sports tourism notes

What is sports tourism and why it is so big?

Disclaimer: Some posts on Tourism Teacher may contain affiliate links. If you appreciate this content, you can show your support by making a purchase through these links or by buying me a coffee . Thank you for your support!

Sports tourism is BIG business. We all know that sport tourism involves sporting activity, that much is pretty obvious, but there is much more than a game of sport involved in the multi million Dollar global industry. In this article I will explain what sports tourism is, I will tell you about the different types of sports tourism and I will discuss the benefits of sports tourism.

What is sports tourism?

Sports tourism definitions, sports tourism statistics, football world cup, six nations rugby championship, the olympics, the super bowl, calgary olympic park, maracana football stadium, rio de janiero, barcelona olympic park, tough mudder race, london, martial arts holidays, south korea, surfing holidays, portugal, golf tours, florida, yoga retreats, bali, football fans- manchester united spectators, boxing fans- anthony joshua followers, british & irish lions rugby spectators, australian cricket fans, benefits of sport tourism, sports tourism: conclusion, further reading on sports tourism.

Sports tourism is the act of travelling from one locality to another, with the intention of being in some way involved with a sporting activity or event .

Many people believe that sports tourism relates only to watching a sporting event. However, this is not correct. The sports industry is much more than this.

Sports tourism encompasses travelling for your own sporting purposes, such as a yoga teacher training course, a badminton competition or to learn to surf. Sports tourism includes attending sporting events such as a Formula One race or a Premiership football match. Sports tourism includes nostalgic visits to places of historical importance, such as the Olympic stadium in Barcelona or to see memorabilia related to your favourite sporting hero, such as the museum at the Maracana football stadium in Rio de Janeiro.

There are, in fact, four main types of sport tourism. These types are known as:

• Sport Event Tourism
• Active Sport Tourism
• Nostalgia Sport Tourism

Passive sports tourism

While sports tourism has not always been extremely popular, during the recent decade the amount of people attending out of area sporting events has drastically increased. People are now traveling far and wide just to attend their favorite events, and it is no wonder as to what has encouraged the sudden spike in popularity.

Sport tourism is a relatively new concept, although it has been around for a long time.

There are many academic studies which delve into the concept of sports tourism, particularly sports tourism that involves large sporting events, such as the football World Cup or the Olympic Games. Some scholars and sports tourism stakeholders have attempted to define the term sports tourism.

According to Neirotti (2003), sports tourism can be broadly described as;

‘Including travel away from one’s primary residence to participate in sports activity, for recreation or competition purposes, travel to observe sport at grassroots or elite level, and travel to visit a sports attraction such as a sports museum, for instance’.

Weed and Bull (2004), provide a conceptualisation of the sports tourism phenomenon as;

‘A social, economic and cultural phenomenon arising from the unique interaction of activity, people and place’’.

Gammon and Robinson (2003) state that sports and tourism is;

‘Not just about the management and operation of mega events; it also concerns offering consumer-specific sports and tourism-related services and experiences to the sports tourist.’

Read also: Sustainable tourism- everything you need to know

Gammon and Robinson (2003) further argue that the sports tourism industry cannot be defined easily and that there should be different definitions according to the type of sports tourism that is being discussed. They visualise this in the model below.

Today, sport is regarded as the world’s largest social phenomenon. And, tourism is predicted to become the world’s biggest industry early in the next century. So it doesn’t take a genius to work out that sports tourism is pretty big business!

The sports tourism industry has grown considerably in recent years. In 2016 the sports tourism industry was worth $1.41 trillion and this figure is expected to increase to approximately $5.72 trillion by 2021. This is a whopping 41% growth in only four years!

**Studying sports tourism? I recommend- Sports Tourism: Participants, Policy and Providers **

The sports tourism industry makes up a significant part off the overall tourism industry. Some people claim that this figure is as high as 25%, meaning that a quarter of all tourism in the world is sports related!

The importance of sports tourism is further emphasised by the media statements from the World Tourism Organisation (WTO) and the International Olympic Committee (IOC), which in 2004, announced their commitment to reinforce their partnerships on collaboration in the sports and tourism domain. They stated that; 

‘Tourism and sport are interrelated and complementary… both are powerful forces for development, stimulating investment in infrastructure projects such as airports, roads, stadiums, sporting complexes and restaurant-projects that can be enjoyed by the local population as well as tourists who come to use them.

This demonstrates that sports tourism has a wider economic and social impact than simply the sporting occasion itself. It provides social and economic opportunities for the local population , as well as visitors to the area.

The different types of sport tourism

Sport tourism can be segregated into four main types: sport event tourism, nostalgia sports tourism, active sports tourism and passive sports tourism. Below I have provided a short explanation of what each type of tourism is, along with some examples.

Sport event tourism

Sports event tourism is tourism which centres around a sporting event. Sporting events can be of any size and importance, however it tends to be the major sporting events which gain the most gravitas.

Hallmark events, such as the Olympics or football World Cup, are important centres for sport event tourism, bringing millions of tourists to the host destination.

Smaller events, such as the Henley Regatta in the United Kingdom or a national tennis competition also clarify as sport event tourism.

An often overlooked example of sport event tourism are amateur sporting events. Events such as regional school competitions, youth sporting leagues and non-profit community based sport events are just a few examples.

Wimbledon, also known as ‘The Championships’ is the oldest tennis tournament in the world. A prestigious sporting event, Wimbledon is often associated with the upper class, where spectators sip sparkling wine and Pimms whilst dressed in their best frocks.

Knowing very little about tennis, I attending Wimbledon a couple of years ago just to experience this famous event, which is an integral part off British heritage!

Dating back to 1877, Wimbledon has been held at the All England Club in Wimbledon, on the outskirts of London, each year. The tennis is played on outdoor grass courts, which is unlike tennis matches played in many other parts of the world.

Wimbledon is one of the four Grand Slam tennis tournaments, the others being the Australian Open, the French Open and the US Open.

The tournament takes place in late June/early July each year.

The football World Cup, known officially as the FIFA World Cup, is an international football tournament held every four years.

The  Fédération Internationale de Football Association  (FIFA) is the sport’s global governing body. The football consists of mens only teams and boats the most skilled footballers in the world.

Teams must first pass the qualification phase, which takes place over the preceding three years. After this, 32 teams, including the automatically qualifying host nation, compete in the tournament. The World Cup tournament generally lasts about one month.

The Six Nations Championship is an annual international rugby union competition that takes place. It involves what are considered to be the six best nations in terms of rugby in Europe The six nations are:

The Six Nations tournament begins on the first weekend in February each year and finishes with ‘Super Saturday’ on the second or third Saturday in March.

Each team is required to play every other team once (making a total of 15 matches). Each team will play one match at home and one match away from home.

I attended a six nations match once and whilst I’m really not into rugby (surprise!), I really enjoyed the sophisticated and supportive atmosphere at the venue.

Inspired by the ancient Greeks, the modern Olympic Games have been running since 1896. But, in fact, the games have been played in some form or another since long before this date.

The Olympics is perhaps the most famous and the most popular international sporting event. It features both summer and winter sports competitions which take place every four years. Like many other major sporting events, the Olympics are held in a different location each time.

Read also: Slow tourism: Everything you need to know

The Olympics involves thousands of athletes from around the world who compete in a range of different sports, from trampolining to running. Over 200 nations participate in the event.

The Super Bowl is the annual championship of the National Football League (NFL). Based in the Unites States of America, this is the most popular sport tourism event of the year.

Some interesting facts include The Super Bowl being the second-largest day for food consumption in the USA (after Thanksgiving) and the Super Bowl being the most-watched American television broadcast of the year.

Nostalgia sports tourism

Nostalgia sport tourism involves travelling to famous sport-related tourist attractions.

Nostalgia sports tourism may celebrate sports of the past or the present. It may include visiting museums or exhibitions, visiting sporting hall of fames or visiting sporting venues.

The nostalgia sports tourist does not need to be actively participating in sport or to be spectating. They may simply want to learn more or to reminisce.

Here are some examples of popular nostalgia sport tourism attractions.

We visited Calgary Olympic Park on travels through Canada with a baby and loved it!

WinSport’s Canada Olympic Park (COP), (formerly known as Paskapoo Ski Hill) was one of the venues used in the 1988 Winter Olympics. Nowadays, it is open to the general public and iw well known for its ski jumping, bobsleigh and luge.

Whilst we did learn a little bit about the Olympics on our visit here, we actually sent more time on the luge ride than anything else because it was so much fun!

The Maracana is a famous football stadium in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The stadium is rich in history and was once the largest stadium in the world.

The stadium was opened in 1950 to host the FIFA World Cup. The venue has seen attendances of 150,000 or more at 26 occasions. Over time terraces were replaced with seating, and after the renovation for the 2014 FIFA World Cup, the Maracana’s original capacity was reduced to 78,838.

Nowadays, it is popular to take a tour to visit the Maracana stadium, like I did when I travelled to Buenos Aires with my friend who is football mad!

The Olympic Village, known in Spanish as La Vila Olímpica del Poblenou is an area in the Sant Martí district of Barcelona, Spain.

The Barcelona Olympic Village was built in the late 1980s and early 1990s in preparation for the 1992 Summer Olympic Games, which were held in Barcelona.

Nowadays, visiting the Barcelona Olympic Village is a popular sports tourism activity undertaken by many tourists visiting Barcelona.

Active sports tourism

Active sports tourism is when a person travels to actively participate in their chosen sport, or when they travel for other reasons, but taking part in sport is an important part of their tourism experience.

Active sports tourists can be segregated into three classifications: The amateur sports tourist; the hobbyist sports tourist and the professional sports tourist.

I would say that I would generally come under the first category. I am an amateur (at best!) at every sport I try my hand at. But, I still like to give it a go! I’ve attempted skiing in Argentina, kayaking in Vietnam and surfing in Costa Rica, to name but a few.

Read also: Business tourism: Everything you need to know

My husband, on the other hand, is usually either a hobbyist sports tourist or a professional sports tourist. He plays for badminton and football teams and loves playing a large number of sports in his free time. He is also a former athlete, having competed for Britain as a trampoline gymnast. As part of this role he travelled around the workload for professional sporting competitions. This qualified him as a professional sports tourist.

There are a large number of active sports that a tourist may choose to get involved with around the world. Here are a few that I have experienced on my travels. But there are sooo many other sports that you can get involved in as a sports tourist!

• Diving in the Galapagos
• Swimming at the Great Barrier Reef
• Playing tennis in Morocco
• Learning archery in Spain
• Going running in France
• Cycling in Amsterdam
• Taking yoga classes in Bali
• Learning tai chi in China
• Kayaking in Vietnam
• Sailing in Australia
• Skiing in Argentina
• Surfing in Costa Rica
• Playing baseball in Boston
• Hand gliding in Rio de Janeiro
• Fishing in The Gambia
• Climbing in Thailand
• Horse riding in Equador
• Walking in Jeju

Here are a few active sports tourism examples:

Did I ever tell you that I completed a Tough Mudder Race? This was a BIG achievement!

Tough Mudder is an endurance event. It is a an obstacle course, originally designed for army training. It is a test of the mind and body.

The race is usually between 10-12 miles in length. It includes a number of obstacles, many of which involve mud! The obstacles often play on common human fears, such as fire, water , electricity and heights.

**Buy now: Sport and Tourism – a recommended textbook for sports studies students!**

Common obstacles include:

• Arctic Enema – Participants plunge into a tank filled with ice water, where they must swim under the water and past an obstacle to the other side.
• Electroshock Therapy – This is where participants will run through a pit of mud where electric wires sway in the air. Participants will often get small electric shocks.
• Funky Monkey – Monkey bars over a pit of cold water. The bars are covered with a mixture of butter and mud.
• The birthing canal- A small, confined space that the participant must crawl through. The upper layer is filled with water so it feels like you are being compressed as you crawl through the tunnel.

Of course, you will need to travel to a Tough Mudder venue to be classified a sports tourism, but many people do!

Many people choose to travel to South Korea for martial arts holidays and Taekwondo-themed events. These might be amateur sports tourists, hobbyist sports tourists or professional sports tourists, depending on the level of involvement and activity type.

Portugal is a popular destination for surf holidays. You can go it alone, if you have the skills and ‘know-how’, or you can book a tour. There are a number of tour operator who offer specialised surfing holidays for all levels of sports tourists, ranging from beginner to advanced.

There are several golfing hotspots around the world. One of the most popular places to travel to for a golfing holiday is Florida . With its year-round pleasant weather and large open spaces, Florida welcomes golf tourists from all over the world to play on their first-class golf courses.

There are many parts of Asia that are known for the popularity of yoga. However, done attracts so many tourists as Bali. Bali is famous the world over for offering top quality yoga retreats and yoga teacher training courses.

Lastly, it is important to recognise that whilst sport is inherently active , not all those who participate or who are involved with the sport are themselves active. In fact, passive tourists can actually contribute more to the sport than those who are active!

A passive sports tourist is a person who is not actively participating in the sport. They are spectators or fans. Passive sports tourism involves tourists watching sport being played. This could take place at a major sporting event (qualifying this also as sports event tourism), or they could simply be supporting a family member of friend. Most passive sports tourists are fans.

Football, or soccer, is arguably the most well-known and popular sports in the world.

Manchester United is a particularly famous football club. It is estimated by the BBC that Manchester United has a whopping 659million football fans!

I always find is fascinating when I travel to a country that is so different and so far removed from my own, yet the locals are also quick to ask me about Manchester United!

Many sports tourists will follow Manchester United, or which ever football team is their favourite, around the world to watch their games.

Anthony Joshua is a British professional boxer. He has many millions of followers, both from the UK and abroad.

Anthony is a two-time unified heavyweight champion, having held the WBA (Super), IBF, WBO, and IBO titles since December 2019, and previously between 2016 and June 2019. At regional level, he held the British and Commonwealth heavyweight titles from 2014 to 2016.

