bears travel in packs

• North America’s Bears
• Know the Difference
• General Characteristics
• Communication
• Food and Diet
• Reproduction
• Dispelling Myths
• Resources for Teachers & Kids
• Who Do I Contact?
• Managing Attractants
• Bear Deterrents
• Securing Food, Garbage and Gear
• Bear Encounters
• Hunters and Anglers
• Safety in Polar Bear Country
• Wildlife on the Road
• Bear Viewing Tours
• Managing Waste & Attractants
• Bear Smart Restaurant Program
• Farmers and Ranchers
• Success Stories
• Best Practices
• Bear Hazard Assessments
• Mobilizing People
• Fundraising
• Human-bear Conflict Management Plans
• Community Planning Documents
• Materials, Tools & Strategies
• Community-Based Social Marketing
• Bylaws and Ordinances
• Waste Management
• Electric Fencing
• Green Space Management
• Mitigating MVA’s with Wildlife
• Behaviour & Communication
• Passive Conditioning
• A Bear-Friendly Capture Net
• A Child/Bear-Friendly Live Trap
• Automated Bear Trap
• Diversionary Feeding
• Habitat Management
• Cub Rescue, Care and Wild Release
• Building Bear Smart Communities

Understanding bear behaviour is an essential part of creating safe environments for both bears and people. More often than not, bear behaviour is misinterpreted. People all too often interpret what a bear does in terms of their own fear. To truly understand bear behaviour, you must interpret bear postures and vocalizations in terms of what the bear fears.

Bear behaviour can be predictable . The more you can learn about bears and how they behave, the less likely you will be to have a negative encounter or misinterpret interactions.

Bears are predictable. In fact, bears are usually more predictable than people. If you learn more about bears and how to interpret their behaviour, you will be able to react appropriately when you see them and avoid a negative encounter.

Bears are NOT ferocious. They are NOT mean or malicious. Bears are normally shy, retiring animals that have very little desire to interact with humans. Unless they are forced to be around humans to be near a food source, they usually choose to avoid us.

Bears, like humans and other animals, have a “critical space” – an area around them that they may defend. Once you have entered a bear’s critical space, you have forced the bear to act – either to run away or be aggressive. The size of the critical space is different for every bear and every situation.

Although black bears and grizzly bears do share some common traits, it’s important to understand the difference in the way they react to perceived threats. Each species has evolved different strategies for survival. Black bears, for instance, are usually less aggressive and more tolerant of people. They often live near human settlements, whereas grizzly bears prefer to stay away from human settlements and are often extirpated from heavily used or populated areas.

Black bears are excellent climbers. When a black bear is threatened he usually runs from the perceived threat or goes up a tree. With cubs out of danger, female black bears don’t have to make vigorous defences that risk potential injury. Although black bears tend to retreat from people, they are still incredibly strong animals that can cause injuries.

Today, brown (or grizzly) bears tend to live in coastal or mountain forests, but they evolved in treeless habitat that influenced their behavioural response to perceived threats. For instance, they are more likely than black bears to defend themselves when threatened . A black bear’s first line of defence is retreat, but grizzlies, especially sows with cubs, can be very aggressive towards other bears and people they perceive as threats.

Grizzlies are not good tree climbers , though it’s important to note that they can climb trees. For instance, a mother grizzly will usually aggressively defend her cubs on the ground rather then send them up a tree as a black bear sow will.

Bears are very curious and will inspect odours, noises and objects to determine if they are edible or playable. Standing up on its hind legs allows a bear to get more information from its senses of smell, sight and hearing. It is a sign of curiosity, not aggression.

Bears are usually active from dawn to dusk , but they may be seen any time of day or night. Bears in many places of high human use have become nocturnal in order to avoid people. While others have become habituated to people in order to gain access to their plentiful buffet of improperly stored garbage and other attractants.

Bears can be very social . Bears are often described as asocial when compared to wolves, chimps or lions, but to use the term “asocial” to describe bears is incorrect. While bears do not live in extended family groups or join in hunts, they can co-exist in very close proximity to each other and in fact form alliances and friendships – some adult bears have even been known to mentor younger unrelated bears; young unrelated subadults hang around in pairs and even groups (likely because there is strength in numbers). The bears of a region are usually familiar with one another and meetings consist of complex social exchanges. Some bears like each other and other simply don’t tolerate one another in their respective home ranges – not unlike people’s relationships with each other.

Bears are not territorial . Being territorial means keeping other members of your species away from a given area. Wolves and primates are territorial – bears are not. Bears, like people, share home ranges. This mutual use of land and resources is a basis for bear social behaviour.

Bears habituate , or become accustomed, to people just like they do other bears. Because plentiful food resources can be localized – salmon in a stream or berries on a mountainside – bears have evolved behaviour that allows them to tolerate each other at close distances. This behaviour is transferred to their relationship with humans. If they are not shot or harassed, bears habituate to people the same way they do to each other.

Bears live in a dominance hierarchy based on age, size and temperament. Mature males are at the top of the hierarchy, and sub-adults and cubs at the bottom. Bears establish and maintain their social position and place in the hierarchy by posturing or acting aggressively. Single females and subadults are almost always submissive to mature males but have a loose hierarchy within their own group.

Bears react to new things in their environment . New objects or situations often frighten bears. Behaviourists call this “strange object response.” After an initial fright, bears will often investigate what alarmed them. This is not an aggressive act and shouldn’t be regarded as one.

Bears are not always aware . Bears, particularly adult brown bears, are not always aware of what is going on around them. A bear following a trail doesn’t always look ahead. He may be distracted by a yummy food source or may not be able to hear over the loud sounds of rushing water or blowing wind. A bear can literally blunder into an unsuspecting person.

(c) Living in Harmony with Bears by Derek Stonorov, published by National Audubon Society, 2000

In This Section

• Test your bear smarts

• Wildlife & Habitats
• Wildlife Conservation
• The Florida Black Bear

Black Bear Behavior

Bears are solitary by nature, except when in family groups of mothers and cubs or in pairs during the mating season.

Bears may congregate in areas of high food density, such as oak stands, berry patches, or farm fields. When abundant food sources are found across large areas, bears tend to tolerate each other more than usual, mostly because they cannot defend such a rich food source from competitors.

While bears may defend a food resource or mate while they are present, bears are not territorial. They do not patrol or defend a specific area from intrusion by other bears. Bears respect a certain personal space, but often several animals overlap each other's living space at different times. A bear's living space that provides food, water, and adequate cover is called a "home range."

The size of a home range may vary each season and year depending on food availability, the bear's sex or age, the reproductive status of the bear, and even the density of the area's bear population. During major droughts and famine, bears will range much further than normal to search for food. Bears are excellent swimmers and will frequent nearby islands during seasonal and climatic changes.

In Florida, average annual adult home ranges for bears are 50 to 120 square miles for males, and 10 to 25 square miles for females.

Bears have the ability to navigate homeward from unfamiliar areas, which often brings them across dangerous roads. Learn more at our bears and roads page.

Black Bear Senses

Vision: Black bears are believed to see in color and have great up close eyesight. Recent research is showing that their long distance eyesight is not very good, they can likely only see forms from 100 yards away and not able to see details of a large objects from further than 30 yards away ( Masterson 2016 ).

Hearing: They have acute hearing that is about twice as sensitive as humans and over a large frequency range as well.  Bears often hear humans before we see them. Because of this, black bears will often move away before they are noticed.

Smell: A bear's strongest sense is smell. They can pick up a scent from over a mile away! That is more than seven times better than a bloodhound. Bears, as a Family, are considered to have the best sense of smell of any land mammal. Their rumored poor vision may be due to their reliance on their sense of smell.

Bears respond to people as they would other bears. Understanding the various responses and ways bears communicate can help people to coexist with bears.

Bears are relatively quiet creatures, but will occasionally make sounds to communicate:

• Cubs  bawl  and moan when distressed, and make a grunting  purr  sound when suckling.
• Females communicate with their young by grunts or moans to send their cubs up trees for safety, or have them follow her.
• A bear that feels threatened does not roar or growl. They may slap the ground, " huff " or blow air forcefully through their nose or mouth, and snap or " pop " their teeth together. If these behaviors don't scare off the source of their unease, the bear may bluff charge, running toward the source and then veer away.
• A bear that is truly aggressive toward humans does not make a sound. Instead, they will stare, protrude their lower lip, and flatten their ears.

Black bear are curious animals. They often do a lot of sniffing, and may stand up on hind legs to get a better view and smell their surroundings. This is normal behavior and is not a sign of aggression.

Some black bears rub, bite and claw marks onto trees between 5 and 7 feet high. Marks often occur along defined game trails, with the mark facing the trail. We are not sure why bears mark tress, but here are some of the theories to explain this behavior:

• The marks are related to male dominance hierarchies.
• Marks communicate breeding status to ensure males and females are synchronized successfully for breeding.
• Marking home range boundaries among females may mimic territorial behavior.
• Marks may serve to help orient bears in new or little used areas, as markings increase when a bear enters a new area.

