have shown that these ingredients can have cytotoxic and genotoxic effects in their uncured state 41 , and may even cause cell death 42 . This was consistent with our finding that all the cells died in the two groups in which the specimens were not washed. Increased the washing time presumably resulted in higher cell viability due to the removal of uncured monomers from the specimen surfaces 24 .

Before washing for 20 min, the cell viability is much better for alcohol than for water. This aligns with previous studies finding that cell viability was higher in alcohol-treated specimens than in water-treated specimens 42 . Immersing in pure alcohol helps to reduce the residual compounds in the acrylic polymers in temporary restorative resin materials 43 . Alcohol can accelerate the adsorption of water by the polymer matrix and promote the diffusion of residual monomers from the polymer 44 , thereby removing the remaining monomers and improving the biocompatibility of the polymer. Alcohol and organic solvents are better than water at removing unreacted components from dental composites. Organic solvents have a superior ability to extract monomers and oligomers 45 . This explains why alcohol was the most effective agent at washing off toxic substances within 20 min in this study, while water is the least effective agent. According to ISO 10993-5, biological material extracts associated with a cell viability exceeding 70% of the control are considered nontoxic 46 . After 20 min of washing, the mean cell viability in all the present groups exceeded 90%, with the water-washing group reaching 99%. Washing specimens with water for a sufficient time results in the waterborne resin monomer on the polymer surface being dissolved and eliminated, making the material noncytotoxic; 20 min was a significant time point for washing off the water-washable C&B resin since both organic solvents and water had equal and sufficient washing effects for longer washing times.

Appropriate methods should be used to detect and quantify eluted monomers that cause cytotoxicity in resin composites 47 . GC–MS is the recommended quantitative analysis method for detecting low-molecular-weight eluting monomers 48 . In accordance with recommendations of Jin et al. 35 , three cytotoxic monomers commonly used in 3D printing resins were evaluated: methyl methacrylate (MMA), 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA), and triethylene glycol dimethacrylate (TEGDMA). The TEGDMA monomer could be detected in the NT group but not in the other groups, making it impossible to quantify. The peak area was used to interpret the results because the content of each monomer is proportional to the area of its peak (Table  1 ) 49 .

The present C&B resin formula contained 15% HEMA, but its peak areas were close to zero. However, undetectable compounds may still be released, causing cytotoxicity 50 . After washing with water and detergent, there was almost no difference in the amounts of MMA monomer released in the NT and OC groups, and the residual MMA content remained relatively stable over time. This suggested that washing does not effectively remove residual MMA monomer. However, when washed with alcohol, the residual MMA content was relatively low after a short washing time but increased slightly as the washing time increased. MMA is a hydrophobic monomer 51 , and so is more soluble in alcohol. A short washing time with alcohol caused a large amount of monomer on the resin surface to be dissolved and removed, but the alcohol penetrated and swelled the polymer network as time passed, causing the monomer to leach out and thereby increase the residual amount 52 . This is consistent with another study finding that the amount of MMA leached from acrylic resin increased with the immersion time in alcohol, but remained constant when immersed in water 53 . In all of the present washing groups, the residual TEGDMA monomer was significantly reduced compared with the NT group. TEGDMA is a more hydrophilic monomer 54 than the organic solvent alcohol, making it easier to remove in an aqueous agent such as water, and therefore showing a lower residual level. However, the amount of monomer detected in all of the washing groups in this study was far below the level that causes cytotoxicity.

