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Frequently Asked Questions: Guidance for Travelers to Enter the U.S.

Updated Date: April 21, 2022

Since January 22, 2022, DHS has required non-U.S. individuals seeking to enter the United States via land ports of entry and ferry terminals at the U.S.-Mexico and U.S.-Canada borders to be fully vaccinated for COVID-19 and provide proof of vaccination upon request.  On April 21, 2022, DHS announced that it would extend these requirements. In determining whether and when to rescind this order, DHS anticipates that it will take account of whether the vaccination requirement for non-U.S. air travelers remains in place.

These requirements apply to non-U.S. individuals who are traveling for essential or non-essential reasons. They do not apply to U.S. citizens, Lawful Permanent Residents, or U.S. nationals.

Effective November 8, 2021, new air travel requirements applied to many noncitizens who are visiting the United States temporarily. These travelers are also required to show proof of COVID-19 vaccination. All air travelers, including U.S. persons, must test negative for COVID-19 prior to departure. Limited exceptions apply. See  CDC guidance  for more details regarding air travel requirements.

Below is more information about what to know before you go, and answers to Frequently Asked Questions about cross-border travel.

Entering the U.S. Through a Land Port of Entry or Ferry Terminal

Q. what are the requirements for travelers entering the united states through land poes.

A:  Before embarking on a trip to the United States, non-U.S. travelers should be prepared for the following:

• Possess proof of an approved COVID-19 vaccination as outlined on the  CDC  website.
• During border inspection, verbally attest to their COVID-19 vaccination status. 
• Bring a  Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative  compliant border crossing document, such as a valid passport (and visa if required), Trusted Traveler Program card, a Department of State-issued Border Crossing Card, Enhanced Driver’s License or Enhanced Tribal Card when entering the country. Travelers (including U.S. citizens) should be prepared to present the WHTI-compliant document and any other documents requested by the CBP officer.

 Q. What are the requirements to enter the United States for children under the age of 18 who can't be vaccinated?

A:  Children under 18 years of age are excepted from the vaccination requirement at land and ferry POEs.

Q: Which vaccines/combination of vaccines will be accepted?

A:  Per CDC guidelines, all Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved and authorized vaccines, as well as all vaccines that have an Emergency Use Listing (EUL) from the World Health Organization (WHO), will be accepted.

Accepted Vaccines:

• More details are available in CDC guidance  here .
• 2 weeks (14 days) after your dose of an accepted single-dose COVID-19 vaccine;
• 2 weeks (14 days) after your second dose of an accepted 2-dose series;
• 2 weeks (14 days) after you received the full series of an accepted COVID-19 vaccine (not placebo) in a clinical trial;
• 2 weeks (14 days) after you received 2 doses of any “mix-and-match” combination of accepted COVID-19 vaccines administered at least 17 days apart.

Q. Is the United States requiring travelers to have a booster dose to be considered fully vaccinated for border entry purposes?

A:  No. The CDC guidance for “full vaccination” can be found here.

Q: Do U.S. citizens or lawful permanent residents need proof of vaccination to return to the United States via land POEs and ferry terminals?

A:  No. Vaccination requirements do not apply to U.S. citizens, U.S. nationals, or Lawful Permanent Residents (LPRs). Travelers that exhibit signs or symptoms of illness will be referred to CDC for additional medical evaluation.

Q: Is pre- or at-arrival COVID testing required to enter the United States via land POEs or ferry terminals?

A: No, there is no COVID testing requirement to enter the United States via land POE or ferry terminals. In this respect, the requirement for entering by a land POE or ferry terminal differs from arrival via air, where there is a requirement to have a negative test result before departure.

Processing Changes Announced on January 22, 2022 

Q: new changes were recently announced. what changed on january 22.

A:  Since January 22, 2022, non-citizens who are not U.S. nationals or Lawful Permanent Residents have been required to be vaccinated against COVID-19 to enter the United States at land ports of entry and ferry terminals, whether for essential or nonessential purposes. Previously, DHS required that non-U.S. persons be vaccinated against COVID-19 to enter the United States for nonessential purposes.  Effective January 22, all non-U.S. individuals, to include essential travelers, must be prepared to attest to vaccination status and present proof of vaccination to a CBP officer upon request. DHS announced an extension of this policy on April 21, 2022.

Q: Who is affected by the changes announced on January 22?

A: This requirement does not apply to U.S. citizens, U.S. nationals, or U.S. Lawful Permanent Residents. It applies to other noncitizens, such as a citizen of Mexico, Canada, or any other country seeking to enter the United States through a land port of entry or ferry terminal.

Q: Do U.S. citizens need proof of vaccination to return to the United States via land port of entry or ferry terminals?