• Grizzly Bear Facts: Animals of North America

5. Physical Description

The term “grizzly bear” in fact refers to not one, but rather several, species of brown bears which are native to North America, including the Kodiak and California Grizzly. This large animal is a mammal which belongs to the Genus Ursus. They're characterized by their concave faces, long claws (usually measuring two to four inches long), humped shoulders, and distinctive fur. This fur ranges considerably in color, from shades of cream to black. Most often, however, grizzlies are brown, with the hair on their shoulders and back areas having lighter colored tips of white, gold, or grey. Mature grizzly bears weigh approximately 290 to 790 pounds, with males typically being much heavier than females. When standing on their back legs these rugged creatures are usually over six feet tall, while measuring over three feet tall at their shoulders on all fours.

Although Grizzly Bears are members of the Carnivora Order, these animals subsist on a mixed diet consisting of plants as well as animals. They consume various types of plant material, such as grasses, nuts, seeds, roots, and berries. As omnivores, Grizzlies are also known to be skilled and powerful predators. They will prey on animals as diverse in size and shape as deer, buffalo, elk, voles, squirrels, sheep, insects, birds, and fish. Grizzlies can often be found wading into the water during spawning season in order to fish for their beloved salmon. Grizzly bears’ strong and deadly claws play a major role in their ability to catch fish and other animals. Grizzly bears are also known to be scavengers, and will regularly feast on the carcasses of already dead animals.

3. Habitat and Range

Today, the North American Grizzly lives in the western Canadian provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, and northern Quebec, as well as parts of the country’s Northwest Territories. In the U.S., smaller numbers of Grizzlies can be found in states such as Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, and Alaska. It’s estimated that some 25,000 bears make their homes in Canada, while in the U.S. their numbers have been drastically reduced, with the current U.S. Grizzly population thought to number only around 1,500-strong. This animal is officially considered to be a "Threatened" species in the contiguous U.S. Grizzly bears are at risk from various factors related to human activities, including hunting and losses of their habitats due to urban sprawl and other forms of land development. The bears typically spend five to seven months each year in their dens in a state of hibernation. In this way, they are able to weather the cold temperatures of the harsh winters in the far northern reaches of the New World.

2. Behavior

Grizzly bears are solitary animals who don’t travel in packs. They will, however, on occasion gather together at a location where food is abundant, such as a stream teeming with spawning salmon. In order to store up for their hibernation period during the winter, these animals need to bulk up. To do so, they consume a great deal of food during the summer season. The bears use their mighty claws in order to create dens on the sides of hills or cliffs, where they will remain within for the duration of their hibernation periods. Grizzlies are known to be dangerous creatures when coming into contact with humans. This is especially true in a situation in which an unlucky person finds themselves between a protective mother bear and her young cubs.

1. Reproduction

North American Grizzly bears have a significantly low rate of reproduction when compared to other animals. Members of the species aren’t considered to be mature until they're approximately five years of age. Mating occurs during the summer season, before the animal hibernates, and gestation lasts for a total of 180 to 250 days. Females give birth in dens during their hibernation periods, and litters usually consist of one to two cubs per year. Grizzly bear mothers are fiercely protective, and care for their young throughout the first two years of their lives. From the time they’re born until the arrival of warmer summer temperatures, Grizzly bear cubs receive nourishment solely from their mothers' milk, with weaning then commencing.

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NATURAL HISTORY

POLAR BEAR } Ursus maritimus FAMILY: Ursidae DESCRIPTION: The largest of the bear species, the polar bear sports luxurious white fur with water-repellent guard hairs and dense underfur. It also has a layer of blubber up to five inches thick, black skin, a short-furred snout, small ears, and a streamlined body with large, oar-like feet. Males measure from eight to 11 feet from nose to tail and generally weigh about 1,300 pounds but can reach more than 1,700. Females measure about six to eight feet and are usually about half the weight of males.

HABITAT: Polar bears live throughout the ice-covered waters of the circumpolar Arctic, with distribution dependent on food availability and sea-ice conditions; they are most often found at the convergence of sea ice and open water, and where seals congregate. These bears are totally reliant on the sea ice as their primary habitat, using it for a number of essential activities including hunting and feeding on seals, seeking mates and breeding, making long-distance movements, accessing terrestrial maternity denning areas, and sometimes even maternity denning itself. Polynyas — areas of open water surrounded by ice and caused by fluctuations in wind, tide or current — are sites of increased marine mammal and bird concentrations and are extremely important to polar bears.

RANGE: This circumpolar species is found in and around the Arctic Ocean, with its southern range limited by pack-ice availability and its southernmost occurrence at James Bay in Canada. The world's currently recognized 20 polar bear populations occur within the jurisdictions of the United States ( Alaska), Canada, Denmark (Greenland), Norway, and Russia.

MIGRATION: Some polar bears make extensive north-south migrations in response to ice packs receding northward in the spring and advancing southward in the fall. In addition, individuals may travel vast distances to find mates or food and have been seen 100 miles from the nearest land- or icefall. In October and November, males head out onto the pack ice where they spend the winter, while pregnant females seek sites on land or nearshore sea ice to dig dens in the snow, where they spend the winter and give birth.

BREEDING: Like other members of the bear family, female polar bears have small litters, reach breeding age late in life, and produce few young in their lifetime. They mate on the sea ice in either April or May, after which a female must accumulate sufficient fat reserves to live and to support her cubs from the time she enters the maternity den between late October and mid-November until the time the family emerges in the spring and she again begins to feed. Cubs are born in snow dens between late November and early January, with timing varying by region and population. Because of their vulnerability at birth, cubs must remain in the maternity den, where the temperature warms to near freezing. They nurse inside the den until sometime between late February and the middle of April, depending on the latitude. The age at which mothers wean their cubs also varies by region, though in most areas cubs are weaned at approximately 2.5 years of age, resulting in a three-year reproductive cycle. After a period of several weeks' acclimatization, the mother and cubs begin their trek to the sea ice to feed on seals.

LIFE CYCLE: Polar bears can live up to 25 or 30 years in the wild.

FEEDING: The top Arctic predators, polar bears primarily eat ringed seals but also hunt bearded seals, walrus, and beluga whales, and will scavenge on beached carrion such as whale, walrus, and seal carcasses found along the coast. These bears often eat only seals' skin and blubber, leaving the carcass for other animals to scavenge and thus playing a critical role in the Arctic food chain.

THREATS: The greatest threat to polar bears is global warming, which is affecting the Arctic far more intensely than the rest of the world and is rapidly causing the bears' sea-ice habitat to melt away. Other grave threats include oil and gas development, environmental contaminants such as PCBs, industrial noise and harassment from increased Arctic shipping and other activities, and overhunting in some areas. Global warming will likely interact with several of these additional threats to further increase the polar bear's peril.

POPULATION TREND: Polar bear numbers increased following the establishment of hunting regulations in the 1970s and today stand at 20,000 to 25,000. The rapid decline of Arctic sea-ice due to global warming has reversed this trend, and currently at least five of the 19 polar bear populations including those in Western Hudson Bay are declining. Scientists estimate that if the Arctic continues its melting trend, the worldwide polar bear population will decline by two-thirds by 2050 and will be near extinction by the end of the century. As actual sea-ice melting has proceeded much faster than predicted by scientific models, population declines may occur much faster as well.

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Safe travel in bear country

Bears in the mountain national parks.

The Canadian Rocky and Columbia Mountains are home to both grizzly and black bears. You can run into a bear anywhere here, be it on a busy trail close to town or in the remote backcountry. Bears generally prefer to avoid people. However, encounters between bears and people do occur. Knowing how to avoid an encounter with a bear is the best way to enjoy the parks, safely . In the event you do come across a bear, it is important to know a bit about bear behaviour. How we respond in an encounter with a bear really depends on the type of interaction that is taking place.

Avoid an encounter  | Bear spray  |  If you see a bear   If the bear approaches | Handling an attack

Cyclists and trail runners | Backcountry camping   If you see a bear by the side of the road

What happens to a bear when it encounters people? | How you can help protect bears

AVOID an encounter: the best approach

Bears are extremely sensitive to the stress of human activity. You can help protect these animals by avoiding encounters with them.

• Make noise! Let bears know you're there. Call out, clap, sing or talk loudly especially near streams, dense vegetation and berry patches, on windy days, and in areas of low visibility. Bear bells are not enough.
• Watch for fresh bear sign. Tracks, droppings, diggings, torn-up logs and turned-over rocks are all signs that a bear has been in the area. Leave the area if the signs are fresh.
• Keep your dog on a leash at all times or leave it at home. Dogs can provoke defensive behaviour in bears.
• Larger size groups are less likely to have a serious bear encounter. We recommend hiking in a tight group of four or more. Never let children wander.
• Use officially marked paths and trails and travel during daylight hours.
• If you come across a large dead animal , leave the area immediately and report it to park staff.
• Dispose of fish offal in fast moving streams or the deep part of a lake, never along stream sides or lake shores.

Carry bear spray with you at all times on the trail, and know how to use it. Bear spray can be effective with some bears when used properly. Be aware that wind, spray distance, rain, freezing temperatures and product shelf life can all influence its effectiveness. Familiarize yourself with the proper use of bear spray (including the manufacturer’s specific instructions) and keep it readily accessible.

If you SEE a bear

Stop and remain calm. Get ready to use your bear spray. Do not run away.