Anthony Joshua participates in fights around the world and is often accompanies by his passive sports tourism supporters.

The British & Irish Lions is a rugby union team selected from players eligible for any of the Home Nations – the national teams of England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland. 

If rugby is your thing and your from Britain or Ireland, then this is a pretty big deal.

The Lions have many thousands of passive sports tourism supporters who cheat them on each match.

Cricket is pretty big in Australia. So big, in fact, that the Australian cricket team has an estimated 24million supporters! Many of these supporters travel with the team around the world as passive sports tourists.

As with any type of tourism , there are a range of benefits and advantages of sports tourism. Whilst the most obvious is perhaps the economic advantage of tourism , there are also positive social impacts as well as environmental impacts . Below I provide some examples:

• Sports encourages tourists to visit the area
• Sports tourism creates economic growth through tourists booking hotel rooms, eating in restaurants and opening money in local shops
• Sports tourism helps to create exposure and enhances a positive image for the local community
• Many sports tourism infrastructures and facilities can also be used by members of the host community
• The development of sports tourism helps to build a sense of community
• Sports tourism has the potential to attract high-yield visitors and repeat visitors
• It can provide opportunity to develop new infrastructure in the area
• The media can help to promote the destination
• Sports tourism can improve overall tourist numbers
• Money made from sports tourism can be reinvested into the local economy
• Sports tourism creates jobs for local people
• Sports tourism which relies on the natural environment may result in better environmental management and preservation

Whilst there are many positive impacts of sports tourism, however, it is also important that there are a number of negative impacts too. Aspects such as environmental degradation when gold courses, employing foreign rather than local people for major sporting events and locals who feel that their cultural norms are being overlooked (such as not covering your shoulders in the Middle East, for example), are just a few example of negative impacts of sports tourism.

It is clear that sports tourism is big business. Whether its events sports tourism, active sports tourism, nostalgic sports tourism or passive sports tourism, there is a huge market for tourists worldwide. However, as with any type of tourism, sports tourism must be carefully managed to ensure that it is sustainable .

For more information on sports tourism, I recommend the texts below;

• Sports Tourism: Participants, Policy and Providers – explains sports tourism as a social, economic and cultural phenomenon that stems from the unique interaction of activity, people and place.
• Sport Tourism Development – a text book covering the growth and development of sport tourism.
• Sport Tourism Destinations: Issues and Analysis – with contributions from international experts, this book looks at the dramatic effects sports tourism has on the economy and future of tourism destinations. 
• Sport and Tourism – This book proposes a groundbreaking theoretical model which explores globalization, mobility and authenticity providing insight into the unique interrelationship that exists in a sport tourism context between activity, people and place.

Liked this article? Click to share!

• Sport + Travel Magazine

What is sports tourism? 

According to a market report by Allied Market Research , the global sports tourism industry was pegged at $323.42bn in 2020. However, it is expected to reach $1.8 trillion by 2030, growing at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 16.1% from 2021 to 2030.

The report revealed that by region, Europe and North America held the largest share in 2020 – accounting for nearly two-fifths of the market, due to the presence of a large population and high participation in sports activities. However, the global sports tourism market across Asia-Pacific is projected to register the highest CAGR of 17.7% during the forecast period of 2021 to 2030, owing to increase in sports participation and sports event hosting.

Subscribe to our monthly newsletter

Sports tourism: a fast-growing niche

The sport and travel industries go hand-in-hand. Whether it is fans attending a match or an event, or if it is teams and officials travelling to fixtures or competitions, sports tourism is now a major niche in the travel industry.

It’s not just Fifa World Cups, the Olympics or major events that are driving the sector, but also team travel, school sports and smaller competitions. 

Did you know that the global sports industry is estimated to be worth between US$480bn and US$620bn, according to research by A.T. Kearney . Globally, travel and tourism’s direct contribution to GDP was approximately US$4.7trillion in 2020, according to a report by Statista .

UN Tourism describes sports tourism as “one of the fastest growing sectors” in the travel industry. It also states that international sports tourism is worth US$800bn and accounts for 10% of the world’s tourism industry. 

Here we look at what sports tourism is and an expert’s view on its impact…

The United Nations’s definition 

What UN Tourism said about sports tourism:

“ Sports tourism is a fundamental axis, generating around 10% of the world’s expenditure on tourism. It has an estimated growth rate of 17.5% between 2023-2030, moving masses intra and intercontinentally. Sports tourism can promote social, economic and environmental action, it accelerates development and can leave a long-lasting positive legacy.

“ Sports and Tourism are interrelated and complementary. Today, sports tourism is one of the fastest-growing sectors in tourism. More and more tourists are interested in sport activities during their trips whether sports are the main objective of travel or not. Sport events of various kinds and sizes attract tourists as participants or spectators and destinations try to add local flavours to them to distinguish themselves and provide authentic local experiences. Mega sport events such as the Olympics and World Cups can be a catalyst for tourism development if successfully leveraged in terms of destination branding, infrastructure development and other economic and social benefits.”

Impact of sports tourism 

Akis Tsolis, CEO of Active Media Group , organisers of the Navarino Challenge and Santorini Experience in Greece, wrote on gtp.gr :

“Aside from the obvious and vast benefits of travel, sports tourism is great for the economy for one simple reason: it generates economic impact through direct spending into a community.  Sports tourism is a rapidly growing niche in the travel/tourism industry. In fact, we at ActiveMedia Group share the belief that it is the fastest growing segment within the travel industry today, generating billions of dollars every year. Sports tourism is a trend that’s not going away and is expected to continue growing.”

The ChatGPT answer to this question…

What is the definition of sports tourism, how does it benefit the economy and what can we expect in the future.

Sports tourism refers to the act of traveling to a destination with the purpose of participating in or watching a sporting event. It involves a wide range of activities, including attending professional sports games, participating in amateur sports tournaments, and visiting sports-related attractions such as museums or stadiums.

Sports tourism can benefit the economy in several ways. Firstly, it generates revenue for local businesses such as hotels, restaurants, and retail stores. Secondly, it creates employment opportunities in the tourism and hospitality industries. Thirdly, it attracts investment in sports infrastructure such as stadiums and training facilities, which can benefit the local community beyond the tourism industry. Additionally, sports tourism can help to promote a destination as a sports hub, which can attract further sporting events and opportunities.

In the future, we can expect sports tourism to continue to grow, driven by the increasing popularity of sports and the ease of travel. Technological advancements such as virtual reality may also create new opportunities for sports tourism, allowing fans to experience sporting events remotely. Additionally, as sustainability becomes an increasingly important factor in tourism, sports tourism may shift towards more eco-friendly practices, such as promoting sustainable transportation and reducing waste.

SPORTS EVENTS CALENDAR

2024 nfl draft detroit, nashville rock ‘n’ roll running series 2024, 2024 ​​iagto european convention, malaga, 2024 finkstonball baseball and softball festival, austria, tennis grand slam: 2024 french open roland garros, privacy overview.