A: Vaccination requirements do not apply to U.S. Citizens, U.S. nationals or U.S. Lawful Permanent Residents. Travelers that exhibit signs or symptoms of illness will be referred to CDC for additional medical evaluation. 

Q: What is essential travel?

A:  Under the prior policy, there was an exception from temporary travel restrictions for “essential travel.” Essential travel included travel to attend educational institutions, travel to work in the United States, travel for emergency response and public health purposes, and travel for lawful cross-border trade (e.g., commercial truckers). Under current policy, there is no exception for essential travel.

Q: Will there be any exemptions? 

A: While most non-U.S. individuals seeking to enter the United States will need to be vaccinated, there is a narrow list of exemptions consistent with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Order in the air travel context.

• Certain categories of individuals on diplomatic or official foreign government travel as specified in the CDC Order
• Children under 18 years of age;
• Certain participants in certain COVID-19 vaccine trials as specified in the CDC Order;   
• Individuals with medical contraindications to receiving a COVID-19 vaccine as specified in the CDC Order;
• Individuals issued a humanitarian or emergency exception by the Secretary of Homeland Security;
• Individuals with valid nonimmigrant visas (excluding B-1 [business] or B-2 [tourism] visas) who are citizens of a country with limited COVID-19 vaccine availability, as specified in the CDC Order
• Members of the U.S. Armed Forces or their spouses or children (under 18 years of age) as specified in the CDC Order; and
• Individuals whose entry would be in the U.S. national interest, as determined by the Secretary of Homeland Security.

Q: What documentation will be required to show vaccination status?

A:  Non-U.S. individuals are required to be prepared to attest to vaccination status and present proof of vaccination to a CBP officer upon request regardless of the purpose of travel.

The current documentation requirement remains the same and is available on the CDC website . Documentation requirements for entry at land ports of entry and ferry terminals mirror those for entry by air.

Q: What happens if someone doesn’t have proof of vaccine status?

A: If non-U.S. individuals cannot present proof of vaccination upon request, they will not be admitted into the United States and will either be subject to removal or be allowed to withdraw their application for entry.

Q: Will incoming travelers be required to present COVID-19 test results?

A: There is no COVID-19 testing requirement for travelers at land border ports of entry, including ferry terminals.

Q: What does this mean for those who can't be vaccinated, either due to age or other health considerations? 

A: See CDC guidance for additional information on this topic. Note that the vaccine requirement does not apply to children under 18 years of age.

Q: Does this requirement apply to amateur and professional athletes?

A: Yes, unless they qualify for one of the narrow CDC exemptions.

Q: Are commercial truckers required to be vaccinated?

A: Yes, unless they qualify for one of the narrow CDC exemptions. These requirements also apply to bus drivers as well as rail and ferry operators.

Q. Do you expect border wait times to increase?

A:  As travelers navigate these new travel requirements, wait times may increase. Travelers should account for the possibility of longer than normal wait times and lines at U.S. land border crossings when planning their trip and are kindly encouraged to exercise patience.

To help reduce wait times and long lines, travelers can take advantage of innovative technology, such as facial biometrics and the CBP OneTM mobile application, which serves as a single portal for individuals to access CBP mobile applications and services.

Q: How is Customs and Border Protection staffing the ports of entry? 

A: CBP’s current staffing levels at ports of entry throughout the United States are commensurate with pre-pandemic levels. CBP has continued to hire and train new employees throughout the pandemic. CBP expects some travelers to be non-compliant with the proof of vaccination requirements, which may at times lead to an increase in border wait times. Although trade and travel facilitation remain a priority, we cannot compromise national security, which is our primary mission. CBP Office of Field Operations will continue to dedicate its finite resources to the processing of arriving traffic with emphasis on trade facilitation to ensure economic recovery.

Q: What happens if a vaccinated individual is traveling with an unvaccinated individual?  

A:  The unvaccinated individual (if 18 or over) would not be eligible for admission.

Q: If I am traveling for an essential reason but am not vaccinated can I still enter?

A:  No, if you are a non-U.S. individual. The policy announced on January 22, 2022 applies to both essential and non-essential travel by non-U.S. individual travelers. Since January 22, DHS has required that all inbound non-U.S. individuals crossing U.S. land or ferry POEs – whether for essential or non-essential reasons – be fully vaccinated for COVID-19 and provide related proof of vaccination upon request.

Q: Are sea crew members on vessels required to have a COVID vaccine to disembark?

A:  Sea crew members traveling pursuant to a C-1 or D nonimmigrant visa are not excepted from COVID-19 vaccine requirements at the land border. This is a difference from the international air transportation context.

Entering the U.S. via Air Travel

Q: what are the covid vaccination requirements for air passengers to the united states  .