The postwashing process allows the monomers on the resin surface to be dissolved and removed by the washing agents 13 . But immersion in a solvent can also cause the polymer network to swell and release residual monomers 55 . These two opposing trends may explain the different levels and trends of monomer residues reported above. In addition, hydrophobic monomers are more soluble in organic solvents, while hydrophilic monomers are more attracted to aqueous agents 55 . Monomers dissolve easily in agents with the same characteristics, resulting in lower residual levels within a short washing time. Diffusion is promoted when the washing agent and resin composition have similar solubility parameters. After prolonged washing, the agent penetrates the resin matrix to cause it to swell and release residual monomers 55 . The leaching process of monomers is also affected by other factors such as the monomer-to-polymer conversion rate, the composition and temperature of the immersion agent, and the size and chemical characteristics of the leachable substances 56 , leading to differences and uncertainties. Since the C&B resin is applied directly inside the mouth, which is a complex environment, the release of monomers can be affected by intraoral factors such as contact with water, saliva, and alcohol, immersion time, and temperature changes 16 , 55 . Monomer release in the mouth may cause allergic reactions and pathogenic diseases that harm human health 57 . The factors affecting monomer release and the unclear release process mean that more in-depth research is needed in the future.

This study had some limitations. First, only a water-washable C&B resin was tested, and so other C&B resins that are washed using traditional organic solvents should be included in future comparison tests. Second, two washing devices with different operating principles were used in combination, namely ultrasonic and rotary washers. Interactions between these instruments might have caused inaccuracies in the variable of washing time. Third, 95% ethanol was used to represent organic solvents, but there are other commonly used postwashing organic solvents including IPA and TPM, and different organic solvents may have different effects.

Methods and materials

Specimen designing and printing.

The workflow of this study is shown in Fig.  5 A. A commercially available water-washable 3D printing C&B resin (RayDent, Suwon, Korea) was used (Table  2 ).

Workflow and schematics: ( A ) Workflow of the study. ( B, C ) Schematics of the test setup for ISO 4049. ( B ) An universal testing instrument. ( C ) The shape of tested specimens.

Before printing, specimens of different shapes and sizes were designed for each test. 140 bar-shaped specimens with a length of 25 mm, width of 2 mm, and height of 2 mm were constructed for the flexural strength test (n = 10) and stored in a 37 °C incubator for 24 h according to the ISO 4049 standard. A total of 196 disc-shaped specimens with a diameter of 10 mm and thickness of 2 mm were made for the Vickers hardness test (n = 8) and degree of conversion (n = 6). 84 disc-shaped specimens with a diameter of 15 mm and thickness of 2 mm were designed for biocompatible evaluation (n = 6). For scanning electron microscopy (n = 1), 14 disk-shaped specimens were created with a diameter of 9 mm and thickness of 2 mm. For the gas chromatography (n = 3), 42 specimens applied were disks with a diameter of 6 mm and a thickness of 2 mm.

All specimens were designed using modeling software (Rhino 7, Robert McNeel & Associates, Seattle, WA, USA), and then translated as STL (Standard Tessellation Language) files and printed by a DLP printer (Asiga, Przemek Seweryniak, Cosmodent, Sweden) with a 50-µm layer thickness and no support structure.

Postwashing and postcuring

Three washing agents were prepared for use in the washing process: tap water, 95% ethanol, and 2% detergent (Table  3 ). The specimens were divided into four groups and underwent the following two-step washing processes: (1) washing in a rotary washer (Twin tornado, Medifive, Incheon, Korea) respectively in washing agents of tap water, 95% ethanol, and 2% detergent dilution for 3 min, 5 min, 10 min, and 15 min; and (2) immersion in a tank with the corresponding agents followed by washing in an ultrasonic bath (UCP-02, JEIOTECH, Kyungido, Korea) for 2 min, 5 min, 10 min, and 15 min. Specimens in the water and detergent groups were all immersed in water during the second stage of washing. The nontreated (NT) group was set as a control group without postwashing and postcuring. The specimens in the only postcuring (OC) group were post-cured but not washed.

After washing, postcuring was performed using a UV-light postcuring device (LC-3DPrint Box, NextDent, Soesterberg, Netherlands) for 30 min according to the manufacturer’s recommendations.

