mass tourism destroys culture

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Is Tourism Destroying the World?

Travel is transforming the world, and not always for the better. Though it’s an uncomfortable reality (who doesn’t like to travel?), it’s something award-winning journalist Elizabeth Becker   devoted five years of her life to investigating. The result is Overbooked: The Exploding Business of Travel and Tourism .

I caught up with the author to get the inside scoop on the book, what prompted her to write it, and what she learned along the way, and this is what she had to say.

Leslie Trew Magraw: You made a name for yourself as a war correspondent covering Cambodia for The Washington Post . What prompted you to write this book?

Elizabeth Becker: My profession has been to understand world events.   I reported from Asia and Europe [for the Post ] and later was the senior foreign editor at NPR.   At The New York Times ,   I became the international economics correspondent in 2002, and that is when I began noticing the explosion of tourism and how much countries rich and poor were coming to rely on it.

But tourism isn’t treated as a serious business or economic force. Travel sections are all about the best vacations. So I used a fellowship at Harvard to begin my research and then wrote this book to point out what seemed so obvious: Tourism is among the biggest global industries and, as such, has tremendous impacts—environmental, cultural, economic—that have to be acknowledged and addressed.

Which country can you point to as a model for sustainable tourism?

One of the more ambitious is France , which is aiming for sustainability in the whole country. The key, I think, is that the French never fully bought in to the modern obsession with tourist overdevelopment. They have been nurturing their own culture and landscape, cities, and villages for decades. Since they have tied their economy to tourism, they have applied a   precise and country-wide approach that mostly works.

All relevant ministries are involved, including culture, commerce, agriculture, sports, and transportation. Planning is bottom up, beginning with locals at destinations who decide what they want to promote and how they want to improve. The French obsession with protecting their culture—some would call it arrogance—has worked in their favor. The planning and bureaucracy required to make this work would try the patience of many governments.

Now, even though the country is smaller than the state of Texas, France is the most popular destination in the world. Tourism officials told me one of their biggest worries is becoming victims of their success: too many foreigners buying second homes or retirement homes in French villages and Parisian neighborhoods, which could tip the balance and undermine that sustainable and widely admired French way of life.

Many destinations are making impressive changes. Philanthropists are helping African game parks find their footing. I was lucky to see how Paul Allen , for instance, is helping in Zambia .

Which country is doing it all wrong?

Cambodia has made some bad choices in tourism. It is blessed with the magnificent temples of Angkor , glorious beaches in the south, cities with charming overlay of the French colonial heritage, and   a rural landscape of sugar palms, rice paddies, and houses on stilts.

Yet, rather than protect these gems, the government has allowed rapacious tourism to threaten the very attractions that bring tourists. Tourism is seen as a cash cow.

Some of the capital’s most stunning historic buildings are being razed to build look-alike modern hotels.   In Angkor, a thicket of new hotels has outpaced infrastructure and is draining the water table so badly the temples are sinking—and profits from tourism do not reach the common people, who are now among the poorest in the country.

In addition, Cambodia has become synonymous with sex tourism that exploits young girls and boys. The latest wrinkle is to encourage tourists on the “genocide trail” to see the killing fields and execution centers from the Khmer Rouge era.

With more than a billion people traveling each year, how can we see the world without destroying it?

That is the essential question.   Countries are figuring out how to protect their destinations in quiet, non-offensive ways. They control the number of hotel beds, the number of flights to and from a country, the number of tour buses allowed. Some have “sacrifice zones,” where tourists are allowed to flood one section of beachfront, for example, while the rest is protected as a wildlife preserve or [reserved] for locals. Most countries are heavily promoting off-season travel as the most obvious way to control crowds.

Countries are also putting more muscle into regulations [governing] pollution. The toughest problem is breaking the habit of politicians being too close to the industry to the detriment of their country. Money talks in tourism as in any other big business. Luxury chains wanting a store near a major tourist attraction will pay high rents to push out locals. Officials fail to enforce rules against phony “authentic” souvenirs.

One of the worst offenders are the supersize cruise ships that swarm localities, straining local services and sites and giving back little in return.

What do you think will be the biggest challenge for 21st-century travelers?

Avoiding “drive-by tourism.” This is a phrase coined by Paul Bennett of   Context Travel ,   referring to the growing habit of people visiting a destination for a few hours—maybe a few days—and seeing only a blur of sights with little appreciation for the country, culture, or people.