A:  According to CDC requirements [www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/travelers/noncitizens-US-air-travel.html | Link no longer valid], most noncitizens who are visiting the United States temporarily must be fully vaccinated prior to boarding a flight to the United States. These travelers are required to show proof of vaccination. A list of covered individuals is available on the CDC website.  

Q: What are the COVID testing requirements for air passengers to the United States?  

A:  Effective Sunday, June 12 at 12:01 a.m. ET, CDC will no longer require pre-departure COVID-19 testing for U.S.-bound air travelers.

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The U.S. Is Reopening. Here’s What Travelers Need to Know About Testing, Boosters and More.

Millions of travelers are expected to hit the skies and the road this holiday season. They will likely have questions about the new regulations.

By Ceylan Yeginsu

On Nov. 8, the United States lifted an 18-month ban on international tourists , as long as they show proof of vaccination and a negative coronavirus test. The land borders with Canada and Mexico also reopened for international visitors who are fully vaccinated and American citizens residing in those countries, as well as U.S. tourists returning home. Currently, passenger traffic in the United States is close to reaching 2019 levels, with millions of domestic travelers passing through Transportation Security Administration checkpoints each day.

Millions more are expected to hit the skies and the roads in the coming weeks . But as pandemic regulations ease in some countries, others are tightening entry rules to contain new waves of the virus. The shifting rules, rapidly changing course of the pandemic and lack of international coordination on travel regulations continue to leave consumers — and many travel operators — flustered and confused.

Travelers, both those going abroad and those entering the United States , are likely to have questions about the complicated regulations this holiday season . Here’s what we know so far, but be sure to come back — as rules are constantly changing.

Where can I find a test to get into the United States?

Both PCR and viral tests are accepted for travel to the United States. Vaccinated travelers must take the test within three days of their departure, while unvaccinated American travelers must take the test within one day.

Many hotels offer in-house testing facilities for an additional fee. If not, ask the concierge service or hotel reception for the nearest place you can get tested that will guarantee results within the required time frame.

Many pharmacies offer tests for travel and most major cities have walk-in test sites, which do not require appointments. Test prices can vary between $25 and $150, depending on the country and PCR tests are more expensive and results take longer to process.

As a fallback, most airports offer coronavirus testing, but expect to pay a hefty price and lines could be long, so make sure to go early.

What about a self-test, is that accepted?

Yes, as long as the test meets several requirements. It must be an antigen or nucleic acid amplification test that has been approved for emergency use by the Food and Drug Administration.

Make sure you have a good internet connection when you take the test because you will have to connect to a telehealth service that verifies your identity and provides supervision during testing.

The F.D.A. has authorized eight home-tests , but not all of them provide digital supervision and prompt results.

The Abbott’s BinaxNOW Covid-19 AG Card Home Test usually produces results within 15 minutes and comes with a digital app called NAVICA, which can be helpful for travel as it facilitates easier access to results. Once you receive a negative test result, the app will generate a QR code that is renewed each time you take a new test.

How much does a rapid-self test cost?

A six-pack of the BinaxNow tests costs $150 and can be purchased online at eMed . Packs of two home tests are also available at select pharmacies for around $25.

The Ellume home test, another popular option for international travel, costs between $30 and $40. The home-tests are in high demand, so make sure to order them well in advance of your trip.

Will I need a digital vaccine certificate to travel?

While most countries accept the white paper C.D.C. vaccination card, some places, like the Cayman Islands, require digital certificates and impose quarantine restrictions on people who are unable to provide them.

There are several digital health passes in the United States that are convenient for travel, but make sure you check country-specific requirements before your departure. The Smart Health Card is a verifiable digital proof of vaccination that generates a QR code, which only shows the individual’s name, date of birth and vaccination status. It can be obtained in states using the Smart health system or through the retail pharmacy program.

Healthpass by Clear is another option that generates a QR code and vaccination details, including the type and number of shots received. Clear has partnered with the Hawaii Safe Travel program, and provides verification of a passenger Covid-19 test results or proof of vacation to satisfy the state’s quarantine exemption requirements. The app allows visitors to skip the verification line upon arrival in the state.

Several states, like New York and California, have their own digital apps, which pull data from the state’s immunization registry and can be used for travel.

While most countries will accept the digital passes for entry, some require visitors to apply for local digital passes to secure access to restaurants, bars, and cultural activities. Switzerland was one of the first countries to adopt this measure last month, requiring all tourists from outside the European Union and Schengen Area to register for a Swiss health pass before arrival.

Are booster shots necessary for international travel?

For most places, not yet. But as new coronavirus variants emerge and concerns grow over waning vaccine efficacy, some countries are setting vaccine “expiration dates” for travelers.