Is the bear UNAWARE of your presence?

Move away quietly without getting its attention.

Is the bear AWARE of your presence?

Bears may bluff their way out of an encounter by charging and then turning away at the last second. Bears may also react defensively by woofing, growling, snapping their jaws and laying their ears back.

• Stay calm. Your calm behaviour can reassure the bear. Screams or sudden movements may trigger an attack.
• Speak to the bear. Talk calmly and firmly. This lets the bear know you are human and not a prey animal. If a bear rears on its hind legs and waves its nose about, it is trying to identify you.
• Back away slowly. Never run! Running may trigger a pursuit.
• Make yourself appear BIG. Pick up small children and stay in a group.
• Do not drop your pack . It can provide protection.

If you must proceed, make a wide detour around a bear or wait at a safe distance for it to move on.

If the bear APPROACHES

Is it DEFENSIVE?

The bear is feeding, protecting its young and/or surprised by your presence. It sees you as a threat. The bear will appear stressed or agitated and may vocalize.

• Try to appear non-threatening.
• Talk in a calm voice.
• When the bear stops advancing, start slowly moving away.
• If it keeps coming closer, stand your ground, keep talking, and use your bear spray.
• If the bear makes contact, fall on the ground and play dead. Lie still and wait for the bear to leave.

Is it NON-DEFENSIVE?

A bear may be curious, after your food, or testing its dominance. In the rarest case, it might be predatory–seeing you as potential prey. All of these non-defensive behaviours can appear similar and should not be confused with defensive behaviours.

The bear will be intent on you with head and ears up.

• Talk in a firm voice.
• Move out of the bear’s path.
• If it follows you, stop and stand your ground.
• Shout and act aggressively.
• Try to intimidate the bear.
• If it approaches closely, use your bear spray.

Handling an ATTACK

Most encounters with bears end without injury. If a bear actually makes contact , you may increase your chances of survival by following these guidelines. In general, there are 2 kinds of attack:

This is the most COMMON type of attack.

• Use your bear spray.
• If the bear makes contact with you: PLAY DEAD!

PLAY DEAD! Lie on your stomach with legs apart and position your arms so that your hands are crossed behind your neck. This position makes you less vulnerable to being flipped over and protects your face, the back of your head and neck. Remain still until you are sure the bear has left the area. These defensive attacks are generally less than two minutes in duration. If the attack continues, it may mean it has shifted from defensive to predatory— FIGHT BACK!

• Try to escape into a building, car or up a tree.
• If you cannot escape, do not play dead.
• Use your bear spray and FIGHT BACK.

FIGHT BACK! Intimidate that bear: shout; hit it with a branch or rock, do whatever it takes to let the bear know you are not easy prey. This kind of attack is very rare, but it is serious because it usually means the bear is looking for food and preying on you.

Cyclists and Trail Runners

Your speed and quietness put you at risk for sudden bear encounters.

• Slow down through shrubby areas and when approaching blind corners.
• Make noise, travel in groups, be alert and always watch ahead.
• Carry  bear spray with you at all times on the trail, and know how to use it. 

Backcountry Camping

To stay safe and protect wilderness, travel with two goals in mind: limiting your impact by avoiding encounters and managing your food, food smells and garbage.

• Camp in designated areas where provided.
• If random camping , set up cooking, eating, and food storage areas at least 50 metres downwind from your tent. Ensure good visibility so animals cannot approach unseen. Avoid camping, cooking or eating near running water, thick brush, animal trails or berry patches.
• Keep yourself and campsite odour-free . Keep sleeping bags, tents, and sleeping clothes free of food, food odours or beverages.
• Leave smelly cosmetics at home . Store toiletries and personal items with food.
• Store your food, pet food, livestock feed and garbage away from your tent. Use storage facilities in designated backcountry campgrounds. In random camping areas, hang it between two trees at least 4 metres above the ground and 1.3 metres from top and side supports or use bear resistant canisters instead.
• Wash and store all dishes and food utensils immediately after use . Strain food particles from dishwater and store with garbage. Dump dishwater in designated areas or at least 50 metres from your sleeping area.
• Pack out garbage —do not burn or bury it and do not dispose of it in pit privies.

If you see a bear by the road

Slow down—consider not stopping. Bears need to forage undisturbed in order to gain enough fat to survive the winter. Your decision to drive on by gives bears the space they need to make a living in this challenging landscape.

At all times . . .

• Observe and photograph bears from the safety of your car.
• Remain a respectful distance from the bear.
• Never feed a bear.

If you stop . . .

• Be aware of the traffic around you.
• Pull over where it is safe to do so.
• Use your hazard lights to alert other drivers.
• Watch for a few moments, take a quick photo, and then move on !
• If a traffic jam develops, move on . It is unsafe for people and bears.

What happens to a bear when it encounters people?

• It can alter its path of travel or abandon an area, displacing it from important habitat.
• It can react aggressively: this usually only happens when the bear is surprised at close range and feels threatened. Serious human-bear encounters may result in the bear's destruction and loss from the ecosystem.
• It becomes habituated: with frequent, repeated exposure to people, a bear loses its natural wary behaviour and becomes increasingly bolder. It is more likely to enter a campground or townsite where food or garbage may be improperly stored.
• Tips for Roadside Bear Viewing

How you can help protect bears

The best thing you can do for bears is to limit their exposure to you.

• Consider not stopping when you see a roadside bear.
• Put all garbage in bear-proof garbage bins.
• Keep your picnic or camping site attractant-free. Move the food, cooler, dirty dishes, recyclables, BBQ, lotions and pet food into your vehicle, trailer or storage locker (tents are not bear-proof).
• Use official trails only and leave the wild trails to wildlife.
• Respect closures and group access requirements—they are in place for your safety and to give bears a chance to use critical habitat undisturbed.
• Pay attention to warnings—follow recommendations. Be careful when travelling through these areas, or choose a different route.

Conservation is not just about bears; it is about protecting the whole ecosystem. Parks Canada has a responsibility to protect wildlife and their habitats. As a national park visitor, you can help protect bears and reduce the likelihood of an unpleasant bear encounter by learning more about bear behaviour. For more information talk to Parks Canada Visitor Centre staff or check out the selection of books on bears and other wildlife at Friends retail outlets in the parks

BOTTOM LINE?

Give bears the space they need to make a living !

Related links

• The "Bare" Campsite Program

Photo: Dave Allcorn

How Do Polar Bears Find Their Way?

07 Dec 2015

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Polar Bear Questions

Polar bears range over vast areas of the Arctic sea ice, traveling through the polar bear night and across drifting pack ice seemingly without difficulty. While there is still much we don't know about polar bears, it's clear they must actively navigate their ever-changing habitat.

For example, polar bears demonstrate general fidelity to a given geographic region: a bear born on the Hudson Bay coast will likely spend its life navigating the seasonal sea ice of that region. Further, the search for essential resources (food and mates) is a key driver of polar bear movements. For females, another important reason for traveling is to find a suitable den location when pregnant, a supremely important aspect of the polar bear's life cycle.

Now consider the challenges that come with navigating over vast areas of the Arctic sea ice in search of essential resources: few (if any) landmarks, extreme weather, months of darkness (and months of brightness!), and, perhaps most important, the ever-dynamic sea ice that is constantly moving and changing beneath their feet. Sound challenging? It certainly does to me! So how do polar bears do it?

Polar bear senses

While we don't know precisely how polar bears navigate over large areas and in seasonally appropriate ways, we do have some understanding of how they may use their senses to gain information from their environment as to their whereabouts, and the whereabouts of the resources they seek. A keen sense of smell is essential for tracking and assessing the "identity" of potential mates; and it may be equally advantageous for avoiding other, potentially aggressive polar bears. The keen sense of smell is also an essential "tool" polar bears can use to locate a snow lair holding a tasty and important seal meal. Polar bears also have good hearing, and this may aid them in determining whether a seal lair is occupied or not.

When navigating over longer distances and in accordance with more seasonal movements, the sense of smell may also provide bears in some regions with information regarding their proximity to land. This can be of great importance to polar bears living in the seasonal sea ice ecosystems or in the high Arctic archipelagos, where land holds important denning habitat and the  refugia  required when the sea ice diminishes during the summer months.

Cycles of darkness and light

During the winter months, darkness prevails, and during the summer months, the days are long and bright with sunlight that reflects off the white snow and sea ice. How good is polar bear vision and how is it adapted to these extremes? The truth is we don't know. Certainly, polar bears use their vision to assess the landscape and resources they seek, but how they adjust to the dramatic changes in light has not yet been determined.

The dynamic sea ice

The sea ice is constantly moving in both predictable and unpredictable ways. Imagine trying to get from point A to point B, when the "ground" beneath your feet is moving to point C! This dynamic sea ice provides a prominent environmental challenge that polar bears face when navigating their environment. 

While we don't know for sure how polar bears account for this dynamic movement, research has shown that they don't let the drift of the sea ice tell them where to go. Polar bears sense, somehow, the movements of the sea ice, and adjust their movements accordingly. 