Flexural strength tests

Three-point bending tests were applied to measure flexural strength using a universal testing instrument (EZ-LX, Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan). For each group, calipers were used to check the dimensions of each specimen. The maximum loading force ( F ) at the time of fracture was recorded in newtons after specimens were placed on the holder (Fig.  5 B,C). The flexural strength ( \(\sigma\) ) was calculated in megapascals using the following equation (Eq.  1 ):

where L is the span length between the supports in millimeters, and w and h are the width and height of the specimen in millimeters, respectively.

Vickers hardness

Specimens were manufactured and then tested immediately using a Vickers hardness tester (MMT-X7, Matsuzawa, Kyoto, Japan). A loading force of 0.49 N was applied for 10 s to the surface opposite the first printed side of the specimen. Each specimen was measured three times, from which the mean value was calculated in gigapascals.

The scanning electronic microscopy (SEM; S-3000 N, Hitachi, Krefeld, Germany) was utilized to capture the features of the sample surfaces. The specimens were mounted on the holder after coating with platinum. All images of each group were acquired at 1500× magnifications.

The degree of conversion (DC) was measured for each specimen and unpolymerized resin using a Fourier-transform infrared spectrometer (FT-IR; Nicolet iS10, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA). The surface opposite the first printed side of each specimen was directly measured three times. After baseline correction, the DC was calculated as follows (Eq.  2 ):

the absorption bands of \({\text{C=C}} _{monomer}\) and \({\text{C=C}}_{ polymer}\) peak at 810 cm –1 before and after exposure to the UV light, respectively, and \({\text{C=O}} _{monomer}\) and \({\text{C=O}}_{{{ }polymer}}\) are the absorbances at 1720–1730 cm –1 before and after exposure to the UV light.

Biocompatibility assay

Cell culture

Primary human gingival fibroblasts (HGFs; PCS-201-018, ATCC, Manassas, VA, USA) were cultured in a dish with Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium (DMEM, WELGENE, Daegu, Korea), supplemented with penicillin/streptomycin (100× , WELGENE), minimum essential medium nonessential amino acid solution (100× , WELGENE), and 10% fetal bovine serum (Thermo Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA). Cells were cultured under an atmosphere at 37 °C, 5% CO 2 , and 100% relative humidity until they achieved 85–90% confluence. Cells were then seeded onto 96-well plates at a density of 8  \(\times\)  10 3 cells/well after they were treated by EDTA (trypsin-ethylenediaminetertraacetic acid) solution (WELGENE). After 24 h of incubation at 37 °C and 5% CO 2 , the original medium was replaced by the resin extract at 100 μL/well. Cells were allowed to grow at 37 °C and 5% CO 2 for a further 24 h before the cell viability assays were performed.

Preparation of extraction

The specimen extracts were made after sterilization with ethylene oxide gas. The extraction ratio was 1.25 cm 2 /mL following the ISO 10993-12 standard. The specimens were then immersed in a tube with DMEM solution and stored at 37 °C for 24 h. The extracts were used within 24 h of preparation.

Cell viability assay

CELLOMAX™ viability kits (Precaregene, Anyang, Korea) were prepared based on the WST-8 tetrazolium salt [2-(2-methoxy-4-nitrophenyl)-3-(4-nitrophenyl)-5-(2,4-disulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium and monosodium salt; Precaregene, Hanam, Kyungido, Korea]. After the cells had been cultured for 24 h, 10 μL of CELLOMAX™ solution was added to the 96-well plate and the entire plate was incubated for 90 min at 37 °C according to the manufacturer’s instructions. A microplate reader (VERSA max, Molecular Devices, Sunnyvale, CA, USA) was used to record the optical density (OD) at a wavelength of 450 nm. Cell viability was calculated as follows (Eq.  3 ):

Cell morphological observations

An inverted microscope (Eclipse TS 100, Nikon, Tokyo, Japan) was used to visualize the morphology and density of HGFs cultured in the extracts of all groups of specimens for 24 h, and the changes were compared.