Croatia and Austria were among the first countries to introduce the expiration dates this summer, only accepting second vaccine doses or booster shots administered within a year of entering the county. For those who have received the one-dose Johnson & Johnson vaccine, the validity period is 270 days, around 9 months. Anyone who does not meet the criteria also has the option to submit a negative coronavirus test taken within 72 hours before departure. The United States does not have an “expiration date.”

Israel took a more stringent approach when it reopened to fully vaccinated foreign travelers on Nov. 1, only accepting vaccines that have been taken within the last six months.

Many countries say they are open to fully vaccinated travelers, but as booster shots roll out around the world, it is important to read the fine print to understand which vaccines are accepted and how long they are valid for.

Will I have to show proof of vaccination to fly domestically?

No. As of Nov. 8., only those entering the United States from abroad will have to show a vaccination certificate and proof of a negative coronavirus test taken within three days before departure. Unvaccinated U.S. travelers are permitted to travel, but upon returning must present a coronavirus test taken within one day of departure.

Masks continue to be required for domestic air travel.

Do my children need to be vaccinated to travel internationally?

Every country has its own entry requirements, so first check the policy for your destination. Unvaccinated children under the age of 18 are permitted to enter the U.S. if they are over the age of 2, are traveling with a vaccinated adult and have taken a coronavirus test with negative results three days before departure. If a child is traveling alone or with an unvaccinated adult, they will have to test within 24 hours of travel.

Are the rules different at land border crossings?

As of Nov. 8, the U.S. land borders with Canada and Mexico will reopen for fully vaccinated foreign nationals. While visitors will need to show proof of vaccination, there is no testing requirement for land-border crossings. Children under the age of 18 are allowed entry if accompanied by a vaccinated adult.

I’m an American citizen. Where can I find rules for entering other countries?

The Times keeps an updated list of countries where Americans can currently visit with details of specific entry requirements.

Follow New York Times Travel on Instagram , Twitter and Facebook . And sign up for our weekly Travel Dispatch newsletter to receive expert tips on traveling smarter and inspiration for your next vacation. Dreaming up a future getaway or just armchair traveling? Check out our 52 Places list for 2021 .

An earlier version of this story misstated the timeframe in which travelers must take a coronavirus test before departure for the United States. Vaccinated travelers must take the test within three days of their flight, not 72 hours. Unvaccinated American travelers must take the test within one day of departure, not 24 hours.

How we handle corrections

Ceylan Yeginsu is a London-based reporter. She joined The Times in 2013, and was previously a correspondent in Turkey covering politics, the migrant crisis, the Kurdish conflict, and the rise of Islamic State extremism in Syria and the region. More about Ceylan Yeginsu

How Long Does a Travel Vaccine Remain Effective?

May 23, 2022 by Ann Rapier

If you have a trip planned to a country that requires certain vaccinations, you may be wondering how long a travel vaccine will remain effective. The answer: it varies.

There’s no specific timeline for travel vaccines in general. Each vaccine is different, which means they will all remain effective for a different amount of time.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommend receiving any travel vaccine you need a month in advance. This will allow time for your vaccine to become effective. But once it’s effective, how long will it last?

Here are some common travel vaccines and the amount of time they remain effective:

Yellow Fever

While not common in the U.S., yellow fever can still be found in certain parts of the world. If you need a yellow fever vaccine, it’s important to know that it provides lifelong protection in most cases. This means the majority of people will never need to receive a booster vaccination for the disease.

Unlike the yellow fever vaccine, the tetanus vaccine doesn’t provide lifelong protection. Instead, it remains effective for about 10 years. Once 10 years have passed, it’s recommended that a person receives a booster shot, especially if they are a frequent traveler to parts of the world where the disease is prevalent.

Most people don’t need to receive a cholera vaccine unless they are visiting remote places of the world where there won’t be medical care available. But if that is the case for you, a vaccine is available and it lasts up to two years. If you plan on revisiting a remote area, then it would be wise to receive a booster.

Measles, Mumps, and Rubella

Luckily, the measles/mumps/rubella (MMR) vaccination is routine for young children to receive in the U.S. If you received your MMR vaccine as a child, you’re typically set for life. If you were never vaccinated against MMR, you can still get the vaccine, which requires two doses. Once you receive both doses, the vaccination will provide lifelong immunity.

Pertussis (Whooping Cough)

The pertussis vaccination helps to protect young children from coming down with the whooping cough. While this isn’t a lifelong vaccine, it is extremely effective when you first receive it. Its effectiveness will decrease over time, but it will still protect against the disease. The vaccine gives the best protection during the first two years.