• Search Menu
• Browse content in Arts and Humanities
• Browse content in Archaeology
• Anglo-Saxon and Medieval Archaeology
• Archaeological Methodology and Techniques
• Archaeology by Region
• Archaeology of Religion
• Archaeology of Trade and Exchange
• Biblical Archaeology
• Contemporary and Public Archaeology
• Environmental Archaeology
• Historical Archaeology
• History and Theory of Archaeology
• Industrial Archaeology
• Landscape Archaeology
• Mortuary Archaeology
• Prehistoric Archaeology
• Underwater Archaeology
• Urban Archaeology
• Zooarchaeology
• Browse content in Architecture
• Architectural Structure and Design
• History of Architecture
• Residential and Domestic Buildings
• Theory of Architecture
• Browse content in Art
• Art Subjects and Themes
• History of Art
• Industrial and Commercial Art
• Theory of Art
• Biographical Studies
• Byzantine Studies
• Browse content in Classical Studies
• Classical History
• Classical Philosophy
• Classical Mythology
• Classical Literature
• Classical Reception
• Classical Art and Architecture
• Classical Oratory and Rhetoric
• Greek and Roman Epigraphy
• Greek and Roman Law
• Greek and Roman Archaeology
• Greek and Roman Papyrology
• Late Antiquity
• Religion in the Ancient World
• Digital Humanities
• Browse content in History
• Colonialism and Imperialism
• Diplomatic History
• Environmental History
• Genealogy, Heraldry, Names, and Honours
• Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing
• Historical Geography
• History by Period
• History of Agriculture
• History of Education
• History of Emotions
• History of Gender and Sexuality
• Industrial History
• Intellectual History
• International History
• Labour History
• Legal and Constitutional History
• Local and Family History
• Maritime History
• Military History
• National Liberation and Post-Colonialism
• Oral History
• Political History
• Public History
• Regional and National History
• Revolutions and Rebellions
• Slavery and Abolition of Slavery
• Social and Cultural History
• Theory, Methods, and Historiography
• Urban History
• World History
• Browse content in Language Teaching and Learning
• Language Learning (Specific Skills)
• Language Teaching Theory and Methods
• Browse content in Linguistics
• Applied Linguistics
• Cognitive Linguistics
• Computational Linguistics
• Forensic Linguistics
• Grammar, Syntax and Morphology
• Historical and Diachronic Linguistics
• History of English
• Language Acquisition
• Language Variation
• Language Families
• Language Evolution
• Language Reference
• Lexicography
• Linguistic Theories
• Linguistic Typology
• Linguistic Anthropology
• Phonetics and Phonology
• Psycholinguistics
• Sociolinguistics
• Translation and Interpretation
• Writing Systems
• Browse content in Literature
• Bibliography
• Children's Literature Studies
• Literary Studies (Asian)
• Literary Studies (European)
• Literary Studies (Eco-criticism)
• Literary Studies (Modernism)
• Literary Studies (Romanticism)
• Literary Studies (American)
• Literary Studies - World
• Literary Studies (1500 to 1800)
• Literary Studies (19th Century)
• Literary Studies (20th Century onwards)
• Literary Studies (African American Literature)
• Literary Studies (British and Irish)
• Literary Studies (Early and Medieval)
• Literary Studies (Fiction, Novelists, and Prose Writers)
• Literary Studies (Gender Studies)
• Literary Studies (Graphic Novels)
• Literary Studies (History of the Book)
• Literary Studies (Plays and Playwrights)
• Literary Studies (Poetry and Poets)
• Literary Studies (Postcolonial Literature)
• Literary Studies (Queer Studies)
• Literary Studies (Science Fiction)
• Literary Studies (Travel Literature)
• Literary Studies (War Literature)
• Literary Studies (Women's Writing)
• Literary Theory and Cultural Studies
• Mythology and Folklore
• Shakespeare Studies and Criticism
• Browse content in Media Studies
• Browse content in Music
• Applied Music
• Dance and Music
• Ethics in Music
• Ethnomusicology
• Gender and Sexuality in Music
• Medicine and Music
• Music Cultures
• Music and Religion
• Music and Culture
• Music and Media
• Music Education and Pedagogy
• Music Theory and Analysis
• Musical Scores, Lyrics, and Libretti
• Musical Structures, Styles, and Techniques
• Musicology and Music History
• Performance Practice and Studies
• Race and Ethnicity in Music
• Sound Studies
• Browse content in Performing Arts
• Browse content in Philosophy
• Aesthetics and Philosophy of Art
• Epistemology
• Feminist Philosophy
• History of Western Philosophy
• Metaphysics
• Moral Philosophy
• Non-Western Philosophy
• Philosophy of Science
• Philosophy of Action
• Philosophy of Law
• Philosophy of Religion
• Philosophy of Language
• Philosophy of Mind
• Philosophy of Perception
• Philosophy of Mathematics and Logic
• Practical Ethics
• Social and Political Philosophy
• Browse content in Religion
• Biblical Studies
• Christianity
• East Asian Religions
• History of Religion
• Judaism and Jewish Studies
• Qumran Studies
• Religion and Education
• Religion and Health
• Religion and Politics
• Religion and Science
• Religion and Law
• Religion and Art, Literature, and Music
• Religious Studies
• Browse content in Society and Culture
• Cookery, Food, and Drink
• Cultural Studies
• Customs and Traditions
• Ethical Issues and Debates
• Hobbies, Games, Arts and Crafts
• Lifestyle, Home, and Garden
• Natural world, Country Life, and Pets
• Popular Beliefs and Controversial Knowledge
• Sports and Outdoor Recreation
• Technology and Society
• Travel and Holiday
• Visual Culture
• Browse content in Law
• Arbitration
• Browse content in Company and Commercial Law
• Commercial Law
• Company Law
• Browse content in Comparative Law
• Systems of Law
• Competition Law
• Browse content in Constitutional and Administrative Law
• Government Powers
• Judicial Review
• Local Government Law
• Military and Defence Law
• Parliamentary and Legislative Practice
• Construction Law
• Contract Law
• Browse content in Criminal Law
• Criminal Procedure
• Criminal Evidence Law
• Sentencing and Punishment
• Employment and Labour Law
• Environment and Energy Law
• Browse content in Financial Law
• Banking Law
• Insolvency Law
• History of Law
• Human Rights and Immigration
• Intellectual Property Law
• Browse content in International Law
• Private International Law and Conflict of Laws
• Public International Law
• IT and Communications Law
• Jurisprudence and Philosophy of Law
• Law and Politics
• Law and Society
• Browse content in Legal System and Practice
• Courts and Procedure
• Legal Skills and Practice
• Primary Sources of Law
• Regulation of Legal Profession
• Medical and Healthcare Law
• Browse content in Policing
• Criminal Investigation and Detection
• Police and Security Services
• Police Procedure and Law
• Police Regional Planning
• Browse content in Property Law
• Personal Property Law
• Study and Revision
• Terrorism and National Security Law
• Browse content in Trusts Law
• Wills and Probate or Succession
• Browse content in Medicine and Health
• Browse content in Allied Health Professions
• Arts Therapies
• Clinical Science
• Dietetics and Nutrition
• Occupational Therapy
• Operating Department Practice
• Physiotherapy
• Radiography
• Speech and Language Therapy
• Browse content in Anaesthetics
• General Anaesthesia
• Neuroanaesthesia
• Browse content in Clinical Medicine
• Acute Medicine
• Cardiovascular Medicine
• Clinical Genetics
• Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics
• Dermatology
• Endocrinology and Diabetes
• Gastroenterology
• Genito-urinary Medicine
• Geriatric Medicine
• Infectious Diseases
• Medical Oncology
• Medical Toxicology
• Pain Medicine
• Palliative Medicine
• Rehabilitation Medicine
• Respiratory Medicine and Pulmonology
• Rheumatology
• Sleep Medicine
• Sports and Exercise Medicine
• Clinical Neuroscience
• Community Medical Services
• Critical Care
• Emergency Medicine
• Forensic Medicine
• Haematology
• History of Medicine
• Browse content in Medical Dentistry
• Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery
• Paediatric Dentistry
• Restorative Dentistry and Orthodontics
• Surgical Dentistry
• Medical Ethics
• Browse content in Medical Skills
• Clinical Skills
• Communication Skills
• Nursing Skills
• Surgical Skills
• Medical Statistics and Methodology
• Browse content in Neurology
• Clinical Neurophysiology
• Neuropathology
• Nursing Studies
• Browse content in Obstetrics and Gynaecology
• Gynaecology
• Occupational Medicine
• Ophthalmology
• Otolaryngology (ENT)
• Browse content in Paediatrics
• Neonatology
• Browse content in Pathology
• Chemical Pathology
• Clinical Cytogenetics and Molecular Genetics
• Histopathology
• Medical Microbiology and Virology
• Patient Education and Information
• Browse content in Pharmacology
• Psychopharmacology
• Browse content in Popular Health
• Caring for Others
• Complementary and Alternative Medicine
• Self-help and Personal Development
• Browse content in Preclinical Medicine
• Cell Biology
• Molecular Biology and Genetics
• Reproduction, Growth and Development
• Primary Care
• Professional Development in Medicine
• Browse content in Psychiatry
• Addiction Medicine
• Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
• Forensic Psychiatry
• Learning Disabilities
• Old Age Psychiatry
• Psychotherapy
• Browse content in Public Health and Epidemiology
• Epidemiology
• Public Health
• Browse content in Radiology
• Clinical Radiology
• Interventional Radiology
• Nuclear Medicine
• Radiation Oncology
• Reproductive Medicine
• Browse content in Surgery
• Cardiothoracic Surgery
• Gastro-intestinal and Colorectal Surgery
• General Surgery
• Neurosurgery
• Paediatric Surgery
• Peri-operative Care
• Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery
• Surgical Oncology
• Transplant Surgery
• Trauma and Orthopaedic Surgery
• Vascular Surgery
• Browse content in Science and Mathematics
• Browse content in Biological Sciences
• Aquatic Biology
• Biochemistry
• Bioinformatics and Computational Biology
• Developmental Biology
• Ecology and Conservation
• Evolutionary Biology
• Genetics and Genomics
• Microbiology
• Molecular and Cell Biology
• Natural History
• Plant Sciences and Forestry
• Research Methods in Life Sciences
• Structural Biology
• Systems Biology
• Zoology and Animal Sciences
• Browse content in Chemistry
• Analytical Chemistry
• Computational Chemistry
• Crystallography
• Environmental Chemistry
• Industrial Chemistry
• Inorganic Chemistry
• Materials Chemistry
• Medicinal Chemistry
• Mineralogy and Gems
• Organic Chemistry
• Physical Chemistry
• Polymer Chemistry
• Study and Communication Skills in Chemistry
• Theoretical Chemistry
• Browse content in Computer Science
• Artificial Intelligence
• Computer Architecture and Logic Design
• Game Studies
• Human-Computer Interaction
• Mathematical Theory of Computation
• Programming Languages
• Software Engineering
• Systems Analysis and Design
• Virtual Reality
• Browse content in Computing
• Business Applications
• Computer Security
• Computer Games
• Computer Networking and Communications
• Digital Lifestyle
• Graphical and Digital Media Applications
• Operating Systems
• Browse content in Earth Sciences and Geography
• Atmospheric Sciences
• Environmental Geography
• Geology and the Lithosphere
• Maps and Map-making
• Meteorology and Climatology
• Oceanography and Hydrology
• Palaeontology
• Physical Geography and Topography
• Regional Geography
• Soil Science
• Urban Geography
• Browse content in Engineering and Technology
• Agriculture and Farming
• Biological Engineering
• Civil Engineering, Surveying, and Building
• Electronics and Communications Engineering
• Energy Technology
• Engineering (General)
• Environmental Science, Engineering, and Technology
• History of Engineering and Technology
• Mechanical Engineering and Materials
• Technology of Industrial Chemistry
• Transport Technology and Trades
• Browse content in Environmental Science
• Applied Ecology (Environmental Science)
• Conservation of the Environment (Environmental Science)
• Environmental Sustainability
• Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Environmental Science)
• Management of Land and Natural Resources (Environmental Science)
• Natural Disasters (Environmental Science)
• Nuclear Issues (Environmental Science)
• Pollution and Threats to the Environment (Environmental Science)
• Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Environmental Science)
• History of Science and Technology
• Browse content in Materials Science
• Ceramics and Glasses
• Composite Materials
• Metals, Alloying, and Corrosion
• Nanotechnology
• Browse content in Mathematics
• Applied Mathematics
• Biomathematics and Statistics
• History of Mathematics
• Mathematical Education
• Mathematical Finance
• Mathematical Analysis
• Numerical and Computational Mathematics
• Probability and Statistics
• Pure Mathematics
• Browse content in Neuroscience
• Cognition and Behavioural Neuroscience
• Development of the Nervous System
• Disorders of the Nervous System
• History of Neuroscience
• Invertebrate Neurobiology
• Molecular and Cellular Systems
• Neuroendocrinology and Autonomic Nervous System
• Neuroscientific Techniques
• Sensory and Motor Systems
• Browse content in Physics
• Astronomy and Astrophysics
• Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics
• Biological and Medical Physics
• Classical Mechanics
• Computational Physics
• Condensed Matter Physics
• Electromagnetism, Optics, and Acoustics
• History of Physics
• Mathematical and Statistical Physics
• Measurement Science
• Nuclear Physics
• Particles and Fields
• Plasma Physics
• Quantum Physics
• Relativity and Gravitation
• Semiconductor and Mesoscopic Physics
• Browse content in Psychology
• Affective Sciences
• Clinical Psychology
• Cognitive Neuroscience
• Cognitive Psychology
• Criminal and Forensic Psychology
• Developmental Psychology
• Educational Psychology
• Evolutionary Psychology
• Health Psychology
• History and Systems in Psychology
• Music Psychology
• Neuropsychology
• Organizational Psychology
• Psychological Assessment and Testing
• Psychology of Human-Technology Interaction
• Psychology Professional Development and Training
• Research Methods in Psychology
• Social Psychology
• Browse content in Social Sciences
• Browse content in Anthropology
• Anthropology of Religion
• Human Evolution
• Medical Anthropology
• Physical Anthropology
• Regional Anthropology
• Social and Cultural Anthropology
• Theory and Practice of Anthropology
• Browse content in Business and Management
• Business Strategy
• Business History
• Business Ethics
• Business and Government
• Business and Technology
• Business and the Environment
• Comparative Management
• Corporate Governance
• Corporate Social Responsibility
• Entrepreneurship
• Health Management
• Human Resource Management
• Industrial and Employment Relations
• Industry Studies
• Information and Communication Technologies
• International Business
• Knowledge Management
• Management and Management Techniques
• Operations Management
• Organizational Theory and Behaviour
• Pensions and Pension Management
• Public and Nonprofit Management
• Strategic Management
• Supply Chain Management
• Browse content in Criminology and Criminal Justice
• Criminal Justice
• Criminology
• Forms of Crime
• International and Comparative Criminology
• Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice
• Development Studies
• Browse content in Economics
• Agricultural, Environmental, and Natural Resource Economics
• Asian Economics
• Behavioural Finance
• Behavioural Economics and Neuroeconomics
• Econometrics and Mathematical Economics
• Economic Systems
• Economic Methodology
• Economic History
• Economic Development and Growth
• Financial Markets
• Financial Institutions and Services
• General Economics and Teaching
• Health, Education, and Welfare
• History of Economic Thought
• International Economics
• Labour and Demographic Economics
• Law and Economics
• Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics
• Microeconomics
• Public Economics
• Urban, Rural, and Regional Economics
• Welfare Economics
• Browse content in Education
• Adult Education and Continuous Learning
• Care and Counselling of Students
• Early Childhood and Elementary Education
• Educational Equipment and Technology
• Educational Strategies and Policy
• Higher and Further Education
• Organization and Management of Education
• Philosophy and Theory of Education
• Schools Studies
• Secondary Education
• Teaching of a Specific Subject
• Teaching of Specific Groups and Special Educational Needs
• Teaching Skills and Techniques
• Browse content in Environment
• Applied Ecology (Social Science)
• Climate Change
• Conservation of the Environment (Social Science)
• Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Social Science)
• Natural Disasters (Environment)
• Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Social Science)
• Browse content in Human Geography
• Cultural Geography
• Economic Geography
• Political Geography
• Browse content in Interdisciplinary Studies
• Communication Studies
• Museums, Libraries, and Information Sciences
• Browse content in Politics
• African Politics
• Asian Politics
• Chinese Politics
• Comparative Politics
• Conflict Politics
• Elections and Electoral Studies
• Environmental Politics
• European Union
• Foreign Policy
• Gender and Politics
• Human Rights and Politics
• Indian Politics
• International Relations
• International Organization (Politics)
• International Political Economy
• Irish Politics
• Latin American Politics
• Middle Eastern Politics
• Political Methodology
• Political Communication
• Political Philosophy
• Political Sociology
• Political Theory
• Political Behaviour
• Political Economy
• Political Institutions
• Politics and Law
• Public Administration
• Public Policy
• Quantitative Political Methodology
• Regional Political Studies
• Russian Politics
• Security Studies
• State and Local Government
• UK Politics
• US Politics
• Browse content in Regional and Area Studies
• African Studies
• Asian Studies
• East Asian Studies
• Japanese Studies
• Latin American Studies
• Middle Eastern Studies
• Native American Studies
• Scottish Studies
• Browse content in Research and Information
• Research Methods
• Browse content in Social Work
• Addictions and Substance Misuse
• Adoption and Fostering
• Care of the Elderly
• Child and Adolescent Social Work
• Couple and Family Social Work
• Developmental and Physical Disabilities Social Work
• Direct Practice and Clinical Social Work
• Emergency Services
• Human Behaviour and the Social Environment
• International and Global Issues in Social Work
• Mental and Behavioural Health
• Social Justice and Human Rights
• Social Policy and Advocacy
• Social Work and Crime and Justice
• Social Work Macro Practice
• Social Work Practice Settings
• Social Work Research and Evidence-based Practice
• Welfare and Benefit Systems
• Browse content in Sociology
• Childhood Studies
• Community Development
• Comparative and Historical Sociology
• Economic Sociology
• Gender and Sexuality
• Gerontology and Ageing
• Health, Illness, and Medicine
• Marriage and the Family
• Migration Studies
• Occupations, Professions, and Work
• Organizations
• Population and Demography
• Race and Ethnicity
• Social Theory
• Social Movements and Social Change
• Social Research and Statistics
• Social Stratification, Inequality, and Mobility
• Sociology of Religion
• Sociology of Education
• Sport and Leisure
• Urban and Rural Studies
• Browse content in Warfare and Defence
• Defence Strategy, Planning, and Research
• Land Forces and Warfare
• Military Administration
• Military Life and Institutions
• Naval Forces and Warfare
• Other Warfare and Defence Issues
• Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution
• Weapons and Equipment

• < Previous chapter
• Next chapter >

19 Sport, Tourism, and Social Impacts

Heather J. Gibson is a professor of tourism at the University of Florida. Her work cuts across the fields of leisure, tourism, and sport, with a focus on understanding behavioral choices in the context of gender, life span, and well-being. She authored some of the seminal papers in sport tourism and incorporated her focus on women and mid- and later life into the study of active sport tourism. She is a former managing editor of Leisure Studies and is an associate editor for the Annals of Tourism Research and the Journal of Sport & Tourism, among others.

Sheranne Fairley is an associate professor in the School of Business at the University of Queensland. Fairley’s research focuses on three major streams: sport and event tourism, volunteerism, and the globalization of sport. Her books include Rebranding and Positioning Australian Rules Football in the American Market (2009) and Renegotiating the Shanghai Formula One Event (2009, with K. D’Elia). She is editor-in-chief of the research journal Sport Management Review .

• Published: 21 September 2022
• Cite Icon Cite
• Permissions Icon Permissions

Scholarship in sport tourism began to gather speed in the late 1990s. Initially attention was on defining sport tourism and the economic impact of sport events. Calls to move scholarship from largely descriptive case studies to a theoretically informed body of work manifested in various ways. This chapter chronicles some of the developments in sport tourism scholarship over the past 20 years, with a focus on legacy and leveraging, social impacts, and small-scale events. In so doing, topics such as event portfolios, social capital, youth sport, and the impact of COVID-19 are discussed. The growth of event management as a discipline is examined in terms of its impact on sport tourism going forward. The authors note the touristic dimension in sport event research has often been missing or downplayed in recent studies, which raises questions about the long-term viability of sport tourism as an area of study.