Gas chromatography

Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC–MS) was used to detect the eluted substances after the different postwashing processes. Samples were immersed in 1 mL of acetone in tightly sealed brown glass vials and incubated at 37 °C for 24 h after postprocessing. Elutes were then measured by GC–MS (7890B/5977 A series gas chromatograph/mass-selective detection system, Agilent, Santa Clara, CA, USA), with the relevant compounds identified by comparing their mass spectra and retention times with the corresponding reference standards. A calibration was performed for each reference-standard monomer. The quantity of an analyte was calculated by correlating its characteristic mass peak area with the corresponding precompiled calibration curve.

Statistical analyses

Standard statistical software (SPSS version 26.0, IBM, Armonk, NY, USA) was used for statistical analyses. The presence of normality was checked using the Shapiro–Wilk test. Two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni post-hoc tests was applied to evaluate how the different washing agents and washing times influenced the flexural strength, Vickers hardness, and DC results. Two-way ANOVA followed by Turkey post-hoc tests was used to evaluate the results from the cell viability assay. The significant cutoff was set at 0.05.

Conclusions

This study investigated the effects of washing agents and washing times on a water-washable 3D printing C&B resin, and four main conclusions can be drawn. First, the mechanical properties of the resin weaken with increasing washing time. Water and detergent washing agents are better than alcohol for preserving the mechanical properties during an extended washing process. Second, SEM observed that the resin washed with water and detergent had a smoother surface than that washed with alcohol. Second, the DC increases with the washing time when using water and detergent dilutions, whereas it decreases when alcohol is used. Third, increasing the washing time significantly improves cell viability for a resin washed with water. After 20 min of washing, there was almost no significant difference in the cell viability of the resins washed using different washing agents. Fourth, resin polymer releases different amounts of monomers for different washing agents and times, with no simple linear relationship between them.

Recent articles observed the impact of ethanol treatment on medical resin properties. Similar results can be obtained, ethanol will cause a decrease in the mechanical properties of the treated resin 16 , 58 , and reduce cytotoxicity 59 . The conclusions of this study are in line with the previous findings. The research outcomes have drawn the attention of medical researchers toward the selection of appropriate agents for treating medical resins. This also led to further exploration of various postwashing processes for optimization in clinical environments. Ultimately, these efforts aim to extend the long-term service life and effectiveness of medical resin materials.

The water-washable 3D printing temporary crown and bridge resin can be washed with water without compromising its mechanical properties and biocompatibility, making water a dependable agent option for washing the 3D printing water-washable intraoral resin. This advancement encourages the development and clinical application of other types of water-washable resins in dentistry. Furthermore, the washing agents and washing time were evaluated to enhance subsequent clinical standardized washing guidelines.

Data availability

The data that support the figures and tables within this paper are presented in the main text. All other additional data are available from the corresponding author upon request.

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Acknowledgements

This work was financially supported by the Korea Medical Device Development Fund grant funded by the Korea government (the Ministry of Science and ICT, the Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy, the Ministry of Health & Welfare, the Ministry of Food and Drug Safety) (Project Number: 1711179381, RS-2022-00140905).

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Yunqi Liu, Gan Jin, Jung-Hwa Lim & Jong-Eun Kim

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Y.L. carried out the experiments, wrote the manuscript, performed the data analysis, and prepared the plots; G.J. developed the methods, provided feedback on the data analysis and biological experiments, and reviewed the manuscript critically; J.-H.L. developed the methods, observed the experiments, and provided guidance on the data analysis; J.-E.K. conceived the idea, gave feedback on the experiments and data analysis, reviewed the manuscript critically, and supervised the whole program.

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Liu, Y., Jin, G., Lim, JH. et al. Effects of washing agents on the mechanical and biocompatibility properties of water-washable 3D printing crown and bridge resin. Sci Rep 14 , 9909 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-60450-7

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-60450-7

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