Typically the polio vaccine is given to young children, with a booster around the age of 4. In most cases, it can protect a person for life, but this isn’t always the situation. Some people are more at risk for polio than others. If you’re at risk of polio and are traveling to a region where the disease is prominent, it’s recommended that you receive a booster. Boosters can last about 10 years, at which point you can receive another booster if needed.If you choose to receive the vaccine you need a month before your trip is set to start, you should be fully protected throughout your entire trip. Most vaccines will remain effective enough for your entire vacation abroad, which means you should have nothing to worry about.

Planning a trip? Ensure your vaccinations are up-to-date with Passport Health. Call or book online to schedule your appointment today.

Written for Passport Health by Elle Johnson. Elle is a freelance journalist and social media content creator in Florida. Not only does she enjoy working as a freelancer, but in her free time she enjoys working on fictional stories.

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Vaccination - Yellow fever

There's a very effective vaccine that can stop you getting yellow fever if you're travelling to an area where the infection is found.

It's given as an injection into your upper arm.

But even if you have been vaccinated, it's important to prevent insect bites  as mosquitoes can also spread other serious illnesses.

Who should have the yellow fever vaccine

The yellow fever vaccine is recommended for people from 9 months of age who are travelling to:

• an  area where yellow fever is found , including parts of sub-Saharan Africa, South America, Central America and Trinidad in the Caribbean
• a country that requires you to have a certificate proving you have been vaccinated against yellow fever

You should be vaccinated at least 10 days before you travel to allow enough time for the vaccine to work.

If you or your child has had the MMR vaccine , you or they need to wait at least 4 weeks before having the yellow fever vaccine.

If it is not possible to leave a 4-week gap, the yellow fever vaccine should be given but an additional dose of MMR should be considered at a later date. Re-vaccination with the yellow fever vaccine can also be considered on an individual basis for those at on-going risk.

Yellow fever vaccination certificate

Some countries require a certificate showing you have been vaccinated before you're allowed entry.

This is known as an International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis (ICVP).

All vaccination certificates are now valid for life, including older ones with an expiry date on them. You'll be given a certificate when you're vaccinated at a yellow fever vaccination centre.

Check the  country information  on the TravelHealthPro website or with a yellow fever vaccination centre to see if you need a certificate for the area you're visiting.

A certificate is not needed for entry into the UK.

Keep your certificate safe and make a copy for your records.

If you lose your certificate, you may be able to get another one reissued if you have a copy showing full details of the vaccination batch number and the date you had the vaccination.

Where to get the yellow fever vaccine

The yellow fever vaccine and vaccination certificates are only available from registered yellow fever vaccination centres.

Find a yellow fever vaccination centre near you

How much the yellow fever vaccine costs

The yellow fever vaccine is not available for free on the NHS, so you'll have to pay for it.

It typically costs around £60 to £85.

How long the yellow fever vaccine lasts

The yellow fever vaccine provides lifelong protection for most people.

A further dose of vaccine is recommended for a small number of travellers who are visiting yellow fever risk areas, including those who were previously vaccinated when they were:

• under 2 years old
• living with HIV
• had a weakened immune system
• before having a bone marrow transplant

Rarely, a further dose of vaccine may also be advised if there's a concern about the traveller's risk of yellow fever, for example, if they're working or living for some time in a high-risk area.

Contact a yellow fever vaccination centre for advice if you're not sure if you need another dose before travelling.

Who cannot have the yellow fever vaccine

There are some people who cannot have the yellow fever vaccine when it's recommended.

People who cannot have the vaccine include:

• babies under 6 months old
• people with a weakened immune system, such as those with leukaemia or lymphoma
• people whose immune system is weakened by treatment, such as steroids and chemotherapy
• people who are allergic to any of the ingredients in the vaccine, including people with an egg allergy
• people who've had a severe reaction to a previous dose of yellow fever vaccine
• people with a thymus gland disorder or who've had their thymus gland removed
• people over the age of 60 who are travelling to areas where yellow fever vaccine is not generally recommended
• people who have a close relative who has had a severe reaction to the vaccine causing damage to the brain or other organs

If you need a vaccination certificate for the country you're visiting but you're not able to have the vaccine, contact a yellow fever vaccination centre.

They may provide you with an exemption letter, which may be accepted by officials in countries that usually require a vaccination certificate.

Who may be able to have the vaccine in some circumstances

If you're not sure whether you can have the yellow fever vaccine, ask a travel health specialist at the vaccination centre. They'll do a full risk assessment based on your or your child's medical history and where you're travelling to.