As tourism became increasingly specialized in the 1990s, there was a growing recognition about travel associated with sport. Initially, when a group of scholars began to focus on sport tourism as an area of study, there was much debate around the definition of “sport tourism” (e.g., Gibson, 1998b ; Higham & Hinch, 2002 ; Weed & Bull, 2004 ). Through the years we have reached somewhat of a consensus that sport tourism breaks down into three main types: (1) travel to actively participate in sport, (2) travel to spectate at a sport event, and (3) travel related to nostalgia. The third form of sport tourism has always received less attention and has also been the most contested (e.g., Ramshaw & Gammon, 2005 ). Yet a quick review of the literature shows that there is an active group of scholars who have coalesced around this nostalgia/heritage sport tourism focus (e.g., Cho, Ramshaw, & Norman, 2014 ; Fairley, 2003 ; Ramshaw, 2020 ; Ramshaw & Gammon, 2005 ).

The first decade of sport tourism–related scholarship gave rise to two issues which are relevant to this chapter. The first was a focus on economic impact, primarily of sport tourism events (e.g., Daniels & Norman, 2003 ; Turco, 1998 ). This focus was not surprising, as communities were starting to use sport tourism as an economic development tool in the late 1990s, and many of these studies were commissioned by tourism agencies and emerging sports commissions. The second issue was a critique about the overly descriptive, atheoretical nature of early work (e.g., Gibson, 2004 ; Weed, 2006 ). However, the focus on description at this stage was not unexpected since the state of knowledge necessitated delimiting the area of study and conceptualizing and describing what comprised sport tourism. However, if, as sport tourism scholars, we were to move forward in developing this emerging area of study located at the intersection of sport management, tourism management, and leisure studies (this was the home to some of the early publications and themed conferences; cf. Gammon & Kurtzman, 2002 ), we needed to move into the next phase of knowledge development: understanding the how and the why ( Gibson, 2004 ).

At this stage we had not actively incorporated event management scholarship into this intersection. While Getz (1998) had written a paper on sport tourism in the event management context, event management had not penetrated sport and tourism management to the extent it has today. In fact, as we noted earlier, while our spectator sport tourists were called “event sport tourists” ( Gibson, 1998b ) in our early work, and while we were often researching sport tourism in event-related contexts (e.g., Higham & Hinch, 2002 , 2001 ; Ryan & Lockyer, 2002 ), the event was not the main focus. Today we have seen a definite shift in the prominence of the event context. This shift has been so extensive that the focus on sport tourism has been somewhat subsumed by the focus on sport events ( Gibson, 2017 ). Indeed, some may question the viability of this area of study going forward. Yet, at the same time, we can point to a resurgence of interest from practitioners and the industry, particularly in niche areas of sport tourism such as youth sports. Also evident is a growing interest among academics throughout Asia, particularly in China and Japan ( Dong, 2020 ; Hinch & Ito, 2018 ). As authors of this chapter, in reflecting back as well as projecting into the future, we are provided with an opportunity to examine some of the most significant developments in sport tourism research which helped to counter the early critiques of being atheoretical.

Responses to the critiques about lack of theory and being overly descriptive, as well as the focus on economic impacts, led us in two directions. First was the identification of appropriate concepts and theories that might enhance the explanatory power of sport tourism–related work to help us build a body of work that was sequential and could push our understanding forward. Weed (2006) , drawing upon Forscher’s (1963) classic treatise on “chaos in the brickyard,” challenged us to move beyond the individual case study approach to work toward building a cohesive body of knowledge about sport tourism. Gibson’s (2006) edited book, Sport Tourism Concepts and Theories, provided a compendium of potential theories that might be used to frame our work. Certainly, in the research on the active sport tourist there is evidence that scholars did heed the call to frame their work in appropriate theories. For example, Kaplanidou and Vogt (2007) used the Theory of Planned Behavior to understand participants in a cycling event. The concepts of involvement and enduring involvement, which have a long history in leisure studies, were applied to understand participation in Master’s Games ( Ryan & Lockyer, 2002 ) and travel to take part in running events ( McGehee, Yoon, & Cardenas, 2003 ), and were combined with a benefits-sought framework to investigate cycle tourists ( Gibson & Chang, 2012 ). A constraints framework, again from leisure studies, has been a popular approach to understanding participation patterns in snow sports ( Hudson, 2000 ; Williams & Fidgeon, 2000 ) and surfing tourism among women ( Fendt & Wilson, 2012 ), as has using serious leisure (Stebbins, 1982) to examine commitment and experiences in active sport tourism contexts (e.g., Shipway & Jones, 2007 ). Lamont, Kennelly, and Wilson (2012) added the idea that active sport tourists not only negotiate but prioritize constraints on their participation; they examined this within the event travel career framework proposed by Getz (2008) . Getz combined serious leisure (Stebbins, 1982) , Pearce’s (1998) travel career, and Unruh’s (1979) social worlds to develop the event travel career framework, which has spawned a series of studies on running ( Getz & Anderson, 2010 ) and mountain biking ( Getz & McConnell, 2011 ). Buning and Gibson (2015) proposed some further developments to what they called the active sport event travel career in their study of cycling within a U.S. context by providing more detail on career development and how this intersected with the events in which these cyclists chose to participate. Recently, Aicher, Buning, and Newland (2020) put more focus on the social worlds aspect of the active sport event travel career among runners and found that degree of immersion in the running social world shapes not only event participation but also related tourism behaviors.

These are only some of the conceptual approaches that have been used by researchers on active sport tourism; the application of these various frameworks has provided some unique insights into how and why active sport tourists participate in their various sports. More important, we have seen a shift in focus to understand the meanings and benefits that such participation has for these individuals, notably with a recent focus on the well-being associated with participation in active sport tourism ( Mirehie & Gibson, 2020 ). However, some notable gaps remain, particularly in that much of the focus on active sport tourism has not interrogated the sociostructural issues associated with participation, such as gender, race, and class ( Gibson & Mirehie, 2018 ). Active sport tourism is still mainly experienced by white, middle-class, and predominantly male participants, as was evident over 20 years ago, when some of the first papers were written ( Bordelon & Ferreira, 2019 ; Gibson, 1998a ). Another issue of importance is that there are few current researchers focusing on active sport tourism. This was evident in editing a special issue of the Journal of Sport & Tourism, where it took several rounds of the call for papers to attract a sufficient number of submissions ( Gibson, Lamont, Kennelly, & Buning, 2018 ). Of course, some of this can be attributed to researchers being pushed to publish in higher-impact journals, but the sister special issue “Sport Tourism and Sustainable Destinations” ( Hinch, Higham, & Moyle, 2016 ), for example, attracted enough papers for two issues. In delving more deeply into this topic, it is evident from the recent literature that there are an increasing number of studies on sport participation and also a growing focus on understanding the whys and hows of participation and links to health and well-being (e.g., Mirehie & Gibson, 2020 ). However, more troubling for sport tourism, is that many of these projects have ignored the touristic aspects of participation (e.g., Raggiotto & Scarpi, 2020 ), when we know that the very act of traveling not only contributes to well-being (e.g., Smith & Diekmann, 2017 ) but is part of the reason people take part in these events. So perhaps one pressing issue is that participation in event contexts may not be conceptualized and understood to its full extent without a focus on the touristic components of the experience.

As we reflect back on the original event sport tourism category, where the focus was on the hosting of events and spectators traveling to them, we can see that much research about the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games acted as a catalyst for the expansion of different disciplinary approaches to study sport tourism and events. The work of the Cooperative Research Center for Sustainable Tourism’s Sydney Olympics Tourism Impacts Study is a source of much of the work that we see today on leveraging and flow-on tourism (see Faulkner et al., 2001 ). The application of concepts from marketing and the call to reconceptualize our thinking away from impact to leveraging ( Chalip, 2004 ; Faulkner et al., 2001 ) were significant shifts in the way we think about events, and will be explored in more depth below. Additionally, in a project funded by the Australian Research Council, Green (2001) applied concepts from anthropology and proposed a sociocultural approach to understanding volunteering associated with Sydney 2000, at a time when much of the existing work was focused on volunteer motivation (e.g., Farrell, Johnston, & Twynam, 1998 ). Following the long tradition of focusing on resident responses to tourism, Waitt’s (2003) study on the sociological and social-psychological impacts of hosting the Olympics on Sydney residents reflected not only the growing focus on the social impacts of event hosting that were beginning to emerge at the time but also growing concerns from sociologists and others about the legacy of hosting these sport mega-events (e.g., Cashman, 2003 ; Preuss, 2007 ).

Within research on nostalgia sport tourism, the big issue has always been the legitimacy of this form of sport tourism ( Ramshaw & Gammon, 2005 ; Weed & Bull, 2004 ). The original conception of nostalgia sport tourism emanated out of Redmond’s (1991) work and was used to describe sport-related travel associated with visiting museums, sport halls of fame, stadium tours, and other sport-themed tourism ( Gibson, 1998b ). Fairley (2003) broadened this definition and noted that the nostalgia around sport tourism could be based on social experience rather than event or sport memory. Ramshaw and Gammon (2005) have suggested that nostalgia sport tourism is a form of heritage tourism and should be conceptualized as such. While this debate is not settled, scholars continue to work in this area and produce theoretically informed work pushing the boundaries of our knowledge on nostalgia. One such trend is to move beyond a focus on nostalgia relating to famous stadia or sports halls of fame to consider intangible forms of nostalgia such as the social experiences among longtime fans of a particular team or memories of significant sporting triumphs or losses as social nostalgia ( Fairley, 2003 ; Fairley, Gibson, & Lamont, 2018 ). Several key papers explore the idea that nostalgia is multidimensional, and we can see that, for the participants of these studies, nostalgia is linked to multiple attachments, such as family and identity ( Cho et al., 2014 ; Fairley et al., 2018 ). Indeed, as nostalgia gained prominence in the COVID-19 era, Gammon and Ramshaw (2020) suggested that nostalgia might be a coping mechanism people use to deal with changes in everyday life, such as stay-at-home orders enacted by many countries during spring 2020. Closer still to sport tourism, Weed (2020) mentions nostalgia as one of the key concepts in understanding the effects on and potentially the reshaping of sport and tourism in response to the COVID-19 pandemic.

With much of the contemporary focus on sport tourism residing largely within event contexts, we will devote this part of our chapter to a more in-depth focus on the conceptual approaches that have predominated in the sport-event tourism domain: (1) legacy versus leverage, (2) social impacts and social legacies, and (3) small-scale sport tourism events.

Legacy or Leverage?

Events are believed to provide benefits to destinations; however, research has suggested that these benefits do not occur as a matter of course ( Brown, Chalip, Jago, & Mules, 2002 ; Chalip, 2004 , 2006 ; Chalip & Leyns, 2002 ; O’Brien & Chalip, 2007 ). Economic impact studies provide mixed results ( Gratton, Dobson, & Shibli, 2000 ; Mules, 1998 ). Given the significant public investment in events like the Olympic Games, and rising questions about whether such events actually produce the touted benefits ( Maennig, 2007 ), scholars turned to event legacy. Event legacy focuses on long-term impacts from events ( Preuss, 2007 ). Specifically, Preuss defined legacy as “all planned and unplanned, positive and negative, tangible and intangible structures created for and by a sport event that remain longer than the event itself” (p. 211). Many potential types of legacies have been identified, including infrastructure, knowledge, policy, networks, sport, social capital, and environmental impacts ( Dickson, Benson, & Blackman, 2011 ; Preuss, 2015 ; Swart & Bob, 2012 ). Legacy assessments have been mixed; for example, Swart and Bob listed 33 positive and 39 negative legacies.

The International Olympic Committee included legacy in its charter in 2003, and since then potential host cities must detail a legacy plan in their bid documents ( Leopkey & Parent, 2012 ). Leopkey and Parent noted that while the first mention of legacy was found in the bid documents for the 1956 Melbourne Olympic Games, the 2000s saw a significant increased focus on legacy effects among candidate cities. However, as Chalip and Heere (2013) suggest, host governments and event owners often use a narrative of legacy to legitimate significant public expenditures on sport events with little attention given to measurement and accountability. Indeed, basic questions arise about how and when one should assess whether a legacy has occurred. Further, many questions about who should be held accountable for legacy benefits remain unanswered. Most typically, public funds are spent before and during the event. Most committees formed to host events disband at their conclusion, and the stakeholders in the community responsible for making claims about the impacts and legacies of the events have often moved on to different roles by the time legacy is discussed and examined. As a consequence, legacy is often criticized as being mere rhetoric ( Tomlinson, 2014 ). In contrast, Chalip (2004) advocates for the use of an ex ante approach known as event leveraging, rather than the ex post approach that is legacy. Event leveraging focuses on strategic planning, views the event as the “seed capital,” and asks what a destination can do with an event to generate desired benefits ( O’Brien & Chalip, 2007 ). Chalip (2017 , p. 29) makes a good case that leveraging is of more use than legacy “because it focuses on strategic processes, rather than categories of outcome, and can thereby be applied across disparate contexts.”

Chalip’s (2004) original event leveraging model suggests that destination stakeholders can capitalize on the hosting of an event by strategically planning to capitalize immediate benefits from event visitors and trade, to entice visitor spending, lengthen visitor stays, and enhance business relationships. Further, destinations can use the opportunity to generate long-term benefits by utilizing the event-related media to showcase the destination and enhance its image. The leveraging framework includes identifying a leverageable resource, identifying the opportunities, creating strategic objectives from the opportunity, and developing means to achieve the objectives ( Chalip, 2004 ). Research on event leveraging has highlighted the need to consider culture, attitudes and beliefs, and systems and structures ( Chalip, Green, Taks, & Misener, 2017 ). Constraints and barriers to destinations leveraging events should also be considered; for example, host city contracts that involve commitments to global suppliers may prevent local businesses and tourism organizations from maximizing the value of the event to the local population ( Kelly, Fairley, & O’Brien, 2019 ).