Generally speaking, this type of "dead reckoning" is broadly found in animals, but we know little about the physiological mechanisms that make it possible (though it is likely that the vestibular organs of the inner ear are involved-acting like an accelerometer-along with cognitive processing, which taps into learning and memory). And while many animals can sense the earth's magnetic field, providing important information on location, magnetic way-finding becomes less and less informative as one approaches the magnetic North Pole.

Climate change is making the sea ice more dynamic

Clearly, the natural challenges of navigating the Arctic sea ice are numerous, but polar bears are uniquely adapted to this lifestyle, and thrive amidst the many natural challenges that come along with life on the dynamic, ever-moving, sea ice.

However, sea ice losses driven by an unprecedented increase in greenhouse gas emissions, are increasing the dynamism of the sea ice, as the ocean's currents, waves, and wind hold a greater influence on sea ice stability.

While polar bears have evolved over evolutionary time (thousands and thousands and thousands of years!) to meet the challenges of their extreme environment, the rapid transformation of the Arctic sea ice will reduce the polar bear's capacity to successfully navigate the vast expanses of their range. It's up to all of us to make sure that the polar bear can navigate the vast Arctic, always. 

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Tips for safer travel in bear country

The best strategy for dealing with bears when hiking and camping is to avoid them. When bears become food-conditioned and are no longer wary of humans, they may need to be relocated or even put down by conservation officers. You can help keep bears safe in their natural habitat and protect yourself and other hikers by following the bear safety tips below.

Note: The information below includes recommendations from MEC and Parks Canada’s website on bear safety , but we can’t be held liable for any interaction or close encounter with a bear. You’re responsible for your own safety.

Before you go hiking

• Check local park and trail websites for warnings about recent bear activity
• Respect all trail closures and regulations
• Carry bear spray and a bear canister if required or recommended
• Plan to hike in a group of four or more

If you’ll be camping, find out if there are bear lockers or caches at the campsite and review these tips for avoiding bears while camping.

How to avoid bears while hiking

Bears are naturally wary of humans. If they hear or see you coming, they will likely run away, so make plenty of noise while you’re hiking to give them time to move away from the trail. Stay aware of your surroundings and watch for signs of recent bear activity like bear scat, dig sites, tracks, and clawed trees or stumps.

Follow these tips to prevent a bear encounter while you’re hiking:

• Stay on designated trails
• Make noise by talking loudly or singing as you hike
• Be extra cautious around running water or when it’s windy, which could make it harder for bears to hear your noise
• Try to avoid hiking at dawn and dusk, since bears are most active at these times
• Stay alert when you crouch down, like when you’re getting water from a stream
• Be aware of food sources around you, such as berries or spawning fish
• Avoid bringing smelly food on your hike and keep food smells contained
• Collect and pack out all food scraps and garbage (even compostable items like apple cores)
• Keep dogs on leash

What to do if you see a bear

If you see a bear, don’t approach it. If the bear is aware of you but not threatening, remain calm. Gather your group close together and make sure everyone is present. Talk softly to the bear to make it aware that you are human. Back away slowly, leaving an open escape route for the bear. Wait to give it time to leave the area.

Remember these key bear safety tips:

• Don’t run, because bears run much faster than humans
• Don’t climb a tree, because most bears climb trees faster and better than humans
• Keep dogs under control so they don’t excite the bear
• If you spot cubs or discover a carcass, leave the area immediately
• If you need to get past the bear, give it a wide berth

Do you need a bear bell or noise maker?

While bear bells are lightweight and easy to use, many are too quiet to be heard over outdoor sounds like wind and water. The noise of a bear bell also won’t identify you as a human, so it’s often better to use your voice.

Noise makers such as air horns and bear bangers are much louder and can be used to scare off a bear that’s still a distance away. But be aware that a bear might react aggressively to these loud sounds. It’s also possible to fire a bear banger so that it lands behind the bear and forces it to move in your direction (not good). To avoid these potential problems, most experts recommend bear spray as the best deterrent to carry while hiking.

How to use bear spray

Bear spray includes an ingredient called capsaicin that causes temporary burning in the eyes, nose and throat. It can also create a burning sensation on skin. The effects usually last from 15 to 60 minutes, and it causes no permanent damage to people or bears.

Using bear spray should be a last resort. Your best defense is to avoid a bear encounter altogether. But if you do have a surprise encounter with a bear, you may only have seconds to prepare to use your bear spray. Before you go hiking, read the instructions on your bear spray.

• Keep bear spray on your belt or pack strap, not inside your pack
• Practice removing it smoothly from the holster
• Get familiar with the safety catch and trigger mechanism
• Bear spray is effective at roughly 7 to 9 metres
• Check the expiry date and replace your bear spray as needed

Never try to use bear spray as a repellent by spraying it on people, tents or packs. If you accidentally spray something, wash it off as soon as possible. If you accidently spray yourself or someone else, flush the eyes and skin with cool water. Try to stay relaxed and breathe normally while you wait for the effects to wear off.

Note: Most airlines don’t allow you to carry on or check bear spray. If you need to transport bear spray canisters, call the airline before your trip.

What to do if a bear approaches you

Stay calm and stand your ground. Get your bear spray ready and make yourself look big. Keep your backpack on, and if you’re in a group, stay close together. Pick up any small children and keep dogs close to you and as calm as possible.

Instead of trying to identify whether it’s a black bear versus a grizzly bear, we recommend thinking about whether the bear is acting defensive or aggressive.

What to do in a defensive bear encounter

This is the most common type of bear encounter. If you startled the bear or it’s protecting food or cubs, it most likely just wants to be left alone. Talk calmly to the bear and back away slowly.

If the bear bluff charges you, stand your ground. If the bear stops after a bluff charge, slowly wave your arms, talk softly and back away. If the bear doesn’t stop, use your bear spray when it is 7 to 9 meters away. Aim directly at the bear’s head, not above it.

If the bear doesn’t stop, play dead to show it that the threat is gone. Most experts recommend lying flat on your stomach or curled up with your hands clasped behind your neck. Stay quiet and the bear should wander away after a minute or two. If it makes physical contact for longer than two minutes, fight back.

What to do in an aggressive bear encounter

This type of bear encounter is very rare. If the bear acts curious, seems to be looking for food, or attacks you in your tent, it’s an aggressive encounter. The bear will be intent on you and will have its head and ears up.

In this scenario, try to move away from the bear. If it follows you, stop and stand your ground. Act as big and loud as possible by gathering your group, shouting and clapping your hands. Use your bear spray. If the bear makes contact with you, don’t play dead. Instead, fight back using bear spray, sticks, rocks or your fists to show the bear you’re not easy prey.

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Why was a grizzly bear hanging out with a wolf pack?

The interspecies encounter, recorded in Yellowstone National Park, is likely due to one key factor.

It was a snowy October day when Joshua Welter spotted the large gray wolf pack just south of the road in Wyoming’s Yellowstone National Park . However, these wolves had an intriguing visitor in their midst: a grizzly bear .

Welter and his tour group marveled as the grizzly and wolves mingled for several minutes before they walked away together.

"We had never seen an interaction quite like this," says Welter, who has been operating in or around Yellowstone for the past 12 years, and now works as a guide for the tour operator Yellowstone Wildlife Profiles .  

He says the same bear was spotted multiple times around the canines for the next two weeks —which would be an abnormally long period of time for a grizzly to linger around the same wolfpack, says Clayton Lamb , a wildlife scientist at the University of British Columbia and research firm Biodiversity Pathways. (Read how wolves have stabilized the Yellowstone ecosystem after being reintroduced.)

In many cases, wolves will drive away unwelcome grizzly bears   when they get too close to their pack, or a bear will scare off wolves entering their territory. But a video of this encounter, which occurred in 2021 but was only recently posted on Reddit, seems to show a temporary truce between these two apex predators . So what's going on here?

It may be heartwarming to think the bear has become an honorary pack member, but in reality, food is the likely motivator.

Bears will sometimes snatch a wolf pack's kill if they are hungry enough, according to Daniel MacNulty , a wildlife ecologist at Utah State University.

"I've seen this kind of interaction between a large pack like that and a single bear," he says. "It does kind of look as if the wolves are maybe being playful with the bear, or vice versa, but honestly, I think it's all business for both the bear and the wolves."  

Risk versus reward

With high populations of both species living in Yellowstone, grizzly bears and wolves interact more than you might think.

In Yellowstone, grizzlies are seen more often in the fall as they venture out to consume as much food as possible before winter hibernation. During this period, known as "hyperphagia," bears take risks to obtain more calories—like stealing wolves' food, says Aimee Tallian , a scientist with the Norwegian Institute for Nature Research who studies wolf-bear interactions.

"There could be a carcass a quarter mile away that you just can't see," says Tallian. "It's all this push and pull of risk versus reward—that's what it comes down to, including the kind of tolerance that you see in that video."

The wolves are likely also running the same calculations when deciding whether to drive off a grizzly and risk injuring members of the pack if the animal fights back, she adds. It's not unusual for a hungry bear to steal food from other animals, including ravens and mountain lions; grizzlies will sometimes even lie on the carcass to claim it as their own. (Learn about the odd phenomenon of moth-eating grizzly bears.)

Grizzlies “are more scavengers and opportunistic foragers," Lamb adds. If that Yellowstone bear was following the wolves, it would "essentially be a parasite" for the pack, he says.