People who may be able to have the vaccine include:

• those aged 60 and over – only when travel to a high-risk area is unavoidable
• those who are pregnant – if travel to a high-risk area is unavoidable
• those who are breastfeeding – expert advice is needed for women who are breastfeeding babies under 9 months
• those with long-term (chronic) inflammatory conditions, such as rheumatoid arthritis – if on low-dose steroid therapy
• babies from 6 months to under 9 months of age – if travel is unavoidable and risk is high, expert advice is needed
• those living with HIV – only after specialist advice

Take extra care to  prevent insect bites  while travelling if you have not been vaccinated.

Side effects of the yellow fever vaccine

The yellow fever vaccine can cause some side effects, but the risk of not being vaccinated usually outweighs the risk of having side effects.

After having the vaccine, up to 1 in every 3 people gets:

• a  headache
• muscle pain
• a raised temperature
• soreness at the injection site

These side effects usually pass within 2 weeks.

Rarely, a person can get more serious side effects, including an allergic reaction to one of the ingredients in the vaccine.

A very rare side effect of the vaccine can cause problems with the brain or other organs, which can be fatal. This is more likely to affect:

• people aged 60 or older
• people with weakened immune systems
• anyone who's had their thymus gland removed or has a thymus gland disorder

Get medical advice if you feel very unwell within a few days or weeks of having the yellow fever vaccine.

Page last reviewed: 25 July 2023 Next review due: 25 July 2026

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Hepatitis A vaccine

Peer reviewed by Dr Colin Tidy, MRCGP Last updated by Dr Hayley Willacy, FRCGP Last updated 15 Feb 2023

Meets Patient’s editorial guidelines

In this series: Travel vaccinations Hepatitis B vaccine Rabies vaccine Tick-borne encephalitis vaccine Typhoid vaccine Yellow fever vaccine

You should consider vaccination against hepatitis A before you travel to certain countries, such as the Indian subcontinent.

In this article :

What is hepatitis a, who should be immunised against hepatitis a, are there any side-effects from the hepatitis a vaccine, who should not receive hepatitis a vaccine, other points.

Check with your practice nurse at least two weeks before you travel to see if you should have this vaccination.

Continue reading below

Hepatitis A is an illness caused by the hepatitis A virus. The virus mainly causes inflammation of the liver. Symptoms include:

Generally feeling unwell.

Yellowing of your skin or the whites of your eyes ( jaundice ).

Sometimes, being sick (vomiting).

A raised temperature (fever).

However, some people who are infected do not develop any symptoms (a subclinical illness). The illness is not usually serious and full recovery is usual but the symptoms can be quite unpleasant for a while. The hepatitis A virus is passed out in the stools (faeces) of infected people and infection is usually spread by eating dirty (contaminated) food or drink.

Hepatitis A infection can occur in the UK but it is more common in countries where there is poor sanitation or where disposal of sewage is poor. In the UK, most cases of hepatitis A are seen in people who have recently returned after travelling to such countries. If you catch hepatitis A, the illness is not usually serious but it may ruin a holiday or business trip. See the separate leaflet called Hepatitis A for more details .

This leaflet is just about vaccination to help prevent hepatitis A infection.

Travellers to countries outside Western Europe, North America and Australasia should consider being immunised. The highest-risk areas include the Indian subcontinent (in particular India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal), Africa, parts of the Far East (except Japan), South and Central America and the Middle East. Vaccination is generally recommended for anyone over the age of 1 year. Your doctor or practice nurse can advise if you should be immunised against hepatitis A for your travel destination.

You can find out if immunisation against hepatitis A is recommended for any countries you are planning to visit from the NHS website Fitfortravel.

Close contacts of someone with hepatitis A

Occasional outbreaks of hepatitis A occur in the UK within families or in institutions. Close contacts of someone found to have hepatitis A infection (for example, family members or other members of the institution) may be offered vaccination. This only happens rarely. The most important measure for anybody with hepatitis A is good personal hygiene. In particular, washing hands after going to the toilet or before eating.

People with chronic liver disease

If you have a persistent (chronic) liver disease (for example, cirrhosis ) it is suggested that you have the hepatitis A vaccine. Hepatitis A infection is not more common in those with chronic liver disease but, if infection does occur, it can cause a more serious illness.

People exposed to hepatitis A at work

For example, laboratory workers who are exposed to hepatitis A during their work and sewage workers are advised to be immunised against hepatitis A.

Staff of some large residential institutions

Outbreaks of hepatitis A have been associated with large residential institutions for people with learning difficulties, where standards of personal hygiene among clients or patients may be poor. Therefore, vaccination of staff and residents of some institutions may be recommended.

Injecting drug users

Drug users who share drug injecting equipment are also thought to have an increased risk of hepatitis A infection and so should consider vaccination.