Alternatively, an event portfolio approach, which is itself a leveraging strategy, changes the focus from singular events to a holistic and synergistic view of events at a destination ( Chalip, 2004 ; Getz, 2008 ; Ziakas, 2010 ). Specifically, event portfolios are based on “a series of interrelated events in terms of resources, theming, and markets which are strategically patterned on the basis of their operation and thematic readiness” ( Ziakas, 2014 , p. 329). The event portfolio facilitates the sharing of resources, collaborations, and cross-leveraging opportunities to achieve tourism outcomes ( Ziakas & Costa, 2011 ), while often considering the diversity of events, seasonality, and timing in selecting events ( Clark & Misener, 2015 ; Kelly & Fairley, 2018a ). The portfolio approach provides a balanced approach and opportunities for smaller events that may otherwise be overlooked ( Getz, 2008 ). Some destinations, however, may be dominated by one genre of event, such as sport events, as is the case of the Sunshine Coast, Australia. Benefits from event portfolios are maximized only when strategic leveraging takes place ( Kelly & Fairley, 2018a ). The Sunshine Coast has one of the most recognized examples of this approach. As part of their strategic approach to leveraging their event portfolio, the Sunshine Coast has an established Events Board (with tourism, events, and government organizations represented) and an event strategy that outlines clear strategic goals. Guided by their event strategy, the Events Board provides advice to tourism and government organizations that direct funding for events. Additionally, long-term funding contracts and the provision of human resources to manage each transaction are used to establish long-term relationships between events and the destination.

Social Impacts and Social Legacies

Questions about legacies from sport mega-events generated a related line of research with a focus on social legacies. Chalip’s (2006) treatise on social leveraging and Misener and Mason’s (2006) work on building community networks and social capital were part of a “turning of the tide” from a focus on economic impact to more intangible outcomes from hosting events. The timing on this change of focus occurred when London had been awarded the 2012 Olympic Games and South Africa was getting ready to host the 2010 FIFA World Cup, and conversations were on legacy (for London 2012) and nation-building for South Africa. In the tourism journals, following the resident-impact line of inquiry, a body of knowledge about social impacts had emerged ( Fredline, 2005 ). For example, Gursoy and Kendall (2006) found that hosting mega-events, in this case the 2002 Salt Lake City Winter Olympics, resulted in positive social outcomes such as increased pride, self-esteem, and community spirit. Enhanced pride and community spirit were again identified in South Korea’s hosting of the 2002 FIFA World Cup ( Kim, Gursoy, & Lee, 2006 ). Similarly, Ohmann, Jones and Wilkes (2006) found that Germany’s hosting of the 2006 FIFA World Cup instilled a sense of unity and national pride among its citizenry. Burgan and Mules (1992) had already invoked the concept of “psychic income” to describe this enhanced sense of pride, patriotism, and excitement, as expressed by residents of Brisbane in their hosting of the 1982 Commonwealth Games. Psychic income appeared to explain, at least during the event, why many of the negative impacts associated with hosting were forgotten as residents got caught up in the excitement and euphoria induced by the sporting competition. Similarly, as South Africa was getting ready for FIFA 2010, scholars reflected back on the 1995 Rugby World Cup and how President Nelson Mandela, as depicted in the movie Invictus , tried to establish a sense of collective spirit in the Rainbow Nation through rugby and advanced several treatises on nation-building through the hosting of such mega-events in the South African context (e.g., Labuschagne, 2008 ; Van Der Merwe, 2007 ). However, criticism associated with the 1995 Rugby World Cup pointed out that the collective spirit boost soon faded as the memory of winning the Cup diminished and the long history of challenges in that multiethnic nation was too complex to be solved by a sport event ( Van Der Merwe, 2007 ). Nonetheless, with the impetus shifting to a focus on legacy, in particular among politicians and event owners such as the IOC and FIFA, some scholars shifted their attention to the intangible outcomes of hosting under the umbrella term of “social impacts” or “social legacy” (e.g., Fredline, 2005 ; Minnaert, 2012 ; Prayag, Hosany, Nunkoo, & Alders, 2013 ; Schulenkorf, 2009 ).

This shift away from economic impacts, a focus often described as “disappointing” by residents (e.g., Kim, Gursoy, & Lee, 2006 ), pointed to needs for research to be sensitive to the more complex social and political micro-contexts of many hosting countries. Since the 1990s, sociologists, in particular, had been writing about the breakdown of community and social networks ( Putnam, 1995 ). There were also growing concerns about the increasing sociostructural divide and resulting increases in social inequality and the breakdown of social capital (e.g., Gould & Hijzen, 2016 ). Perhaps it is not surprising that governments started conceptualizing their mega-event hosting strategies in terms of building or rebuilding social cohesion. Waitt (2003) noted this with respect to the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games, and Cornelissen, Bob, and Swart (2011) focused attention on South Africa’s nation-building goals in hosting the 2010 FIFA World Cup. As stated earlier, the idea of building social capital through sport and events had already been raised (e.g., Misener & Mason, 2006 ). Several empirical studies emerged, evaluating the degree to which event hosting was linked to psychic income as the immediate emotional response but also to longer-term outcomes such as social capital (e.g., Gibson et al., 2014 ), building national identity among peoples with different ethnic identities ( Heere et al., 2014 ), happiness ( Hallman, Breuer, & Kuhnreich, 2013 ), and national well-being ( Kavetsos & Szymanski, 2010 ). While the research showed that the psychological response associated with hosting (psychic income) was indeed present, the longer-term goals of building social unity were often not met (e.g., Gibson et al., 2014 ). The missing part of these initiatives appeared to stem from the relative lack of social leveraging that was associated with the pursuit of these longer-term goals ( Chalip, 2006 ).

So while research on the social benefits of event hosting has grown and moved into the realm of sport for development (e.g., Schulenkorf, Thomson, & Schlenker, 2011 ) or has been used to examine volunteer legacies (e.g., Downward & Ralston, 2006 ), critiques over hosting these sport mega-events have escalated, so much so that the pool of potential host cities has considerably declined ( Sidhant, 2020 ). Critique levied at these sport mega-events is nothing new; in the sociology of sport, such a skeptical posture has a long tradition (e.g., Whitson & McIntosh, 1993 ). However, in the work in sport tourism in the late 1990s, some of these concerns became more central to inquiry in the emerging area of study focused on how tourism was associated with hosting these events. Higham (1999) , in a commentary paper, used this tradition of critiquing these mega-events as a point of departure to suggest focusing on another avenue of study in sport tourism events, that of small-scale event tourism.

Small-Scale Sport Tourism Events

As we said, in the late 1990s and early 2000s, as communities began to invest in sport as a tourism development strategy, many of the early studies on these small-scale events were focused on economics ( Daniels & Norman, 2003 ; Turco, 1998 ). The tourism-event funding model at local levels is often based on investing public monies (tourist taxes generated from commercial lodging) into tourist ventures (e.g., hosting small-scale sport events) that generate economic activity for the community (i.e., return on investment). It is common for these event organizers to track hotel room nights and expenditure data from local businesses to demonstrate that these public monies have been used effectively. However, when leveraging strategies use grants to entice event managers to adopt a strategy designed to generate tourism, it may result in “mission drift” by shifting the event managers’ attention from their core purpose of staging the event ( Kelly & Fairley, 2018b ). When the focus of event managers shifts to tourism, they spend less time on the staging of their own event, leading to a product of lesser quality.

At the level of small-scale events in those early days, sports commissions, convention and visitors bureaus, as well as parks and recreation departments were encouraged to host sport events that would attract visitor spending from outside the community while making use of existing facilities and leveraging existing sport events ( Daniels & Norman, 2003 ; Higham, 1999 ). In the United States, calls were made to recognize the tourism value of college sports ( Gibson, Willming, & Holdnak, 2003 ); in New Zealand, Super 12 rugby was positioned as a way of counteracting seasonality in tourism ( Higham & Hinch, 2002 ); and motor sports were used to diversify tourism on the Gold Coast in Australia (e.g., Fredline & Faulkner, 1998 ). While each of these initiatives focused upon economic impacts, they also measured social impacts, such as the effects of event hosting on local communities ( Fredline, 2005 ) and understanding how sport tourists might be encouraged to engage in non-sport-related activities while visiting a destination, known as flow-on tourism ( Gibson et al., 2003 ).

By about 2010, hosting small-scale sport events for many communities had become a major part of their tourism strategies. Indeed, Gibson, Kaplanidou, and Kang (2012) argued that, for communities with sport facilities and a sport-centric culture, small-scale event sport tourism was a form of sustainable tourism development. We also saw a shift at this time in how event sport tourism was being conceptualized. Contrary to the earlier focus on spectators, the growth in travel for participatory sport events was a noticeable development ( Kaplanidou & Gibson, 2010 ). As we noted earlier, this gave rise to a line of research on sport-event participation experiences (e.g., Lamont et al., 2012 ; Shipway & Jones, 2007 ). Another development occurred at the community level as more communities recognized the economic potential associated with hosting small-scale sport events, particularly those featuring youth sport.

In 2019, it is estimated that sport tourists spent US $45.1 billion, including expenditures by venues and event organizers ( Sports ETA, 2019 ). Also in 2019, Wintergreen Research, Inc. reported that youth sport travel spending alone was estimated at U.S.$15 billion per year. In the meantime, some communities had invested heavily in new facilities to host these sport events, using both public monies as well as commercial investment. This resulted in a proliferation of “mega-complexes,” where sports facilities are combined with hotels and other guest services that specifically target traveling youth sport families ( Drape, 2018 ). While the youth sport industry understands the economic significance of this form of small-scale sport tourism and the local sports commissions and other agencies involved in hosting recognize that tourism is economically beneficial to their communities (a fact that was made abundantly clear when the COVID-19 pandemic interrupted these contests [ Drape & Chen, 2020 ]), there has been little interest from academics on examining the tourism associated with youth sport for these families ( Garst, Gagnon, & Stone, 2019 ; Mirehie, Gibson, Kang, & Bell, 2019 ; Scott & Turco, 2007 ). Taks, Chalip, Green, Kesenne, and Martyn (2009) examined the flow-on tourism behaviors that take place as a result of some of the bigger youth sport tournaments. Still, the majority of research on youth sport participation has largely omitted consideration of tourism impacts. Indeed, costs associated with mandated travel have increased the time, money, and resources needed to participate in youth sport, disproportionally affecting those who lack the finances to participate (e.g., Knight & Holt, 2013 ).

Despite some of the growing concerns over the “big money” in youth sport, we still suggest that small-scale sport events have more positive potential for both communities and participants. As Higham (1999) suggested over 20 years ago, such events can bypass many of the negatives associated with hosting sport mega-events. Not surprisingly, research on sport-event participation has grown in tandem with more communities finding benefits in hosting participatory sport events. However, as noted, when considering active sport tourism, the focus on participation has come with reduced focus on understanding the touristic nature of small-scale sport events (e.g., Raggiotto & Scarpi, 2020 ). Further, returning to our earlier discussion on leveraging, Kennelly (2017) finds few event organizers understand how to effectively leverage their events to maximize both tourism benefits and participation experience. Much remains for future inquiry into this dynamic.

Our narrative shows that, over 20 years after study on the topic began, there is a body of theoretically informed work on various aspects of sport tourism, some of which has been accomplished in partnership with relevant agencies. However, the biggest debate today appears to be over the continued relevance of sport tourism in Western academic communities, particularly in light of the ascendance of event management in relation to both tourism management and sport management. Where is the focus on tourism in much of the contemporary research on events in general, and sport events in particular? We even have diverging opinions on this ourselves. It may be that our assessments stem from our different geographical contexts. While Australia is a more strategic leader in cohesive planning of sport events and event tourism, in the United States the importance of tourism in events varies widely depending on whom you are talking to, and event management and planning is largely dispersed among small independent agencies. In Australia, tourism and events often sit together within one organization; for example, Tourism and Events Queensland is a state statutory body in charge of events and tourism in Queensland.

One notable development since the mid- to late 1990s, when we saw the first coalescence around sport tourism, has been the rising prominence of events, both as an industry sector and an academic area of study. As a field, events and event management is claimed by hospitality, tourism, sport management, recreation, and event management in and of itself. The discipline housing degree programs or the events sector you work in will shape how you view tourism’s role in events. Not surprisingly, tourism academics tend to think of events as “just tourism.” Often they cannot understand why, over the past 10 years in university settings, students have been gravitating to event management degrees in such numbers that concerns have grown over the decrease in student enrollment in tourism programs. In fact, many of these event management students have no interest in tourism, as they do not see it as relevant to their future jobs as event planners.

In sport management degree programs, where there has been an appreciation of sport tourism for over 20 years, we have also seen a move away from the tourism aspects of sport events. Thus, while sport event management has grown in emphasis, both as an academic degree component and an area of research, we risk losing tourism, and by extension sport tourism, as an area of academic focus in parts of the world that were first associated with this area of study. A significant exception is continued growing interest in sport tourism from governments and scholars in the East, most notably in Asia. However, while it is encouraging to see scholars from a broader range of countries focusing on sport tourism, some of the earlier critiques about overly descriptive and atheoretical work remain. We hope, as was the case with our work in the late 1990s, that this turn of interest will fuel a new phase of research. There is promise for new ideas and approaches that can push the boundaries of our understanding about sport tourism in these countries, rather than emulating studies published in Western contexts over the past 20 years. Of course, we hope that this emergent stimulus of interest will be helpful in reframing and bringing culture-specific considerations more forward on the research agenda.

Another resilient area of debate surrounds the notion of leveraging, and the extent to which both academics and practitioners understand what it entails. As Kennelly (2017) found in her study of participatory events in the United Kingdom, few event organizers understood the need to leverage their events. This mirrors Chalip and Leyns’s (2002) conclusion almost 20 years ago in their studies about leveraging sport events on the Gold Coast in Australia. As journal reviewers and editors, we know that it is not uncommon to see manuscripts that claim to have a focus on leveraging, but in reality the focus remains on questions of impact rather than on how event-related actors devise and implement strategies to leverage outcomes from an event.