One of the eureka moments in my five years of research was reading old guidebooks in the   Library of Congress.

The Baedeker Guides were written in consultation with historians and archaeologists who presumed the tourists wanted to immerse themselves in a country. They included a short dictionary of the language of the country and, only at the very end, short lists of hotels and restaurants.

Today it is the reverse: Guides have short paragraphs about history, culture, and politics and long lists of where to eat and sleep.

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My advice is to first be a tourist where you live. Explore the museums, the farms, the churches, the night life, the historic monuments—and then read up on local politics and history.

If you’re interested in volunteering overseas, first volunteer at home. Then when you’re planning your next trip abroad, use that experience as a template and study up on the destination you’re about to visit.

Don’t forget to try to learn something of the local language. It is a gift.

Q: Are there any tourism trends that give you hope for the future of travel?

A: People are again recognizing that travel is a privilege. Responsible tourism in its various forms—volunteer tourism, adventure tourism, slow tourism (where people take their time), agro-tourism (where visitors live and work on a farm), ecotourism , geotourism—all speak to tourists’ desire to respect the places they visit and the people they meet.   I think people are also recognizing that bargain travel has hidden expenses and dangers.

Costa Rica was an eye-opener for me; it deserves its reputation as a leader in responsible tourism that nurtures nature and society.

Finally, several groups including the United Nations World Tourism Organization have put together a global sustainable tourism council with a certification program to show tourists which places are genuinely making the effort.

Thoughts? Counterpoints? Leave a comment to let us know how you feel about this important topic.

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The Effects of Mass Tourism (How Overtourism is Destroying 30+ Destinations)

Disclaimer: This post may contain affiliate links. All hosted affiliate links follow our editorial policies .

Mass Tourism was arguably the most significant travel trend of 2017. Its downside, “overtourism”– the point at which the needs of tourism become unsustainable for a given destination– made headlines all across the world.

“Overtourism plagues great destinations,” claimed sustainable travel expert Jonathan Tourtellot in National Geographic . “Mass Tourism is at a tipping point- but we’re all part of the problem,” wrote Martin Kettle in The Guardian .

In an Associated Press piece on “The Curse of Overtourism,” Pan Pylas examined how European destinations such as Barcelona, Dubrovnik, and Venice are struggling to deal with the negative impacts of tourism.

Here, we’ll examine what mass tourism is, why it’s so popular, and how it is negatively impacting local communities in some of the world’s most beloved travel destinations.

THE DEFINITION OF MASS TOURISM

Mass tourism was originally developed in the late 1800s in the UK by Thomas Cook, who pioneered the concept of affordable group travel tours. By establishing relationships between tour operators, transportation companies, and hotels, Cook was able to get deep volume discounts on travel services and pass those savings along to its customers.

• In modern times, the phrase often refers to budget-friendly package tours, cheap flights, all-inclusive resorts, and cruises. In general, it allows vast numbers of travelers to descend on a given destination in a relatively short time, usually during peak season.
• On the positive side, this extreme influx of tourists can help to generate jobs, stimulate the economy, and develop much-needed infrastructure.
• On the downside, many of these jobs are not given to locals, much of the revenue is kept by outside investors, and the overwhelming tourist crowds often keep locals from being able to enjoy the infrastructure benefits.
• It is inarguably the most popular form of tourism. But most responsible travel experts consider it a shallow, exploitative, and unsustainable form of travel , consuming huge amounts of resources while giving little back to the local community.

To understand why, let’s take a look at how overtourism is affecting 30+ different destinations all around the world.

THE NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF OVERTOURISM

Tourism in Africa Tourism in Asia Tourism in Australia Tourism in Europe Tourism in Central/South America Tourism in North America

TOURISM IN AFRICA

CAIRO/GIZA (Egypt)

The Cairo area is home to some of the oldest, most impressive tourist attractions in the world, from King Tut’s famous burial mask at the Egyptian Museum to the great Pyramids of Giza.

But instead of being a welcoming city that invites travelers to explore the culture and wonder of this ancient capital, mass tourism has largely taken over Cairo and Giza.

As a result, these relatively small sites have been inundated with hordes of camera-wielding tour groups stopping by on day trips from their resorts in Sharm El Sheik.