People with blood clotting problems

If someone has certain blood clotting problems (such as haemophilia) and needs to receive blood clotting factors, they may have an increased risk of hepatitis A infection. This is because the hepatitis A virus may not be completely destroyed during the preparation of these blood products. Vaccination is therefore suggested for these people.

Oral-anal contact

Men who have sex with men, and other people whose sexual practices involve oral-anal contact, may also like to consider vaccination against hepatitis A.

Note : if you have been infected with hepatitis A in the past, you should be immune to further infection and therefore not need vaccination. A blood test can detect antibodies to check if you are already immune. This may be worthwhile doing if you have had a history of yellowing of your skin or the whites of your eyes (jaundice) or come from an area where hepatitis A is common.

There are a number of different hepatitis A vaccines available. Some just protect against hepatitis A, but there are also some combined vaccines for both hepatitis A and hepatitis B or hepatitis A and typhoid fever . A combined vaccine may be useful if you require protection against both diseases.

The hepatitis A single vaccine is given as two doses. The first dose of the vaccine protects against hepatitis A for about one year. The vaccine causes your body to make antibodies against the virus. These antibodies protect you from illness should you become infected with this virus. Ideally, you should have an injection at least two weeks before travel to allow immunity to develop. However, the vaccine may still be advised even if there is less than two weeks before you travel.

How long does a hepatitis A vaccine last?

A second dose of the vaccine 6-12 months after the first gives protection for about 20 years. If you are late with this second dose, you should have it as soon as possible but you don't need to start with the first dose again. Another booster dose of hepatitis A vaccine after 20 years can be given to those people still at risk of infection.

The doses of the combined vaccines against both hepatitis A and hepatitis B or hepatitis A and typhoid may need to be given at slightly different time intervals. Your doctor or practice nurse will be able to advise you in detail.

Some people develop a temporary soreness and redness at the injection site. Much less common are:

A mild raised temperature (fever).

Feeling sick (nauseated).

Feeling off your food for a few days.

Severe reactions are extremely rare.

There are a very few situations where the hepatitis A vaccine is not recommended. They include:

If you have an illness causing a high temperature. In this situation, it is best to postpone vaccination until after you have fully recovered from the illness.

If you have had an allergic reaction to the vaccine or to any of its components in the past.

One type of vaccine (Epaxal®) should not be given to anyone who is known to be allergic to eggs.

Children under the age of 1 year. However, the risk of hepatitis A in children under the age of 1 year is very low. The hepatitis A vaccine is not licensed for this age group.

The vaccine may be given if you are pregnant or breastfeeding and vaccination against hepatitis A is thought to be necessary.

Remember - vaccination for travellers is only one aspect of preventing illness. No vaccination is 100% effective. So when travelling to at-risk areas, you should have very good personal hygiene and also be careful about what you eat and drink.

You should avoid eating and drinking the following when travelling to areas where the risk of hepatitis A is higher:

Raw or inadequately cooked shellfish .

Raw salads and vegetables that may have been washed in unclean (contaminated) water. (Wash fruit and vegetables in safe water and peel them yourself.)

Other foods that may have been grown close to the ground , such as strawberries.

Untreated drinking water, including ice cubes made from untreated water. (Remember also to use only treated or bottled water when brushing your teeth.)

Unpasteurised milk, cheese, ice cream and other dairy products.

Also, be careful when buying food from street traders. Make sure that food has been recently prepared and that it is served hot and on clean serving plates. Food that has been left out at room temperature (for example, for a buffet) or food that may have been exposed to flies could also pose a risk.

Further reading and references

• Travel Health Pro ; National Travel Health Network and Centre (NaTHNaC)
• Immunisation against infectious disease - the Green Book (latest edition) ; UK Health Security Agency.
• Travellers' Health ; US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
• Travel and Diabetes ; Diabetes UK

Article History

The information on this page is written and peer reviewed by qualified clinicians.

Next review due: 14 Feb 2028

15 feb 2023 | latest version.

Last updated by

Peer reviewed by

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Last-Minute Travelers

If you are a last-minute business traveler, returning to your home country for a family emergency, or traveling internationally on short notice for another reason, you can still plan for safe and healthy travel.

Pretravel Checklist

Even if you are leaving soon, there are steps you can take to prepare for a safe and healthy trip.

• Check CDC Destination pages for important travel health information about your destination, including information about recommended vaccines and medicines.
• If possible, get an in-person or telehealth appointment with your healthcare provider to discuss your trip and any vaccinations and medications you may need.
• Check with you healthcare provider to see if any of the vaccinations you need can be given on an accelerated schedule .
• Enroll in the Smart Traveler Enrollment Program to notify the U.S. Embassy or Consulate of your trip and for help in case of an emergency.