A new twist in discussions of sport mega-events that lead us to the legacy and leveraging debate is concern over the costs and resources devoted to hosting these events. In particular, there is growing concern that countries from the developing world are bidding for and hosting large-scale events; some observers suggest that it is irresponsible to burden such countries (or any country) with unnecessary debts given unrealistic expectations of benefits ( Dowse & Fletcher, 2018 ). Indeed, these bids are often motivated by unproven claims about economic benefits ( Whitson & Horne, 2006 ), with limited mention that the major beneficiaries of such events are most typically the elites, while everyday taxpayers are left with sometimes considerable burdens (e.g., Tomlinson, 2014 ).

The COVID-19 pandemic has had a considerable impact on sport, tourism, and sport tourism. The Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games have been postponed, and many other international and domestic sport events have been postponed or canceled. Just how sport tourism will recover remains unknown. Some professional sports have received special dispensation from governments to continue play despite state and national restrictions on social distancing and travel. For example, the National Rugby League and the Australian Football League have resumed playing in Australia, with some teams being forced to relocate to another state in order to continue playing, and strict protocols around social contact with others. Likewise, in the United States, the National Basketball Association has created a “bubble” at the ESPN Disney Wide World of Sports to finish a season that was interrupted by the sudden stay-at-home orders in spring 2020.

In tourism, the economic fallout from the pandemic has been particularly acute, as many countries have created tourism-centric economies since the previous global disruptions on tourism flows in the early to mid-2000s. Since 2014, international tourism had resumed exponential growth each year and in some parts of the world had reached a crisis point of too many visitors, a condition referred to as “overtourism” ( Weber, 2017 ). The almost complete shutdown of international tourism in April and May 2020 showed residents of these tourism-receiving communities what local life is like without hordes of visitors ( Haywood, 2020 ). Some have suggested that tourism in these communities could be reenvisioned ( Haywood, 2020 ), although the economic realities of having little to no tourism have also become apparent. Will the economic imperatives win out?

Similar discussions have been occurring in the youth sport world, led by the Aspen Institute’s (2015) Project Play ( Farrey, 2020 ). Without organized sport, physical activity during the early days of the pandemic-related lockdowns increased in outdoor venues such as parks and empty streets, and people of all ages rediscovered cycling and walking ( Ding, del Pozo Cruz, & Green, 2020 ; Venter, Barton, Gundersen, Figari, & Nowell, 2020 ). The number of youth in organized sport has been declining over the past decade (e.g., Aspen Institute, 2015 ); will the pandemic exacerbate this downward trend? Many U.S. youth sport tournaments were held despite public health concerns ( Allentuck, 2020 ).

In bringing this chapter to a close, it is time to think about the future of inquiry of sport tourism by reflecting on our dual critiques of early work in sport tourism for being too focused on economics and for being too often atheoretical. First, we should make clear that we still believe there is a role for economic-focused work. In the post-COVID-19 era, using a cost-benefit analysis to examine the economic returns from sport tourism initiatives for communities will be imperative ( Mules & Dwyer, 2005 ). For associated industries and communities, accurate estimates of economic impact will be needed to guide policy and engender support from government and residents alike. However, one lesson from research on sport events over the past 20 years is that economic benefit cannot be assumed. This is most particularly the case for the larger events involving major infrastructure development and the multilevel disruption of life for host communities.

As our discussion in this chapter has shown, there has been a two-pronged approach, centered on legacy and leveraging, to event-related research. While our knowledge had advanced in these two areas, Chalip and Fairley (2019) argued in the introduction to their special issue of the Journal of Sport & Tourism that there is still a need for a strategic approach to leveraging. Understanding the principles of leveraging and building partnerships remains limited as event organizers are understandably preoccupied with planning and executing the event itself. Thus, going forward, we suggest that there is still much work to be done in untangling the principles of leveraging and how best to apply them in sport tourism and event management. If we are to continue to stage sport mega-events in the face of increased opposition from potential host cities, a shift from legacy to leveraging is warranted. Citizens deserve accountability and return on investment from their backing of these events. The need to revisit the ethics of hosting is in line with the growing call for attention to sustainability in sport and tourism generally, and in event hosting in particular.

This returns us to a discussion about the size and scale of events for communities. Proponents of small-scale events have demonstrated that while they are not perfect, their strategic use offers the prospect of a balanced event portfolio ( Ziakas, 2014 ), whereby communities can host events that complement their image as a destination ( Chalip & Leyns, 2002 ) and use existing facilities and infrastructure ( Gibson et al., 2012 ). Such strategies may offer the best way forward for many communities.

In the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic, some of the first events communities returned to were for youth. Because of this, the larger events industry has come to recognize that the pandemic has opened the door to the need to think differently about events and how they might be staged. For example, eSports, one of the new genres in the sport industry before the pandemic, held in-person competitions with live audiences. During the pandemic, the integration of new technologies into people’s lives during spring/summer 2020 has raised questions about the changing expectations of hosting and attending events. For example, does the next eSports event need to be held in person at a convention center, or can it be held virtually?

On another technology-driven front, the integration of AI generally in tourism has gathered speed during the pandemic. While we are not suggesting that in-person participation in sports (for spectators and athletes) or traveling will disappear, accepted ways of doing things changed drastically in January 2020. As in the work of Project Play ( Farrey, 2020 ) and in youth sport after COVID-19, the wider tourism and events industries have also been reenvisioning the future (e.g., UN World Tourism Organization, 2020 ).

While we do not envision that people will stop traveling, attending sport events, and participating in sport tourism in person, we have seen glimpses of new ways of participation, such as virtual marathons. However, we have also seen more people cycling and (re)discovering participating in physical activities outside ( Venter et al., 2020 ). To what extent will this continue and reshape the sport tourism opportunities that are offered? Over the past few years, the IOC has sanctioned the inclusion of skateboarding, sport climbing, and surfing in the Olympic Games as a way of reaching the younger generations, some of whom have turned away from traditional (Olympic) sports ( Farrey, 2020 ). At the recreational level, the growing popularity of ultramarathons, adventure racing, and mud runs and the rise in interest in cycling and running may continue to reshape sport tourism offerings as more people seek to compete and socialize with other participants in greater numbers. It is possible that as some of those individuals who became engaged in physical activity during the pandemic enter higher levels of commitment, they may be encouraged to seek participation in sport tourism opportunities (e.g., Buning & Gibson, 2015 ; Getz & McConnell, 2011 ).

We think there has definitely been some progress in the theoretical development of work in sport tourism, both deductively and inductively. Here, new theoretical suppositions have been proposed, such as the event travel career ( Getz, 2008 ), and there has been some refinement advanced through grounded theory applications, such as the active sport event travel career ( Buning & Gibson, 2015 ). Further, we have seen promising refined approaches to leveraging in small-scale sport settings ( Kelly & Fairley, 2018b ; Kelly et al., 2019 ) and explorations of the multidimensional nature of nostalgia ( Cho et al., 2014 ) in sport tourism. However, as Chalip and Fairley (2019 , p. 157) note about the tendency for a focus on sport events beginning to dominate the sport tourism knowledge base, “Although we have learned a great deal in recent years about ways to enhance the policy utility of sport events, the field remains undertheorized and overly general.” We concur, but we also revert to an essential question we raised earlier: Will research on sport events continue to subsume sport tourism, or will sport event researchers rediscover the integral role that tourism plays in these events, both on the demand and supply sides of event experiences?

Aicher, T. , Buning, R. , & Newland, B. ( 2021 ). Running through travel career progression: Social worlds and active sport tourism.   Journal of Sport Management , 27 (1), 32–44 https://doi.org/10.1177/1356766720948249 .

Google Scholar

Allentuck, D. (2020, May 12). A big youth baseball tournament was played in Missouri. Was it too soon? New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/12/sports/baseball/coronavirus-youth-baseball-tournament-missouri.html .

Aspen Institute. (2015). Project Play: Facts: Sports activity and children. http://www.aspenprojectplay.org/the-facts .

Bordelon, L. , & Ferreira, S. ( 2019 ). Mountain biking is for (white, wealthy, middle-aged) men: The Cape Epic mountain bike race.   Journal of Sport & Tourism, 23, 41–59.

Brown, G. , Chalip, L. , Jago, L. , & Mules, T. ( 2002 ). The Sydney Olympics and Brand Australia. In N. Morgan , A. Pritchard , & R. Pride (Eds.), Destination branding: Creating the unique destination proposition (pp. 163–185). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Google Preview

Buning, R. , & Gibson, H. ( 2015 ). The evolution of active sport event travel careers.   Journal of Sport Management , 29 , 555–564.

Burgan, B. , & Mules, T. ( 1992 ). Economic impact of sporting events.   Annals of Tourism Research, 19, 700–710.

Cashman, R. ( 2003 ). What is “Olympic legacy”? In M. Moragas , C. Kennett , & N. Puig (Eds.), The legacy of the Olympic Games 1984–2000: International Symposium Lausanne, 14th, 15th and 16th November 2002 (pp. 31–42). Lausanne: International Olympic Committee.

Chalip, L. ( 2004 ). Beyond economic impact: A general model for sport event leverage. In B. Ritchie & D. Adair (Eds.), Sport tourism: Interrelationships, impacts and issues (pp. 226–252). Clevedon, U.K.: Channel View Publications.

Chalip, L. ( 2006 ). Towards social leverage of sport events.   Journal of Sport & Tourism, 11(2), 109–127.

Chalip, L. , & Fairley, S. ( 2019 ). Thinking strategically about sport events.   Journal of Sport & Tourism , 23 (4), 155–158.

Chalip, L. , & Green, B. C. (2001). Leveraging large sports events for tourism: Lessons learned from the Sydney Olympics. Supplemental proceedings of the Travel and Tourism Research Association 32nd Annual Conference, Fort Myers, FL, June 10–13.

Chalip, L. , Green, B. C. , Taks, M. , & Misener, L. ( 2017 ). Creating sport participation from sport events: Making it happen.   International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics , 9 (2), 257–276.

Chalip, L. , & Heere, B. ( 2013 ). Leveraging sport events: Fundamentals and application to bids. In I. Henry , & L.-M. Ko (Eds.), Routledge handbook of sport policy (pp. 209–220). London: Routledge.

Chalip, L. , & Leyns, A. ( 2002 ). Local business leveraging of a sport event: Managing an event for economic benefit.   Journal of Sport Management, 16, 132–158.

Cho, H. , Ramshaw, G. , & Norman, W. ( 2014 ). A conceptual model of nostalgia in the context of sport tourism: Reclassifying the sporting past.   Journal of Sport & Tourism , 19 (2), 145–168.

Clark, R. , & Misener, L. ( 2015 ). Understanding urban development through a sport events portfolio: A case study of London, Ontario.   Journal of Sport Management, 29, 11–26.

Cornelissen, S. , Bob, U. , & Swart, K. ( 2011 ). Sport mega-events and their legacies: The 2010 FIFA World Cup.   Development Southern Africa , 28 (3), 305–306.

Daniels, M. , & Norman, W. ( 2003 ). Estimating the economic impacts of seven regular sport tourism events.   Journal of Sport Tourism, 8(4), 214–222.

Dickson, T. J. , Benson, A. M. , & Blackman, D. A. ( 2011 ). Developing a framework for evaluating Olympic and Paralympic legacies.   Journal of Sport & Tourism, 16, 285–302.

Ding, D. , del Pozo Cruz, B. , & Green, M. ( 2020 ). Is the Covid-19 lockdown nudging people to be more active: Big data analysis.   British Medical Journal Sports Med . Advance online publication. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2020-102575.

Dong, E. (Ed.). ( 2020 ). Sport tourism development: Foundation and cases . Beijing: China Science Publishing.

Downward, P. , & Ralston, R. ( 2006 ). The sports development potential of sports event volunteering: Insights from the XVII Manchester Commonwealth Games.   European Sport Management Quarterly, 6, 333–351.

Dowse, S. , & Fletcher, T. ( 2018 ). Sport mega-events, the “non-West” and the ethics of event hosting.   Sport and Society , 21 (5), 745–761.

Drape, J. (2018, September 12). The youth sports megacomplex comes to town, hoping teams will follow. New York Times . https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/12/sports/youth-sports-costs.html .

Drape, J. , & Chen, D. (2020, March 16 ). Tears and disbelief as coronavirus cancels youth sports. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/16/sports/coronavirus-canceled-youth-sports.html .

Fairley, S. ( 2003 ). In search of relived social experience: Group-based nostalgia sport tourism.   Journal of Sport Management, 17, 284–304.

Fairley, S. , Gibson, H. , & Lamont, M. ( 2018 ). Temporal manifestations of nostalgia: Le Tour de France.   Annals of Tourism Research, 70, 120–130.

Farrell, J. , Johnston, M. , & Twynam, D. ( 1998 ). Volunteer motivation, satisfaction and management at elite sporting competition.   Journal of Sport Management, 12, 288–300.

Farrey, T. (2020, June 1). How can sports help build America? Aspen Institute. https://www.aspeninstitute.org/blog-posts/how-sports-can-help-rebuild-america/ .

Faulkner, B.   Chalip, L. , Brown, G. , Jago, L. , March, R. , & Woodside, A. ( 2001 ). Monitoring the tourism impacts of the Sydney 2000 Olympics.   Event Management, 6, 231–246.

Fendt, L. , & Wilson, E. ( 2012 ). “ I just push through the barriers because I live for surfing”: How women negotiate their constraints to surf tourism.   Annals of Leisure Research , 15 (1), 4–18.