When I visited Cairo a few years ago, dozens of air-conditioned tour buses swarmed around the Giza plateau, the museum, and tourist hotspots like Khan El Khalili every single day.

They congested the roads around these attractions even more than usual, attracting exploitative cottage industries such as touts, papyrus factory tours, and unethical camel rides. The result has created a massive work and monetary imbalance in the city.

More recently, the tourism industry in and around Cairo has suffered a massive blow. Overblown safety warnings and fears have caused the local economy to crash. As Egyptian tourism starts to recover, Cairo and Giza should take a step back and learn from their past mistakes.

This is their chance to embrace responsible tourism, controlling visitor numbers and encouraging travelers to explore the ancient history and culture of the whole area, not just a few tourist hotspots.   –Mike Huxley of Bemused Backpacker

  MARRAKECH (Morocco)

Just 10 years ago Marrakech was a city of around 500,000 people. Today that number sits above 1.2 million. In 2008, less than 3 million tourists visited the entire country of Morocco. Last year that number was nearly 11 million, and a vast majority of them traveled to/through Marrakech.

This huge surge in the numbers of tourists and residents has done two things to my home city. First, it’s brought many jobs and much-needed income. Second, it’s put a strain on resources and infrastructure in a way that has proven difficult to manage.

Many longtime Marrakech residents felt an initial benefit from this influx of tourism when they were able to sell their properties and get work. But today the cost of basic goods, rents, and more rises while salaries remain relatively stagnant.

Tourists expect Marrakech to be a cheap destination, thanks to the subsidized low-cost carriers that fly into the city daily. This has a trickle-down effect on the economy. People need to earn more money now than they did a few years ago to maintain even a basic standard of life.

A walk through the medina today is met by hundreds, if not thousands of tourists. It’s very difficult now to experience what traditional life is like in Marrakech, primarily because residents are increasingly outnumbered by tourists.

Many visitors don’t see the negative social impacts of tourism, because Marrakech is still “much more exotic” than their home countries. But for Marrakech, tourism has proven both a blessing and a curse. – Amanda Ponzio-Mouttaki of MarocMama

Mauritius is a beautiful island in the Indian Ocean, 1,200 miles off the southeast coast of Africa . There, misty clouds linger around the top of forested mountains. Tropical temperatures allow lazy days at white sandy beaches , or snorkeling in turquoise lagoons amongst colorful fish and corals.

We stayed in Mauritius for more than a month and liked it. But the negative impacts of tourism on the island are readily apparent.

With around 1.3 million residents in 790 square miles, Mauritius is among the countries with the highest population density in the world. More than one million tourists visit Mauritius every year. 

Driving across the island, it feels like one massive, congested town, with the exception of a few sugarcane fields and coastal areas dominated by luxury resorts.

Outside of southern Mauritius, where the last pocket of extended forest remains in the Black Forest National Park, very little natural habitat is left for local wildlife. Unfortunately, this is one of the island’s most heavily promoted regions for day trips, with busloads of tourists visiting every day.

It will take smarter decisions by the government, tour operators, and responsible tourism NGOs to reduce the destructive environmental impacts of tourism in Mauritius’ future.  –Marcelle Heller of The Wild Life

CAPE TOWN (South Africa)

Cape Town has emerged as one on southern Africa’s favorite holiday hotspots. Despite its current problems with drought and crime, the city is still magnificent if you love the beach, ecotourism (including penguins! ) , food, and wine.

One of the major downfalls of overtourism in Cape Town is the pricing increase for property, which is creating a greater divide between rich and poor. Tourists arrive, instantly fall in love with the city, and realize property is relatively cheap.

So they decide to purchase a house or apartment, which drives up prices and makes it almost impossible for locals to afford homes. Even worse are the overseas investors who buy a property just to rent it out on Airbnb.

Other negative effects of tourism include horrendous traffic, an increase in petty theft, and the rise of begging street kids. Word to the wise: Do not come in December or January! You’ll feel suffocated, as holiday-makers descend on the city from Johannesburg and all around the world. – Callan Wienburg of Singapore n Beyond

TOURISM IN ASIA

AGRA/TAJ MAHAL (India)

Close your eyes and think of India . If anything resembling a white marble onion dome comes to mind, you’re not alone. The Taj Mahal , a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is the veritable symbol of India, and on many people’s bucket lists.