Tallian led a 2022 study in Yellowstone that found a bear’s presence can decrease a wolf pack’s overall kill rate, likely because the wolves wait around to see if the grizzly leaves behind scraps after stealing their kill. Oftentimes, this is less dangerous for the wolves than attempting another hunt, as the canines can be injured by their prey such as elk or moose.

A hot spot for seeing wildlife

A grizzly bear traveling around a wolf pack for weeks at a time has rarely been documented on camera. But Yellowstone is the perfect place for it. Unlike the dense forests of Scandinavia—where Tallian has yet to see a wolf—the U.S. national park's open grasslands allow for prime wildlife viewing.

"Yellowstone has very large packs of wolves," Lamb says. "And they have grizzly bears that overlap with them, which is not uncommon, but they do so in very open and easily viewable landscapes. It can be fairly difficult to observe those sorts of interspecies interactions in other places."

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Why do wolves hunt in packs? The answer might be ravens

A raven moves on from a frosted spruce tree Jan. 5 in Turnagain. (Erik Hill / ADN archive 2017)

People who study animal behavior think they may have found out why wolves hunt in packs: Because ravens are such good scavengers.

Scientists who watched wolves on Isle Royale in Lake Superior came up with the raven-wolf pack theory after puzzling over a question: Why do wolves hunt in large groups when a single wolf can take down a moose?

To find a possible answer, John Vucetich and Rolf Peterson of Michigan Tech and Thomas Waite of Ohio State University examined 27 years of wolf observations on Isle Royale in northern Michigan. Isle Royale, 45 miles long and up to 9 miles wide, sits in the northwest lobe of Lake Superior. A national park, the island supports a population of a few dozen wolves and hundreds of moose. Peterson studied the wolves for more than 30 years, and the researchers used observations from Peterson and his coworkers in the present study.

Peterson's team witnessed a single wolf killing a moose 11 times, which weakened the notion that wolves hunt in packs because of the difficulty of killing a moose without help. Vucetich, Peterson and Waite used the years of data from the Isle Royale wolf study to calculate that — in terms of energy burned and meat gained — wolves would do best hunting in pairs.

A wolf just east of Stony Creek in Denali National Park in 2013. (Jay Elhard / National Park Service)

A 1,000-pound moose is much more than two wolves can eat right away, and that's where the ravens come in. In a study published in Animal Behaviour, the scientists detailed these facts about ravens found by other scientists: Individual ravens can eat and carry away up to 4 pounds of food per day from a large carcass. Ravens were responsible for moving half of a 660-pound moose carcass from a kill site in the Yukon Territory.

During the 27 years of Peterson's wolf observations used in the recent study, ravens were present at every wolf kill, often within 60 seconds of a moose's death. Noted raven researcher Bernd Heinrich has suggested that ravens evolved with wolves, with ravens possibly leading wolves to moose or caribou, and then later feeding upon the carcasses torn open by wolves.

That the wolf pack exists because of ravens is a new idea, supported by the group's "conservative assumption" that wolves lose up to 44 pounds of food per day to ravens while feeding upon a carcass, and that a pair of wolves loses about 37 percent of a moose carcass to ravens while a pack of six wolves loses just 17 percent.

Ravens sneak in to eat or carry away scraps of moose flesh and organs while wolves are feeding or resting away from the carcass, and the more ravens there are (researchers have counted up to 100 near kill sites), the harder it is for wolves to chase them off.

The urge not to die by starvation may drive wolves to kill "approximately twice as many large prey as would be needed in the absence of ravens," the scientists wrote. They also wrote that 85 to 90 percent of carnivore species hunt alone, and the wolf pack might not exist if not for the pesky, bold raven.

Ned Rozell | Alaska Science

Ned Rozell is a science writer with the Geophysical Institute at the University of Alaska Fairbanks.

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Ursus americanus

Status: Not Listed

Classification: Mammal

Description

Not all black bears are black—some are brown or a rusty cinnamon color. There are also black bears with light blue-gray fur found in southeastern Alaska known as “glacier bears.” Some bears in the island archipelago in southern British Columbia even have white fur and are known as “spirit bears” by some Indigenous cultures of the region for whom these bears have cultural significance.

Despite these genetic variants, most of the bears in any region are black in color. Some bears have a white patch on their chests. They have a short, inconspicuous tail, longish ears, a relatively straight profile from nose to forehead, and small, dark eyes. There are several ways to tell a black bear from a grizzly bear . Black bears and grizzly bears can both have a wide variety of colors and sizes, but most commonly in areas where both species occur, black bears are smaller and darker than grizzly bears. Black bears have longer and less rounded ears and a more straight profile from forehead to nose compared to grizzly bears. Grizzly bears have larger shoulder humps and a more dished-in facial profile and much longer front claws that are evident in the tracks.

Black bears in some areas where food is scarce are much smaller than in other areas where food is abundant. Typically adults are three feet tall at the shoulder, and their length from nose to tail is about 75 inches. All bears, including black bears, are sexually dimorphic—meaning adult males are much larger than adult females. A large male black bear can exceed 600 pounds in weight, while females seldom exceed 200 pounds.

The American black bear's range covers most of the North American continent. They are found in Alaska, much of Canada and the contiguous United States, and extend as far south as northern Mexico. Because of their versatile diet, black bears can live in a variety of habitat types. They inhabit both coniferous and deciduous forests, as well as open alpine habitats. They typically don't occur on the Great Plains or other wide-open areas, except along river courses where there is riparian vegetation and trees. They can live just about anywhere they can find food, but largely occur where there are trees.

American black bears are omnivorous, meaning they will eat a variety of things, including both plants and meat. Their diet includes roots, berries, meat, fish, insects, larvae, grass, and other succulent plants. They are able to kill adult deer and other hoofed wildlife but most commonly are only able to kill deer, elk, moose , and other hoofed animals when the prey are very young. They are able to kill livestock, especially sheep. Bears are very attracted to human garbage, livestock food or pet food, or other human-associated foods like fruit trees. Bears using these human-associated foods can quickly become habituated to them and this commonly results in the bears being killed as nuisances. This is true for bee hives as well, as bears are very attracted to honey.

Life History

Black bears are typically solitary creatures, except for family (a female with cubs) groups and during mating season, which peaks in May and June. Following fertilization, the embryo doesn’t implant in the uterus until fall, at the time of den entrance. This process of delayed implantation occurs in all bear species and allows the female bear’s body to physiologically “assess” her condition before implantation occurs and the period of gestation leading to the birth of cubs really begins. Delayed implantation allows the female to not waste fat reserves and energy in sustaining a pregnancy that would have little chance of success because her condition is too poor. Females give birth to cubs every other year if food sources are sufficiently plentiful. In years when food supplies are scarce, a female may skip an additional year or two between litters. The cubs are born in the mother's winter den, and will den with her again the following winter. The following spring, when the cubs are one and a half years old, the cubs and female will separate and the female will breed again. A black bear litter can have one to five cubs, but most commonly litters contain two cubs. Black bears can live up to 30 years in the wild, but most die before they are in their early 20s.

Conservation

The American black bear is not currently a species of conservation concern and even the formerly listed black bear of Florida and Louisiana is now increasing. Habitats in western Texas, from which black bears were extirpated, are now being recolonized.

Conservation efforts for black bears have been effective and, in most areas, black bears are increasing and can sustain managed sport hunting. In areas with human populations, this can cause conflicts because bears are very attracted to human foods and refuse, as well as to livestock and livestock foods. Since bears are large and strong animals, many people fear them and resent the damage they can cause. The key to successful coexistence between humans and bears is to recognize that it is no longer possible for either species to occupy all habitats, but that where co-occupancy is possible and desirable, humans must be responsible for the welfare of the bear population. Wild areas with little human footprint will remain the most important habitat for bears, but peaceful coexistence can occur in the urban-wildland interface as long as humans take the necessary steps to assure that the relationship remains a positive one.

Black bears have relatively short claws, which enable them to climb trees. Unlike cats, the claws are non-retractable.

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How Wolves Are Driving Down Mountain Lion Populations

A recent study from Wyoming shows that when the two predators overlap, wolves kill kittens in high numbers and push adults to starvation

Rasha Aridi

Daily Correspondent

The Lava Mountain Wolf Pack, the most populous of its kind in the American West, moved into carnivore biologist Mark Elbroch's study site in Wyoming's Teton Range in 2014. Various wolf packs took up residence in the nearly 900-square-mile area over the years, and this pack settled atop a massive, rocky cliffside. At the base of the cliffs lived a mountain lion named F47 and her three kittens.

Over the course of three months, the wolves killed off F47's kittens—one each month. Three other kittens in the study site also fell prey to the pack. Elbroch, the director of Panthera's Puma Program, didn’t see wolves attack the young cats with his own eyes, but he saw the aftermath: Bloodied bits of dismembered kittens strewn across the ground. "It was hard for us to watch," he says.

In the mid-1900s, scientists started trying to understand how North America's carnivores, like wolves and mountain lions, interact. Previous studies suggested that in places where mountain lions and wolves compete, wolves usually come out on top by stealing the lions' kills or changing where the cats hunt. But wildlife biologists weren't sure just how detrimental wolves could be to mountain lion populations. A study published in November in the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B provided the first evidence that when the two species overlap, wolves have a greater effect on mountain lion populations than hunting by humans and the availability of prey. And the ways scientists say that wolves impact populations? By starving out adults and killing kittens.