Forscher, B. ( 1963 ). Chaos in the brickyard.   Science, 142 (3590), 339.

Fredline, E. ( 2005 ). Host and guest relations and sport tourism.   Sport in Society, 8(2), 263–279.

Fredline, E. , & Faulkner, B. ( 1998 ). Resident reactions to a major tourist event: The Gold Coast Indy Car Race.   Festival Management and Event Tourism, 5, 185–205.

Gammon, S. , & Kurtzman, J. (Eds.). ( 2002 ). Sport tourism: Principles and practice . Eastbourne, U.K.: LSA Publications.

Gammon, S. , & Ramshaw, G. ( 2020 ). Distancing from the present nostalgia and leisure in lockdown.   Leisure Sciences , 43 (1–2), 131–137. doi: 10.1080/01490400.2020.1773993

Garst, B. , Gagnon, R. , & Stone, G. ( 2019 ). “ The credit card or the taxi”: A qualitative investigation of parent involvement in indoor competition climbing.   Leisure Sciences , 42 (5–6), 589–608. https://doi.org/10.1080/01490400.2019.1646172 .

Getz, D. ( 1998 ). Trends, strategies and issues in sport-event tourism.   Sport Marketing Quarterly, 7, 8–13.

Getz, D. ( 2008 ). Event tourism: Definition, evolution, and research.   Tourism Management, 29, 403–428.

Getz, D. , & Anderson, T. D. ( 2010 ). The event-tourist career trajectory: A study of high-involvement amateur distance runners.   Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism , 10 (4), 468–491.

Getz, D. , & McConnell, A. ( 2011 ). Serious sport tourism and event travel careers.   Journal of Sport Management, 25, 326–338.

Gibson, H. ( 1998 a). Active sport tourism: Who participates?   Leisure Studies , 17 (2), 155–170.

Gibson, H. ( 1998 b). Sport tourism: A critical analysis of research.   Sport Management Review, 1, 45–76.

Gibson, H. ( 2004 ). Moving beyond the “what is and who” of sport tourism and understanding “why. ” Journal of Sport Tourism , 9 (3), 247–265.

Gibson, H. (Ed.). ( 2006 ). Sport tourism: Concepts and theories . London: Routledge.

Gibson, H. ( 2017 ). Commentary: Sport tourism and theory and some other developments: Some reflections.   Journal of Sport & Tourism , 21 (2), 153–158.

Gibson, H. , & Chang, S. , ( 2012 ). Cycling in mid and later life: Involvement and benefits sought from a bicycle tour.   Journal of Leisure Research , 44 (1), 23–49.

Gibson, H. , Kaplanidou, K. , & Kang, S. J. , ( 2012 ). Small-scale event sport tourism: A case study in sustainable tourism.   Sport Management Review, 15, 160–170.

Gibson, H. , Lamont, M. , Kennelly, M. , & Buning, R. ( 2018 ). Introduction to the special issue Active Sport Tourism.   Journal of Sport & Tourism , 22 (2), 83–91.

Gibson, H. , & Mirehie, M. ( 2018 ). Sport tourism and feminism. In L. Mansfield , J. Caudwell , B. Wheaton , & R. Watson (Eds.), The Palgrave handbook of feminisms in sport, leisure and physical education (pp. 681–697). London: Palgrave Macmillan.

Gibson, H. , Walker, M. , Thapa, B. , Kaplanidou, K. , Geldenhuys, S. , & Coetzee, W. ( 2014 ). Psychic income and social capital among host nation residents: A pre-post analysis of the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa.   Tourism Management, 44, 113–122.

Gibson, H. , Willming, C. , & Holdnak, A. ( 2003 ). Small-scale event sport tourism: Fans as tourists.   Tourism Management, 24, 181–190.

Gould, D. , & Hijzen, A. (2016, August 16). Growing apart, losing trust? The impact of inequality on social capital. IMF Working Papers. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WP/Issues/2016/12/31/Growing-Apart-Losing-Trust-The-Impact-of-Inequality-on-Social-Capital-44197 .

Gratton, C. , Dobson, N. , & Shibli, S. ( 2000 ). The economic importance of major sports events: A case study of six events.   Managing Leisure, 5, 17–28.

Green, B. C. ( 2001 ). Leveraging subculture and identity to promote sport events.   Sport Management Review, 4, 1–19.

Gursoy, D. , & Kendall, K. ( 2006 ). Hosting mega events: Modeling locals’ support.   Annals of Tourism Research, 33, 603–623.

Hallman, K. , Breuer, C. , & Kuhnreich, B. ( 2013 ). Happiness, pride and elite sporting success: What population segments gain most from national athletic achievements?   Sport Management Review, 16, 226–235.

Haywood, K. M. ( 2020 ). A post COVID-19 future—tourism re-imagined and re-enabled.   Tourism Geographies, 22, 599–609.

Heere, B. , Walker, M. , Gibson, H. , Thapa, B. , Geldenhuys, S. , & Coetzee, W. ( 2014 ). Questioning the validity of race as a social construct: An examination of race and ethnicity in the “Rainbow Nation. ” African Social Science Review , 7 (1), 24–43.

Higham, J. ( 1999 ). Commentary: Sport as an avenue of tourism development: An analysis of the positive and negative impacts of sport tourism.   Current Issues in Tourism, 2, 82–90.

Higham, J. , & Hinch, T. ( 2002 ). Tourism, sport and seasons: The challenges and potential of overcoming seasonality in the sport and tourism sectors.   Tourism Management, 23, 175–185.

Hinch, T. , & Higham, J. ( 2001 ). Sport tourism: A framework for research.   International Journal of Tourism Research, 3, 45–58.

Hinch, T. , Higham, J. , & Moyle, B. ( 2016 ). Sport tourism and sustainable destinations: Foundations and pathways.   Journal of Sport & Tourism , 20 (3–4) 163–173.

Hinch, T. , & Ito, E. ( 2018 ). Sustainable sport tourism in Japan.   Tourism Planning & Development, 15, 96–101.

Hudson, S. ( 2000 ). The segmentation of potential tourists: Constraint differences between men and women.   Journal of Travel Research , 38 , 363–368.

Kaplanidou, K. , & Gibson, H. ( 2010 ). Predicting behavioral intentions of active event sport tourists: The case of a small-scale recurring sports event.   Journal of Sport & Tourism, 15, 163–179.

Kaplanidou, K. , & Vogt, C. ( 2007 ). The interrelationship between sport event and destination image and sport tourists’ behaviors.   Journal of Sport & Tourism , 12 (3–4), 183–206.

Kavetsos, G. , & Szymanski, S. ( 2010 ). National well-being and international sports events.   Journal of Economic Psychology, 31(2), 158–171.

Kelly, D. , & Fairley, S. ( 2018 a). The utility of relationships in the creation and maintenance of an event portfolio.   Marketing Intelligence & Planning , 36 (2), 260–275.

Kelly, D. , & Fairley, S. ( 2018 b). What about the event? How do tourism leveraging strategies affect small-scale events?   Tourism Management , 64 , 335–345.

Kelly, D. , Fairley, S. , & O’Brien, D. ( 2019 ). It was never ours: Formalised event hosting rights and leverage.   Tourism Management, 73, 123–133.

Kennelly, M. ( 2017 ). “ We’ve never measured it, but it brings in a lot of business”: Participatory sport events and tourism.   International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management , 29 , 883–899.

Kim, H. , Gursoy, D. , & Lee, S. ( 2006 ). The impact of the 2002 World Cup on South Korea: Comparisons of pre and post games.   Tourism Management, 27, 86–96.

Knight, C. J. , & Holt, N. L. ( 2013 ). Strategies used and assistance required to facilitate children’s involvement in tennis: Parents’ perspectives.   Sport Psychologist , 27 , 281–291.

Labuschagne, P. ( 2008 ). The impact of sport on nation building: A critical analysis of South Africa and the 2010 FIFA World Cup.   Africa Insight, 38(3), 3–14

Lamont, M. , Kennelly, M. , & Wilson, E. ( 2012 ). Competing priorities in constraints in event travel careers.   Tourism Management, 33, 1068–1079.

Leopkey, B. , & Parent, M. M. ( 2012 ). Olympic Games legacy: From general benefits to sustainable long-term legacy.   International Journal of the History of Sport, 29, 924–943.

Maennig, W. ( 2007 ). One year later: A reappraisal of the economics of the 2006 Soccer World Cup.   Hamburg Contemporary Economic Discussions , 10 , 1–18. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1520530

McGehee, N. , Yoon, Y. , & Cardenas, D. , ( 2003 ). Involvement and travel for recreational runners in North Carolina.   Journal of Sport Management, 17, 305–324.

Minnaert, L. ( 2012 ). An Olympic legacy for all? The non-infrastructural outcomes of the Olympic Games for socially excluded groups (Atlanta 1996–Beijing 2008).   Tourism Management, 33, 361–370.

Mirehie, M. , & Gibson, H. ( 2020 ). The relationship between female snow-sport tourists’ travel behaviors and well-being.   Tourism Management Perspectives , 33 (1), 1000613.

Mirehie, M. , Gibson, H. , Kang, S. J. , & Bell, H. ( 2019 ). Parental insights from three elite-level youth sports: Implications for family life.   World Leisure Journa l, 61 (2), 98–112.

Misener, L. , & Mason, D. ( 2006 ). Creating community networks: Can sporting events offer meaningful sources of social capital?   Managing Leisure, 11, 39–56.

Mules, T. ( 1998 ). Taxpayer subsidies for major sport events.   Sport Management Review , 1 (1), 25–43.

Mules, T. , & Dwyer, L. ( 2005 ). Public sector support for sport tourism events: The role of cost-benefit analysis.   Sport in Society, 8, 338–355.

O’Brien, D. , & Chalip, L. ( 2007 ). 19 sport events and strategic leveraging: Pushing towards the triple bottom line. In A. G. Woodside & D. Martin (Eds.), Tourism management: Analysis, behaviour, and strategy (pp. 318–338). Wallingford, U.K.: CAB International.

Ohmann, S. , Jones, I. , & Wilkes, K. ( 2006 ). The perceived social impacts of the 2006 football World Cup on Munich residents.   Journal of Sport & Tourism, 11(2), 129–152.

Pearce, P. L. ( 1988 ). The Ulysses factor: Evaluating visitors in tourist settings . New York: Springer-Verlag.

Prayag, G. , Hosany, S. , Nunkoo, R. , & Alders, T. ( 2013 ). London residents’ support for the 2012 Olympic Games: The mediating effect of overall attitude.   Tourism Management, 36, 629–640.

Preuss, H. ( 2007 ). The conceptualization and measurement of mega sport event legacies.   Journal of Sport & Tourism, 12(3–4), 207–228.

Preuss, H. ( 2015 ). A framework for identifying the legacies of a mega sport event.   Leisure Studies , 34 (6), 643–664.

Putnam, R. ( 1995 ). Bowling alone: America’s declining social capital.   Journal of Democracy, 6, 65–78.

Raggiotto, F. , & Scarpi, D. ( 2020 ). Living on the edge: Psychological drivers of athletes’ intention to re-patronage extreme sporting events.   Sport Management Review, 23, 229–241.

Ramshaw, G. ( 2020 ). Heritage and sport: An introduction . Summit, PA: Channel View Publications.

Ramshaw, G. , & Gammon, S. ( 2005 ). More than just nostalgia? Exploring the heritage/sport tourism nexus.   Journal of Sport Tourism, 10(4), 229–241.

Redmond, G. ( 1991 ). Changing styles of sports tourism: Industry/consumer interactions in Canada, the USA and Europe. In M. Sinclair & M. Stabler (Eds.), The tourism industry: An international analysis (pp. 107–120). Wallingford, U.K.: CAB International.

Ryan, C. , & Lockyer, T. ( 2002 ). Masters’ games involvement—the nature of competitors’ involvement and requirements.   Event Management, 7, 259–270.

Schulenkorf, N. ( 2009 ). An ex ante framework for the strategic study of social utility of sport events.   Tourism and Hospitality Research, 9, 120–131.

Schulenkorf, N. , Thomson, A. , & Schlenker, K. ( 2011 ). Intercommunity sport events: Vehicles and catalysts for social capital in divided societies.   Event Management, 15, 105–119.

Schumacher, D. G. (2015). National Association of Sports Commission’s report on the sports travel industry. https://www.sportscommissions.org/Portals/sportscommissions/Documents/About/NASC%20Sport%20Tourism%20Industry%20Report.pdf

Scott, A. K. , & Turco, D. ( 2007 ). VFRs as a segment of the sport event tourist market.   Journal of Sport Tourism , 12 (1), 41–52.

Shipway, R. , & Jones, I. ( 2007 ). Running away from home: Understanding visitor experiences and behaviour at sport tourism events.   International Journal of Tourism Research, 9, 373–383.

Sidhant, W. ( 2020 ). Exorbitant costs and minimal benefits: The impacts of hosting the Olympics.   Chicago Policy Review.   https://chicagopolicyreview.org/2020/05/06/exorbitant-costs-and-minimal-benefits-the-impact-of-hosting-the-olympics/ .

Smith, M. , & Diekmann, A. ( 2017 ). Tourism and wellbeing.   Annals of Tourism Research, 66, 1–13.

Sports ETA. (2019). Sports tourism: State of the industry report (2019). https://www.sportseta.org/research/state-of-the-industry-report

Stebbins, R. ( 1982 ). Serious leisure: A conceptual statement.   Pacific Sociological Review , 25 (2), 251–272.

Swart, K. , & Bob, U. ( 2012 ). Mega sport event legacies and the 2010 FIFA World Cup.   African Journal for Physical Health Education, Recreation and Dance , 18 (Suppl. 2), 1–11.

Taks, M. , Chalip, C. , Green, C. , Kesenne, S. , & Martyn, S. ( 2009 ). Factors affecting repeat visitation and flow-on tourism as sources of event strategy sustainability.   Journal of Sport & Tourism, 14(2–3), 121–142.