When visitors make the journey to Agra (home of the Taj Mahal) three things stand out. One, the sublime beauty of the world’s most perfect building. It is truly spectacular, and rarely disappoints. Two, the overwhelming crowds.

The Taj Mahal attracts 7 to 8 million people per year. Unless you arrive by 6 am, just before it opens, you’ll be met with hordes of people. Three, the degradation and disorder of Agra.

You’d think the city that houses one of the world’s top tourist attractions would benefit from the influx of tourism revenue. But nothing could be further from the truth.

Aside from the stringent management and upkeep of the Taj Mahal itself— which includes a pollution-free perimeter zone and a regular mudpack to clean the surface — there are almost no other signs of civic improvement in Agra. The Taj Mahal is worth seeing, no question. But there’s no denying that it is falling victim to pollution.

It’s unfortunate that the lack of marketing innovation by the Indian tourism industry results in most tourists heading straight for the “Golden Triangle” of Delhi, Agra, and Jaipur. There’s so much more to see and experience in India, far away from the crowds, touts, and other aggravations of this over-touristed route. –Mariellen Ward of Breathedreamgo

BAGAN (Myanmar)

Although mainstream tourism is relatively new in Myanmar, Bagan’s famous Valley of Temples is already suffering growing pains. Over 4,000 pagodas once stood here, but that number has been reduced by half over time by earthquakes, natural erosion, and disrespectful travelers.

One of the most common activities in Bagan is to climb the pagodas at sunrise to watch the hot air balloons glide across the sky, and again in the evening to see the sunset. The experience is extraordinary… if you can find a secluded, secure temple. However, the majority of tourists flock to the five most popular pagodas, where climbing is allowed.

The problem is that some disrespectful tourists aren’t satisfied with the views from the platform area. So they climb up the ancient brick formations to the tip of the pagodas, which often crumble. It’s an insult to the historic importance of the site. Several travelers have lost their lives after plummeting from the top.

As travelers, it is our duty to preserve these sacred cultural heritage sites. Yet repeatedly visitors destroy the places they’re so eager to cross off their bucket list, without giving any thought to future generations. – Lola Méndez of Miss Filatelista

BALI (Indonesia)

Bali used to be a peaceful place where travelers would go to escape the stress of their everyday life. They could enjoy lush nature, bask in the sun on beautifully pristine beaches, and surf some killer waves. Most visitors would spend their time immersing themselves in the ancient traditions and rituals of the local people.

This aspect of Bali is so distant now, it takes a great deal of effort to discover it. Nowadays Bali is mayhem. Due to uncontrolled development, the land that nature ruled has been filled with large chain hotels and shopping malls. Depansar, Bali’s capital, is completely congested with traffic and pollution. What used to be a tropical paradise is being ruined by overtourism.

Most of the beaches are incredibly crowded. The lack of proper garbage disposal and recycling initiatives means that places such as Kuta Beach are enormous dumps where rats party day and night . In order to accommodate the needs of mass tourism , development is slowly but steadily pushing its way through the rest of the island, too.

Visitors who wish to avoid the crowds need to travel to the north of the island and visit the most remote beaches. Renting a motorbike or a car may also be a good idea in order to travel more independently.  –Claudia Tavani of My Adventures Across the World

EL NIDO, PALAWAN (Philippines)

In 2016 Palawan was named the world’s most beautiful island by Condé Nast Traveler. Known as a haven for adventurers looking to experience untouched nature, quiet turquoise waters, and respite from hordes of sun seekers, this promising ecotourism destination has exploded in popularity. Unfortunately El Nido (once a sleepy fishing village) has been bearing the brunt of it, attracting over 200,000 visitors to an area with a population of 36,000.

The problems caused by overtourism here are many. There’s rampant tourism development all over town. There’s not enough local food to feed all the visiting mouths, a problem exacerbated by the mass conversion of farmland into resort construction sites. There’s no waste water management system, meaning sewage from these newly constructed hotels goes straight into that turquoise ocean.

Island-hopping is the main attraction in El Nido’s archipelago, and every travel agency in town basically sells the same day tour. So idyllic lagoons became swamped with beer-swilling sunbathers.

Thankfully, 2017 saw the introduction of daily visitor caps to three of the main hotspots. But as long as overall visitor numbers remain unmanaged, tour operators will simply shift crowds to other islands.