In 1995, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and biologists from Yellowstone National Park reintroduced gray wolves to the park after they were killed off from the region in the 1920s. The reintroduction created an invaluable opportunity for biologists to study how wolves shape their environment. Nearby, in the Grand Tetons, scientists established a study site in 2000 to monitor what ecological changes stemmed from the wolves’ return, and various teams from conservation organizations, universities and state and federal agencies used the locale to untangle how wolves interact with other species.

In an earlier study, Elbroch and his team reported that over the course of 15 years, the mountain lion population in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem in Wyoming dropped by 48 percent . They considered three main theories for the decline: human hunting of cats, a lack of prey or the presence of wolves.

To figure out what exactly cut the mountain lion population nearly in half, Elbroch and his team analyzed data gathered on 147 mountain lions living in the study site. During those years they tracked down cats and kittens and equipped them with telemetry or GPS collars that reported the predators’ locations. Not only did the collars provide Elbroch with an understanding of how the cats moved through the landscape, but they also helped the team locate mountain lions after they died—which allowed the researchers to determine how a cat met its demise. They then plugged that data, along with data on elk and wolves, into a population model to reveal patterns in the relationships between the three species.

The model was able to determine the strongest drivers of the declining mountain lion population during the study period, as well as forecast how the cats would fare in the future. Elbroch found the growing population of wolves was the culprit behind the massive decline.

Elbroch suspects that the drastic drop was largely due to wolves affecting the cats’ access to prey, namely elk. In a wolf-less study site, elk herds resided in the comfort of the mountains; when the wolves moved in, the herds started congregating in large groups in the open grasslands to protect themselves from a pack attack. Since mountain lions stealthily stalk and ambush their prey under the cover of brush, they couldn't reach the elk in the grasslands, and starvation became a more common cause of death among the cats.

The kittens didn’t fare well, either. The model showed that over the 16 years, roughly a third of kittens at the site survived until they were six months old, and only around a quarter ever made it to their first birthday. "This is the lowest survival ever reported for kittens anywhere," Elbroch says. For the youngsters, the predominant cause of death was from brutal wolf attacks that could wipe out entire generations of kittens, like the Lava Mountain Pack did in 2014.

The most recent study’s findings revealed that the wolves' impact on mountain lion abundance is so strong that the yearly average mortality associated with human hunting is comparable to the effects of just 20 wolves. That finding is remarkable given that more than 90 wolves were once recorded living in the study site, which would have placed an enormous amount of pressure on the cats.

Elbroch was shocked at how wolf-related deaths completely eclipsed those from hunters. "The narrative for mountain lions for the last 50, 60 years has been that human hunting is the primary driver of population dynamics for mountain lions, and that is absolutely true—except where they overlap with wolves,” he says. “Now we're going to have to rewrite the whole narrative that rolls up the bigger impact on population dynamics for mountain lions, which has huge ramifications for their management."

While mountain lion populations have expanded across most of the American West, wolves are still trying to recolonize parts of their historic range. Since wolves affect mountain lion abundance so greatly, the study suggests that in places where wolves and mountain lions overlap, officials should implement more restrictive hunting quotas on cats to avoid a crash in their population.

Korinna Domingo, the founder and director of the Cougar Conservancy, who was not involved in this study, suggests that wildlife managers should pause mountain lion hunting or reduce the quota in areas where wolves are moving back into the ecosystem. Doing so will allow the cats to deal with one major threat at a time instead of trying to evade both hunters and wolves simultaneously. "That needs to be a very serious consideration," she says.

But such scientific recommendations aren't always implemented in practice because wildlife management decisions don’t just depend on the science, they also rest on public input. The major comebacks of wolves and mountain in recent decades have been met with backlash, Elbroch says. Hunters argue that carnivores prey on elk and deer, reducing the number that are around to hunt, and ranchers worry that carnivores will prey on their livestock. When wildlife biologists come up with plans to manage carnivores, they try to balance hunters' and ranchers' desires to kill them with what the science says.

"I can build a population model and really look at what's the best way to actually manage populations based [for] mountain lions, or wolves or deer populations," says Mark Hurley, a wildlife research manager for Idaho, who was not involved in the study. "But when it comes right down to it, sometimes that really doesn't matter because it's people's values [at play]."

Oftentimes, the demands of stakeholders outweigh what the science says, according to Elbroch. Agencies are managing for the constituents that want fewer—or no—carnivores on the landscape, he says.

Given that wolves are recolonizing their historic ranges across the American West and moving into mountain lion territory, states that do not already have wolf populations will soon be faced with the challenge of managing them. They'll also have to reevaluate how they manage mountain lions when the wolves take up residence.

"Wolves are now in Washington, Oregon, California, Idaho, Wyoming, Montana and moving outward still,” says Elbroch. “And these are all states that have aggressive mountain lion management. It will be fascinating to see how they decide to alter their management of mountain lions as wolves move into the system."

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Rasha Aridi is a science journalist based in Richmond, Virginia. She has written for Science magazine and Science News for Students . You can find her portfolio at rashaaridi.com .

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The Best Straw Cup For Babies, According To Experts

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Like bottles and pacis, finding the best straw cup for babies can take a lot of trial and error. Some children prefer a weighted straw cup so they can sip at any angle, while others may like the ease of sucking out of a valveless straw, though parents may not like the cleanup. Generally speaking, a great straw cup is easy to hold, drink from and clean, plus durable enough to withstand being thrown or dropped frequently. Ideally, it’s leak-proof too.

The best straw cups for babies are easy to hold, durable and ideally leak-proof.

“Babies can typically start using a straw between 6 to 12 months of age,” says Michelle Mintz, an early development expert and licensed speech-language therapist. “Introducing a straw helps aid proper muscle development and coordination necessary for speech.” While the right straw cup may vary for each baby and parent, Mintz tells us the key is introducing the straw early to optimize muscle development and speech capabilities. From soft and safe silicone options to leak-proof and easy-to-clean cups parents love, we’ve rounded up the best straw cup for babies in every category.

• Best Straw Cup For Babies Overall: Ezpz Silicone Mini Cup + Straw Training System
• Best Budget Straw Cup For Babies: Honey Bear Straw Cup (4-Pack)
• Best Silicone Straw Cup For Babies: Olababy Silicone Training Cup
• Best Leak-Proof Straw Cup For Babies: Grosmimi No Spill Magic Sippy Cup
• Best Weighted Straw Cup For Babies: B.box Sippy Cup With Fliptop Straw
• Best Straw Cup For Transitioning From A Bottle: Munchkin C’est Silicone! Open Training Cup
• Best Travel Straw Cup For Babies: Grosmimi Stainless Steel Straw Cup With Flip Top
• Best Convertible Straw Cup For Babies: The Everything Sippy

Best Straw Cup For Babies Overall

A mini cup with major developmental benefits, ezpz silicone mini cup + straw training system.

Pediatric speech-language pathologists and founders of Wee Talkers , Carly Tulloch and Katie Sterbenz, both recommend this popular (and pretty) silicone straw starter cup from Ezpz. “Open cups should come before straw cups,” notes Tulloch, who likes to introduce straw cups after babies are successful taking tiny sips from an open one. This modern mini cup and straw training system, developed by a feeding specialist and a speech-language pathologist, allows parents to do just that.

The lid and straw can be removed to practice drinking from an open cup at home, and then once babies get the hang of sipping and swallowing, the lid can be added back on for on the go. It’s durable, dishwasher-safe and is made from 100% silicone that’s free of BPA, BPS, PVC, phthalate and latex. It’s also the perfect size for tiny hands to hold and pick up, with a weighted bottom to help prevent tipping. If you’re stressed about spills, however, it’s worth noting this cup isn’t exactly leak-proof, even with the lid and straw on.

Best Budget Straw Cup For Babies

A highly-rated squeezable straw cup for less than $4, honey bear straw cup (4-pack).

This budget-friendly cup comes highly recommended by feeding therapists and parents alike, who praise how easy it is to teach your baby to independently drink from a straw since it works by gently squeezing the liquid to the top of the straw for baby to sip. In fact, many reviewers report this cup worked instantly and their little ones quickly got the hang of straw drinking.

This affordable set comes with four easy-to-hold Honey Bear Cups and eight thick, flexible straws so you have an extra set on hand for when baby chews too hard or you inevitably lose one. It also comes with a straw cleaner to get straws squeaky clean. “My 9-month-old took to these on day one and figured out how to drink from a straw because of them,” writes one verified Amazon reviewer. “They are cute, easy to clean and are squeezable to help baby drink.”

Best Silicone Straw Cup For Babies

A soft, see-through silicone cup that's super easy to use, olababy silicone training cup.

Tulloch and Sterbenz suggested this popular soft silicone straw cup, which has over 3,000 5-star reviews and comes in the cutest pastel colors. It’s made of high purity grade silicone and is free of harmful chemicals like BPA, PVC, lead and phthalates. Designed by pediatric feeding experts, it features a wide, weighted based for extra stability and to help minimize spillage, as well as a non-slip surface so little ones as young as 6 months can easily grasp it. It’s clear too, which is great for babes who want to know what’s inside and for parents to see at a glance how much their child has drank. Use it as mini open cup, or with the lid and straw once they’re ready.