Tomlinson, A. ( 2014 ). Olympic legacies: Recurrent rhetoric and harsh realities.   Contemporary Social Science , 9 , 137–158,

Turco, D. ( 1998 ). Travelling and turnovers measuring the economic impacts of a street basketball tournament,   Journal of Sport Tourism , 5 (1), 7–14.

Unruh, D. R. ( 1979 ). Characteristics and types of participation in social worlds.   Symbolic Interaction , 2 (2), 115–130.

UN World Tourism Organization. (2020, May 28). Global guidelines to restart tourism. https://www.unwto.org/news/unwto-launches-global-guidelines-to-restart-tourism .

Van Der Merwe, J. ( 2007 ). Political analysis of South Africa’s hosting of the Rugby and Cricket World Cups: Lessons for the 2010 Football World Cup and beyond?   Politikon , 34 , 67–81.

Venter, Z. , Barton, D. , Gundersen, V. , Figari, H. , & Nowell, M. ( 2020 ). Urban nature in a time of crisis: Recreational use of green space increases during the Covid-19 outbreak in Oslo, Norway.   Environmental Research Letter . https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abb396 .

Waitt, G. ( 2003 ). Social impacts of the Sydney Olympics.   Annals of Tourism Research, 30, 194–215.

Whitson, D. , & Horne, J. ( 2006 ). The Glocal Politics of Sports Mega-Events: Underestimated costs and overestimated benefits? Comparing the outcomes of sports mega-events in Canada and Japan.   The Sociological Review , 54, 71–89.

Weber, F. ( 2017 ). Tourism destinations under pressure: Challenges and innovative solutions . Lucerne: Lucerne University of Applied Sciences and Arts.

Weed, M. ( 2006 ). Sports tourism research 2000–2004: A systematic review of knowledge and a meta-evaluation of methods.   Journal of Sport & Tourism , 11 (1), 5–30.

Weed, M. ( 2020 ). The role of the interface of sport and tourism in the response to the COVID-19 pandemic.   Journal of Sport & Tourism . doi:10.1080/14775085.2020.1794351.

Weed, M. E. , & Bull, C. J. ( 2004 ). Sports tourism: Participants, policy and providers . Oxford: Elsevier.

Whitson, D. , & McIntosh, D. ( 1993 ). Becoming a world-class city: Hallmark events and sport franchises.   Sociology of Sport Journal, 10, 221–240.

Williams, P. , & Fidgeon, P. R. ( 2000 ). Addressing participation constraint: A case study of potential skiers.   Tourism Management, 21, 379–393.

Wintergreen Research, Inc. (2019). Youth team, league, and tournament sports: Market shares, strategies, and forecasts, worldwide, 2019 to 2026. https://www.wintergreenresearch.com/ .

Ziakas, V. ( 2010 ). Understanding an event portfolio: The uncovering of interrelationships, synergies, and leveraging opportunities.   Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure & Events, 2(2), 144–164.

Ziakas, V. ( 2014 ). Planning and leveraging event portfolios: Towards a holistic theory.   Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management , 23 (3), 327–356.

Ziakas, V. , & Costa, C. ( 2011 ). Event portfolios and multi-purpose development: Establishing the conceptual grounds.   Sport Management Review, 14, 409–423.

• About Oxford Academic
• Publish journals with us
• University press partners
• What we publish
• New features  
• Open access
• Institutional account management
• Rights and permissions
• Get help with access
• Accessibility
• Advertising
• Media enquiries
• Oxford University Press
• Oxford Languages
• University of Oxford

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide

• Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press
• Cookie settings
• Cookie policy
• Privacy policy
• Legal notice

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

Sign In or Create an Account

This PDF is available to Subscribers Only

For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.

How does sport contribute to tourism?

Tourism is one of the world’s most important economic sectors. It allows people to experience the world’s different cultural and natural riches and brings people closer to each other, highlighting our common humanity.

The many important contributions of tourism encouraged the  UN World Tourism Organization  ( UNWTO ) to institute World Tourism Day, celebrated annually since 1980 on 27 September, to highlight the importance of tourism and its impact on our society.

Tourism and sports

According to UNWTO , tourism is one of the largest and fastest growing economic sectors in the world, while sport is one of the world’s largest social phenomenon. As a professional or leisure activity, sport often involves travel to other places, to play and compete in various destinations. Further, major sporting events, such as the Olympics and various World Cups, have become powerful tourist attractions.

Sports tourism constitutes a large part of the tourism industry, with some sources claiming that a  quarter of all tourism in the world is sports-related. Sports tourism includes not only participation in and attending sporting events, but also personal recreational activities.

Statements from the World Tourism Organisation and the International Olympic Committee (IOC) have highlighted the importance of sports tourism; in 2004, the organisations committed to reinforcing their partnership and collaboration in the sports tourism domain, stating :

“Tourism and sport are interrelated and complementary… both are powerful forces for development, stimulating investment in infrastructure projects such as airports, roads, stadiums, sporting complexes and restaurants- projects that can be enjoyed by the local population as well as tourists who come to use them.”

Sports tourism and sustainable development

Tourism is an essential pillar of the  2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially  goals 8 ,  12 , and  14 . As a segment of tourism, sports tourism can also help achieve sustainable development .

At an economic level, sports tourism contributes to SDGs 1 (end poverty in all its forms everywhere) and 8 (promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment, and decent work for all). Sports tourism promotes local businesses, creating demand in areas such as transportation, hotels and restaurants. Thus, local populations can avail jobs and income opportunities. Depending on the nature of the sports and experiences, local people can work as instructors and guides, who are likely to be paid more due to their special skills.

Further, sports tourism contributes to SDG 3 (ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages). Besides providing the tourists with sporting opportunities and an outlet for physical exercise, investment in sports tourism can also promote the participation of local populations in sporting activities.

Finally, sports tourism can also contribute to SDG 11 (make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable. Accessible sports tourism products like hand bikes provide access to sports opportunities for people with disabilities. Para-sport activities can be enjoyed by tourists and residents alike. The development of accessible sports tourism can improve accessibility in the destination city by the provision of not only sports products, but also accessible accommodation and transport. Furthermore, accessible sports tourism helps increase the understanding of people with disabilities in society.

Sports, tourism and sustainability

Sports federations, like the IOC, have realised the need for sustainable practices during mega sporting events. Thus, the IOC launched the International Federation (IF) Sustainability Project in 2016 to obtain an overview of their sustainability initiatives, identifying common topics, challenges and good practices. Building on the Olympic Agenda 2020, the IOC Sustainability Strategy was developed in close cooperation with many stakeholders and partners to fundamentally shape the working practices of the IOC, the Olympic Games and the Olympic Movement.

To develop synergies between the stakeholders so that sports and its facilities can be included in the local assets, it is necessary for decision-makers at all levels to understand their potential and agree to work together to set up sustainable development strategies. 

Host cities should target participants who are most likely to engage in sustainable behaviour while in the destination. This includes developing event portfolios geared towards sustainable event practices. The host city should also harness collaborative partnerships to foster social cohesion and build the capacity to increase sustainable practices.

From the design and construction of sports facilities and the way resources are managed, to valuing the natural environment and health and well-being of people, all decisions should be informed by sustainability principles. As the role and relevance of sport in today’s society continue to grow, progress can only be in cooperation and partnership with others, including the tourism industry.

• Related article: Active tourism
• Related article: How can fans support sustainability in sports?

Related Articles

PSD completes the first and second batches of Level 1: Introduction to S4D

Moving People deserve organisations that treat them as their first priority

Sport for Development Coalition launches weekly drop-in webinar series

Building communities through participatory sport for development

Steering board members.

To read this content please select one of the options below:

Please note you do not have access to teaching notes, sport tourism: a perspective article.

Tourism Review

ISSN : 1660-5373

Article publication date: 22 April 2020

Issue publication date: 26 February 2021

The purpose of this paper is to review the past 75 years of sports tourism and explore the potential of the next 75 years.

Design/methodology/approach

This is a personal perspective paper that reflects upon the emergence and development of the field of sport tourism, contemporary challenges and future pathways.

Research must extend to wider manifestations of sport, and sport-related tourism, in response to the growth of participation and pleasure sports and the increasingly important roles of those sports in addressing the growing social and environmental challenges of contemporary life.

Originality/value

This paper offers insights into the future of sports tourism.

• Sport tourism
• Future perspectives
• Lifestyle sports
• Participation and pleasure sports
• Power and performance sports

Higham, J. (2021), "Sport tourism: a perspective article", Tourism Review , Vol. 76 No. 1, pp. 64-68. https://doi.org/10.1108/TR-10-2019-0424

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2020, Emerald Publishing Limited

Related articles

We’re listening — tell us what you think, something didn’t work….

Report bugs here

All feedback is valuable

Please share your general feedback

Join us on our journey

Platform update page.

Visit emeraldpublishing.com/platformupdate to discover the latest news and updates

Questions & More Information

Answers to the most commonly asked questions here

• #SportsTourismStrong
• Amateur Sports
• Award Winner
• Best Practices
• Certificate Playbook
• Certified Sports Event Executive (CSEE)
• Chief Executive Summit
• Community Relations
• Economic Impact
• Event Impact Calculator
• Event Webinars
• Hall of Fame
• Hall of Fame Inductees
• Member Awards
• Mentor Tips
• Power Plays
• Press Releases
• Professional Development
• PUSH Magazine
• Sponsorship
• Sports Events and Tourism Association
• Sports Events and Tourism Industry
• Sports Events Entertainment Network (SEEN)
• Sports Facilities Summit
• Sports Legacy Fund
• Sports Tourism Learning Institute
• Sports Tourism Strategist
• SportsBIZ XChange
• State Association
• Women's Summit
• Young Professionals
• Youth Sports

State of the Industry Report for the $91.8 Billion Sport Tourism Industry

Contact: Jackie Reau Game Day (513) 708-5822 [email protected]

Note to media: To request a full report or to email Al Kidd, President & CEO of Sports ETA, please contact Jackie Reau.

Sports ETA releases its “State of the Industry” Report  for the $91.8 Billion Sport Tourism Industry

FORT WORTH, TEXAS (May 3, 2022) – Sports ETA, the only trade association for the sports events and tourism industry, released its annual State of the Industry Report for 2021 resulting in the sports tourism sector’s direct spending impact of $39.7 billion which generated a total economic impact of $91.8 billion, supporting 635,000 full-time and part-time jobs and generating $12.9 billion in taxes.

The association’s last research report, “2019 State of the Sports Tourism Industry Report in America presented by the Sports Events and Tourism Association in partnership with the Northstar Meetings Group” was released in 2020 to benchmark 2019, and concluded that U.S. sports-related travelers, event organizers and venues spent a total of $45.1 billion in 2019, an increase of over five percent from the previous year. Those travelers generated $103.3 billion in direct, indirect and induced business sales.

The study was led by Dr. Jennifer Stoll, who leads research efforts for Sports ETA, in partnership with Northstar Meetings Group, the leading multi-platform brand for dedicated meeting and business planners and sports event organizers, and the presenting sponsor of the association’s “Annual State of the Industry” research report.

The analysis draws on the following data sources to quantify sports tourism, which includes adult and youth amateur events and collegiate tournaments (The economic impact analyses conducted within the report exclude professional sports and collegiate regular-season games.):

• Sports ETA: destination membership survey data
• Longwoods International: traveler survey data, including spending and visitor profile characteristics for sports tourism nationwide
• Bureau of Economic Analysis and Bureau of Labor Statistics: employment and wage data, by industry
• Bureau of Transportation Statistics: U.S. domestic average itinerary fares
• U.S. Travel Association: domestic travel data
• STR: lodging data
• Sports attendance data

“Our annual State of the Industry report shows that the sport tourism industry has an economic impact of $91.8 Billion supporting 635,000 jobs in our member communities across America,” said Al Kidd , President & CEO of Sports ETA.

Additional major findings in the 2021 State of the Industry Report include:

• In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic cancelled or delayed sports events across the country and those events that took place had fewer spectators per participant. Ultimately, the number of sports travelers decreased 46.5% year-over-year to 96 million in 2020. The sector rebounded quickly in 2021 increasing 82.0% year-over-year. The 175 million sports travelers in 2021 was only 2.6% lower than the high-water mark established in 2019.
• Sports travelers, event organizers, and venues spent $9.7 billion on transportation, $8.4 billion on lodging, and $7.5 billion on food and beverages. Recreation, retail, and tournament operations rounded out spending, registering $5.3 billion, $5.0 billion, and $3.7 billion, respectively. The lodging sector accounted for 21% of all sports-related travel spending. In 2021, sports-related travel generated 66.5 million room nights, which is an important factor given that hotel taxes are a primary funding source for many entities.

View the 2021 State of the Industry Report .

About Sports ETA:

As the only trade association for the sports events and tourism industry, Sports ETA is the most trusted resource for sports commissions, destination marketing organizations (DMOs), and sports event owners. Sports ETA is committed to the success of more than 600 member organizations and 2,500 sports event professionals. We promise to deliver quality education, ample networking opportunities and exceptional event management and marketing know-how to our members and to protect the integrity of the sports events and tourism industry.  For more information, visit  SportsETA.org .

Post Comment

Corporate sponsors.

UN Tourism | Bringing the world closer

Share this content.

• Share this article on facebook
• Share this article on twitter
• Share this article on linkedin

COMMITTEE FOR TOURISM - MOSCOW CITY GOVERNMENT

Country: Russian Federation

Website: https://www.mos.ru/tourism/

2018 Primetime Emmy & James Beard Award Winner

R&K Insider

Join our newsletter to get exclusives on where our correspondents travel, what they eat, where they stay. Free to sign up.

A History of Moscow in 13 Dishes

Featured city guides.