Talk to your doctor about vaccines and medicines

If you are short on time, some vaccines can be administered on an accelerated schedule, meaning doses are given in a shorter period of time.

You may also want to get at least the first dose of certain vaccines that usually require multiple doses so you get some protection before your trip. These include hepatitis A, Japanese encephalitis, and rabies vaccines.

Yellow Fever Vaccination

Some countries require, proof of yellow fever vaccination before entering the country. This proof is usually a signed and stamped  International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis (ICVP) card that you receive after you get the vaccine. Your proof of vaccination is not valid until 10 days after you get the vaccine because of the time it takes for your body to build protection. If your destination requires proof of yellow fever vaccination and you are not able to get the vaccine 10 days before travel, you may need to change your travel plans.

Malaria Prevention

If there is a risk of malaria at your destination, your healthcare provider may prescribe medicine to prevent malaria. Be sure to let your healthcare provider know when you are leaving, so they can prescribe the right amount of medicine for you. Some malaria medications must be started 1-2 weeks before you go, while others only need to be started 1-2 days before you travel. You will still need to take steps to prevent mosquito bites during travel, since malaria drugs are not 100% effective and they don’t protect against other diseases spread by mosquitoes (like Zika , dengue , and chikungunya ).

Additional Travel Tips

• Wash your hands often with soap and clean water or use hand sanitizer (made with at least 60% alcohol) if clean water is not available.
• Choose safer food and drink options . Contaminated food or drinks can make you sick with  travelers’ diarrhea  and other diseases.
• Wear EPA-registered insect repellent to prevent mosquito and other bug bites. .
• Consider if your destination means you need to prepare for extremely hot or cold weather. Bringing multiple loose layers and a warm jacket for cold weather or light-colored clothing and sunglasses for warm weather.
• Avoid animals when traveling. In addition to the risk of rabies , animals can spread other diseases to people.
• Pack a travel health kit with your prescription and over-the-counter medicines. Bring enough medicine to last your whole trip, plus a little extra in case of delays. Also, pack sunscreen with SPF 15 or higher and EPA-registered insect repellant and other supplies.

More Information

• Avoid Bug Bites
• Food and Water Safety
• Smart Traveler Enrollment Program (STEP)
• Travelers’ Diarrhea
• CDC Yellow Book: Last-Minute Travelers
• CDC Yellow Book: Vaccine Recommendations for Infants & Children
• CDC Yellow Book: Travel Vaccine Summary Table

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• The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) cannot attest to the accuracy of a non-federal website.
• Linking to a non-federal website does not constitute an endorsement by CDC or any of its employees of the sponsors or the information and products presented on the website.
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Vaccination

Pakistan is experiencing an outbreak of extensively drug-resistant typhoid fever. Travelers to Pakistan and other South Asian countries should take precautions.

• Get a typhoid fever vaccination
• Follow safe food and water guidelines

Vaccination can help prevent typhoid fever. CDC recommends vaccination for people traveling to places where typhoid fever is common, such as South Asia, especially India, Pakistan, or Bangladesh.

Visit a doctor or travel clinic to discuss options.

Two typhoid fever vaccines are available in the United States.

• Oral vaccine: Can be given to people at least 6 years old. It consists of four pills taken every other day and should be finished at least 1 week before travel.
• Injectable vaccine: Can be given to people at least 2 years old and should be given at least 2 weeks before travel.

Typhoid vaccines are not 100% effective. Always practice safe eating and drinking habits to help prevent infection.

Typhoid vaccines lose effectiveness over time. The injectable vaccine requires a booster every 2 years, and the oral vaccine requires a booster every 5 years. If you were vaccinated in the past, ask your doctor if it is time for a booster vaccination. Taking antibiotics will not prevent typhoid fever; they only help treat it.

Basic Information on Typhoid Vaccines Available in the United States

See Vaccine Information Statements (VIS) for more information.

Next: Get detailed information for healthcare professionals

• Find out who should get the typhoid fever vaccine and when
• Read the typhoid fever and paratyphoid fever chapter in CDC Health Information for International Travel
• Get information and prevention tips on CDC’s Traveler’s Health site
• Learn about symptoms, prevention, and treatment by reading CDC’s Typhoid and Paratyphoid Fever Factsheet [PDF – 159 KB]
• Reduce your chances of getting sick while traveling with these safe eating and drinking tips

Exit Notification / Disclaimer Policy

• The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) cannot attest to the accuracy of a non-federal website.
• Linking to a non-federal website does not constitute an endorsement by CDC or any of its employees of the sponsors or the information and products presented on the website.
• You will be subject to the destination website's privacy policy when you follow the link.
• CDC is not responsible for Section 508 compliance (accessibility) on other federal or private website.