While it’s not spill-proof, the straw can’t be pulled out and one reviewer calls it “a pretty solid cup even if it drops.” 

Best Leak-Proof Straw Cup For Babies

A splurge-worthy cup that rarely leaks and grows with them, grosmimi no spill magic sippy cup.

True to it’s name, this premium straw sippy cup is seriously spill-proof, whether your baby slings it across the table, drops it from the high chair or flips it upside down. Instead of a valve, it uses a cross-cut straw to eliminate leakage without the resistance so sucking liquid up isn’t a challenge. It’s made of extra durable medical-grade plastic that’s BPA and phthalate free, and is microwave and top rack dishwasher-safe. It comes with a soft silicone straw that can be used two ways: without the tube (like a spout cup) when lying down or with the tube for sitting and standing.

“We love this cup,” writes one reviewer. “It came recommended by my son’s feeding/speech therapist. It’s easier to suck with this straw, it truly doesn’t spill, it’s way easier to clean and the handle rotates so it’s easier to rotate the cup to get to the water.”

Best Weighted Straw Cup For Babies

Sip from any angle with this bestselling baby cup, b.box sippy cup with fliptop straw.

A weighted straw cup “ensures the baby can drink from any angle, which is great for development,” says Warsh. It can also lead to less frustration for parents and babies who are used to tipping back their bottles to drink or simply want to get every last drop.

The bestselling B.box receives high marks for overall ease of use and cleaning, with easy-grip handles to encourage even more independence and a steel weighted straw that moves with the liquid. Flip the lid closed to help prevent leaks in between drinks. There is a valve in the straw to minimize spills when the cup drops, which may not be ideal for young babies just learning to drink, but parents of notorious cup throwers (it’s me, hi) certainly appreciate it.

Best Straw Cup For Transitioning From A Bottle

Learning to use a straw is easy with this cute convertible cup, munchkin c’est silicone open training cup.

This tiny 4-ounce straw training cup makes the transition from bottle to cup a little easier for—and on—everyone. A thoughtful, 2-in-1 design allows it convert from an open cup to a lidded straw cup in an instant. Made of soft, food-grade silicone, it’s easy to grip, gentle on gums and the gently-weighted base provides stability on the table or high chair to help prevent accidents, though spills will undoubtedly happen.

“Love this cup for transitioning from a bottle,” writes one verified Amazon purchaser. “It took two attempts and she was using this straw cup. I also love that it’s a great open cup for baby to practice with too. It’s small so you can start with just a little liquid for those guaranteed spills when teaching to use a cup.” 

Best Travel Straw Cup For Babies

This insulated cup is ultra stylish and won't leak everywhere, grosmimi stainless steel straw cup with flip top.

I love this chic stainless steel straw cup, which makes going anywhere with my very active and spill-prone 1-year-old way easier. It’s vacuum insulated to keep liquids hot or cold for up to 6 hours, and like the Grosmimi cup highlighted above, features a cross cut straw to keep leaks from happening—I can confidently confirm this cup doesn’t leak after many months of abuse too.

The flip top is perhaps the best feature, as parents can simply close it to lock and throw in the diaper bag for stress-free travel, while toddlers can easily push to unlock it when they’re old enough to grab a drink on their own. It comes in several adorable and modern designs too, including bears, cherries and olives.

Best Convertible Straw Cup For Babies

This colorful cup can be used for sipping and snacking, the everything sippy.

I have the silicone Everything Sippy cup for my now-toddler, and to say I’m obsessed would be an understatement. This vibrant, versatile cup still looks brand new after a year of use, and the colors are so fun and inviting for babies and parents alike.

It can be used as a sippy cup, a straw cup, an open cup or even a snack cup with the purchase of The Everything Snack Lid . The top lid also reverses as a weighted suction base so parents can stress less about mess and focus more on letting their little one learn to sip out of a straw. The suction lid can be flipped back to a flat base as your child grows, or used to store the straw in transport so it doesn’t get gross in your diaper bag. The options truly are endless, and the quality is unparalleled. I also like that the straw has a middle stopper so it can’t be yanked out by baby.

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The 7 best hammocks to elevate your outdoor living space, why trust forbes vetted.

Our commerce writers and editors have a wealth of experience reviewing and testing baby essentials, from the best high chairs to the best baby bottles. We’re committed to sourcing the best products for safely and effectively feeding children, while still keeping in mind parental convenience, as many of us are parents ourselves. The author of this article is a mom of three, professional journalist and seasoned commerce parenting writer who has tested a ton of baby straw cups over the years with her own kids.

For every best list, we always consult experts to ensure we’re choosing developmentally-appropriate products, as well as to find out their favorites. In this case, we spoke with Michelle Mintz , M.S., CCC-SLP, an early development expert and licensed speech-language therapist; and pediatric speech-language pathologists and founders of Wee Talkers , Carly Tulloch and Katie Sterbenz.

How We Chose The Best Straw Cup For Babies

I chose the best straw cups for babies based on personal experience, real parent reviews and input from all of my experts, which include a pediatrician and three speech language pathologists. I considered factors like ease of use, cleaning, durability, safety and developmental appropriateness to narrow down my top contenders.

I also tried to account for convenience for parents, including a couple spill and leak-proof cups, without sacrificing on what’s best for baby. Every cup included on this list has rave reviews and comes highly recommended by experts or parents of little ones.

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The life and music of Amy Winehouse, through the journey of adolescence to adulthood and the creation of one of the best-selling albums of our time. The life and music of Amy Winehouse, through the journey of adolescence to adulthood and the creation of one of the best-selling albums of our time. The life and music of Amy Winehouse, through the journey of adolescence to adulthood and the creation of one of the best-selling albums of our time.

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The Moscow Metro Museum of Art: 10 Must-See Stations

There are few times one can claim having been on the subway all afternoon and loving it, but the Moscow Metro provides just that opportunity.  While many cities boast famous public transport systems—New York’s subway, London’s underground, San Salvador’s chicken buses—few warrant hours of exploration.  Moscow is different: Take one ride on the Metro, and you’ll find out that this network of railways can be so much more than point A to B drudgery.

The Metro began operating in 1935 with just thirteen stations, covering less than seven miles, but it has since grown into the world’s third busiest transit system ( Tokyo is first ), spanning about 200 miles and offering over 180 stops along the way.  The construction of the Metro began under Joseph Stalin’s command, and being one of the USSR’s most ambitious building projects, the iron-fisted leader instructed designers to create a place full of svet (radiance) and svetloe budushchee (a radiant future), a palace for the people and a tribute to the Mother nation.

Consequently, the Metro is among the most memorable attractions in Moscow.  The stations provide a unique collection of public art, comparable to anything the city’s galleries have to offer and providing a sense of the Soviet era, which is absent from the State National History Museum.  Even better, touring the Metro delivers palpable, experiential moments, which many of us don’t get standing in front of painting or a case of coins.

Though tours are available , discovering the Moscow Metro on your own provides a much more comprehensive, truer experience, something much less sterile than following a guide.  What better place is there to see the “real” Moscow than on mass transit: A few hours will expose you to characters and caricatures you’ll be hard-pressed to find dining near the Bolshoi Theater.  You become part of the attraction, hear it in the screech of the train, feel it as hurried commuters brush by: The Metro sucks you beneath the city and churns you into the mix.

With the recommendations of our born-and-bred Muscovite students, my wife Emma and I have just taken a self-guided tour of what some locals consider the top ten stations of the Moscow Metro. What most satisfied me about our Metro tour was the sense of adventure .  I loved following our route on the maps of the wagon walls as we circled the city, plotting out the course to the subsequent stops; having the weird sensation of being underground for nearly four hours; and discovering the next cavern of treasures, playing Indiana Jones for the afternoon, piecing together fragments of Russia’s mysterious history.  It’s the ultimate interactive museum.

Top Ten Stations (In order of appearance)

Kievskaya station.

Kievskaya Station went public in March of 1937, the rails between it and Park Kultury Station being the first to cross the Moscow River.  Kievskaya is full of mosaics depicting aristocratic scenes of Russian life, with great cameo appearances by Lenin, Trotsky, and Stalin.  Each work has a Cyrillic title/explanation etched in the marble beneath it; however, if your Russian is rusty, you can just appreciate seeing familiar revolutionary dates like 1905 ( the Russian Revolution ) and 1917 ( the October Revolution ).

Mayakovskaya Station

Mayakovskaya Station ranks in my top three most notable Metro stations. Mayakovskaya just feels right, done Art Deco but no sense of gaudiness or pretention.  The arches are adorned with rounded chrome piping and create feeling of being in a jukebox, but the roof’s expansive mosaics of the sky are the real showstopper.  Subjects cleverly range from looking up at a high jumper, workers atop a building, spires of Orthodox cathedrals, to nimble aircraft humming by, a fleet of prop planes spelling out CCCP in the bluest of skies.

Novoslobodskaya Station

Novoslobodskaya is the Metro’s unique stained glass station.  Each column has its own distinctive panels of colorful glass, most of them with a floral theme, some of them capturing the odd sailor, musician, artist, gardener, or stenographer in action.  The glass is framed in Art Deco metalwork, and there is the lovely aspect of discovering panels in the less frequented haunches of the hall (on the trackside, between the incoming staircases).  Novosblod is, I’ve been told, the favorite amongst out-of-town visitors.

Komsomolskaya Station

Komsomolskaya Station is one of palatial grandeur.  It seems both magnificent and obligatory, like the presidential palace of a colonial city.  The yellow ceiling has leafy, white concrete garland and a series of golden military mosaics accenting the tile mosaics of glorified Russian life.  Switching lines here, the hallway has an Alice-in-Wonderland feel, impossibly long with decorative tile walls, culminating in a very old station left in a remarkable state of disrepair, offering a really tangible glimpse behind the palace walls.

Dostoevskaya Station

Dostoevskaya is a tribute to the late, great hero of Russian literature .  The station at first glance seems bare and unimpressive, a stark marble platform without a whiff of reassembled chips of tile.  However, two columns have eerie stone inlay collages of scenes from Dostoevsky’s work, including The Idiot , The Brothers Karamazov , and Crime and Punishment.   Then, standing at the center of the platform, the marble creates a kaleidoscope of reflections.  At the entrance, there is a large, inlay portrait of the author.

Chkalovskaya Station

Chkalovskaya does space Art Deco style (yet again).  Chrome borders all.  Passageways with curvy overhangs create the illusion of walking through the belly of a chic, new-age spacecraft.  There are two (kos)mosaics, one at each end, with planetary subjects.  Transferring here brings you above ground, where some rather elaborate metalwork is on display.  By name similarity only, I’d expected Komsolskaya Station to deliver some kosmonaut décor; instead, it was Chkalovskaya that took us up to the space station.

Elektrozavodskaya Station

Elektrozavodskaya is full of marble reliefs of workers, men and women, laboring through the different stages of industry.  The superhuman figures are round with muscles, Hollywood fit, and seemingly undeterred by each Herculean task they respectively perform.  The station is chocked with brass, from hammer and sickle light fixtures to beautiful, angular framework up the innards of the columns.  The station’s art pieces are less clever or extravagant than others, but identifying the different stages of industry is entertaining.

Baumanskaya Statio

Baumanskaya Station is the only stop that wasn’t suggested by the students.  Pulling in, the network of statues was just too enticing: Out of half-circle depressions in the platform’s columns, the USSR’s proud and powerful labor force again flaunts its success.  Pilots, blacksmiths, politicians, and artists have all congregated, posing amongst more Art Deco framing.  At the far end, a massive Soviet flag dons the face of Lenin and banners for ’05, ’17, and ‘45.  Standing in front of the flag, you can play with the echoing roof.

Ploshchad Revolutsii Station

Novokuznetskaya Station

Novokuznetskaya Station finishes off this tour, more or less, where it started: beautiful mosaics.  This station recalls the skyward-facing pieces from Mayakovskaya (Station #2), only with a little larger pictures in a more cramped, very trafficked area.  Due to a line of street lamps in the center of the platform, it has the atmosphere of a bustling market.  The more inventive sky scenes include a man on a ladder, women picking fruit, and a tank-dozer being craned in.  The station’s also has a handsome black-and-white stone mural.

Here is a map and a brief description of our route:

Start at (1)Kievskaya on the “ring line” (look for the squares at the bottom of the platform signs to help you navigate—the ring line is #5, brown line) and go north to Belorusskaya, make a quick switch to the Dark Green/#2 line, and go south one stop to (2)Mayakovskaya.  Backtrack to the ring line—Brown/#5—and continue north, getting off at (3)Novosblodskaya and (4)Komsolskaya.  At Komsolskaya Station, transfer to the Red/#1 line, go south for two stops to Chistye Prudy, and get on the Light Green/#10 line going north.  Take a look at (5)Dostoevskaya Station on the northern segment of Light Green/#10 line then change directions and head south to (6)Chkalovskaya, which offers a transfer to the Dark Blue/#3 line, going west, away from the city center.  Have a look (7)Elektroskaya Station before backtracking into the center of Moscow, stopping off at (8)Baumskaya, getting off the Dark Blue/#3 line at (9)Ploschad Revolyutsii.  Change to the Dark Green/#2 line and go south one stop to see (10)Novokuznetskaya Station.

Check out our new Moscow Indie Travel Guide , book a flight to Moscow and read 10 Bars with Views Worth Blowing the Budget For

Jonathon Engels, formerly a patron saint of misadventure, has been stumbling his way across cultural borders since 2005 and is currently volunteering in the mountains outside of Antigua, Guatemala.  For more of his work, visit his website and blog .

Photo credits:   SergeyRod , all others courtesy of the author and may not be used without permission

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Touring the Top 10 Moscow Metro Stations

By Claudia Looi 2 Comments

Komsomolskaya metro station looks like a museum. It has vaulted ceilings and baroque decor.

Hidden underground, in the heart of Moscow, are historical and architectural treasures of Russia. These are Soviet-era creations – the metro stations of Moscow.

Our guide Maria introduced these elaborate metro stations as “the palaces for the people.” Built between 1937 and 1955, each station holds its own history and stories. Stalin had the idea of building beautiful underground spaces that the masses could enjoy. They would look like museums, art centers, concert halls, palaces and churches. Each would have a different theme. None would be alike.

The two-hour private tour was with a former Intourist tour guide named Maria. Maria lived in Moscow all her life and through the communist era of 60s to 90s. She has been a tour guide for more than 30 years. Being in her 60s, she moved rather quickly for her age. We traveled and crammed with Maria and other Muscovites on the metro to visit 10 different metro stations.

Arrow showing the direction of metro line 1 and 2

Moscow subways are very clean

To Maria, every street, metro and building told a story. I couldn’t keep up with her stories. I don’t remember most of what she said because I was just thrilled being in Moscow.   Added to that, she spilled out so many Russian words and names, which to one who can’t read Cyrillic, sounded so foreign and could be easily forgotten.

The metro tour was the first part of our all day tour of Moscow with Maria. Here are the stations we visited:

1. Komsomolskaya Metro Station  is the most beautiful of them all. Painted yellow and decorated with chandeliers, gold leaves and semi precious stones, the station looks like a stately museum. And possibly decorated like a palace. I saw Komsomolskaya first, before the rest of the stations upon arrival in Moscow by train from St. Petersburg.

2. Revolution Square Metro Station (Ploshchad Revolyutsii) has marble arches and 72 bronze sculptures designed by Alexey Dushkin. The marble arches are flanked by the bronze sculptures. If you look closely you will see passersby touching the bronze dog's nose. Legend has it that good luck comes to those who touch the dog's nose.

Touch the dog's nose for good luck. At the Revolution Square station

Revolution Square Metro Station

3. Arbatskaya Metro Station served as a shelter during the Soviet-era. It is one of the largest and the deepest metro stations in Moscow.

Arbatskaya Metro Station

4. Biblioteka Imeni Lenina Metro Station was built in 1935 and named after the Russian State Library. It is located near the library and has a big mosaic portrait of Lenin and yellow ceramic tiles on the track walls.

Lenin's portrait at the Biblioteka Imeni Lenina Metro Station

5. Kievskaya Metro Station was one of the first to be completed in Moscow. Named after the capital city of Ukraine by Kiev-born, Nikita Khruschev, Stalin's successor.

Kievskaya Metro Station

6. Novoslobodskaya Metro Station  was built in 1952. It has 32 stained glass murals with brass borders.

Novoslobodskaya metro station

7. Kurskaya Metro Station was one of the first few to be built in Moscow in 1938. It has ceiling panels and artwork showing Soviet leadership, Soviet lifestyle and political power. It has a dome with patriotic slogans decorated with red stars representing the Soviet's World War II Hall of Fame. Kurskaya Metro Station is a must-visit station in Moscow.

Ceiling panel and artworks at Kurskaya Metro Station

8. Mayakovskaya Metro Station built in 1938. It was named after Russian poet Vladmir Mayakovsky. This is one of the most beautiful metro stations in the world with 34 mosaics painted by Alexander Deyneka.

Mayakovskaya station

One of the over 30 ceiling mosaics in Mayakovskaya metro station

9. Belorusskaya Metro Station is named after the people of Belarus. In the picture below, there are statues of 3 members of the Partisan Resistance in Belarus during World War II. The statues were sculpted by Sergei Orlov, S. Rabinovich and I. Slonim.

10. Teatralnaya Metro Station (Theatre Metro Station) is located near the Bolshoi Theatre.

Teatralnaya Metro Station decorated with porcelain figures .

Taking the metro's escalator at the end of the tour with Maria the tour guide.

Have you visited the Moscow Metro? Leave your comment below.

January 15, 2017 at 8:17 am

An excellent read! Thanks for much for sharing the Russian metro system with us. We're heading to Moscow in April and exploring the metro stations were on our list and after reading your post, I'm even more excited to go visit them. Thanks again 🙂

December 6, 2017 at 10:45 pm

Hi, do you remember which tour company you contacted for this tour?

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Electrostal History and Art Museum

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