So how can we visit Palawan responsibly? Steer completely clear of El Nido, at least until the powers-that-be have invested in proper infrastructure and resources to cope with tourism volume. There are plenty of beautiful spots all over the large island of Palawan, including some commendable eco-resorts in Coron. -Ellie Cleary of Soul Travel Blog

READ MORE: The Best Things To Do In Coron, Palawan Philippines

HALONG BAY (Vietnam)

As a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Halong Bay is easily the most famous site in Vietnam. It’s also the most visited, with nearly three million tourists cruising its waters every year. Hundreds of junk boats ply its water each day, against the natural backdrop of dark green rock formations shrouded in mist.

Sadly, overtourism in Halong Bay has resulted in both environmental issues and fatal accidents. The influx of visitors coupled with a lack of safety regulations has created a market saturated with irresponsible tour operators who are more concerned with profits than environmental and safety issues. In 2011, a boat sank there, killing 12 tourists. According to several comments from travelers on Lonely Planet, this isn’t an isolated incident .

We cruised Halong Bay on a mid-range overnight boat trip and it opened my eyes to what poorly managed tourism can do to a place. The beauty of the poetic landscapes is undeniable, but the sheer amount of environmental destruction is enough to put off any traveler with a conscience.

For now, I wouldn’t recommend anyone to visit Halong Bay, at least until the bay is cleaned up and the situation controlled with new safety measures. –Nellie Huang of Wild Junket

MAYA BAY, KOH PHI PHI (Thailand)

If you love to travel, you’ve most likely seen The Beach , the 2000 movie starring Leonardo DiCaprio. Millions of people saw it, and it seems like most of them ended up traveling to Maya Bay Beach on Koh Phi Phi, where most of the film was shot.

Sadly, the place is a paradise no more, thanks to seemingly endless hordes of tourists. If you visit during the middle of the day, you’ll mostly see it packed with long-tail boats and people. Many are rowdy and obnoxiously drunk, leaving a trail of litter in their wake. The only way to see the real beauty of Maya Bay is to find a boat that will bring you there early in the morning, or around sunset.

The bay is located on Koh Phi Phi Leh. You can’t stay there overnight, but you can stay on the nearby (and bigger) island of Koh Phi Phi Don. Another option is taking a Maya Bay Sleep Aboard tour, where you sleep on the boat near this spot and get to spend almost a full day here. –Sonal & Sandro of Drifter Planet

PERHENTIAN ISLANDS (Malaysia)

When we got to Malaysia, my partner Karen couldn’t wait to show me the Perhentian Islands. Having been there previously on a diving trip, she raved about these tropical paradise islands, with their white sand beaches and crystal clear waters.

Unfortunately, what we found once we arrived was more like Paradise Lost. Every day we would notice these weird brown patches floating in the ocean. To this day I’m scared to think what they were. All I know is that everyone avoided them.

What was once an occasional speedboat taxi had now turned into a sea full of them. To make matters worse, they were driven by teens racing each other, making what should have been a leisurely swim into a worrisome nightmare. One day we even had a helicopter land right on the beach, unannounced!

The Perhentian Islands are becoming a victim of their own success. Instead of trying to keep the natural balance of things , there seems to be more and more tourism-related development going on. Unfortunately, if this keeps going, the pristine beauty of these islands will be lost forever. It’s in everyone’s interest to help preserve the Perhentians before it’s too late.  –Paul Farrugia of Globalhelpswap

TOURISM IN AUSTRALIA

ULURU (Australia)

Australia’s most iconic natural attraction, Uluru (or Ayers Rock) is a symbol of the Outback that attracts more than 300,000 visitors every year.Believed to be millions of years old, this beautiful red rock juts imposingly out of the sand in the middle of the Australian desert.

Looming large at 1,142 feet, Uluru is considered a sacred site by the Indigenous Anangu people, the traditional owners of the land, and holds UNSECO World Heritage status for its ancient rock paintings. But mass tourism has caused numerous issues, provoking long-standing debates over whether or not tourists should be allowed to climb it.

Much of the controversy centers around respecting the Aboriginal community’s repeated requests that visitors not climb their sacred site. Tourists have been defecating, urinating, leaving trash, and vandalizing the rock face at the top of Uluru for years. Visitors have also been chipping off stones and defacing culturally significant engravings with name carvings of their own. As a result, a recent decision by local authorities will make Uluru off limits to climbers starting in October 2019.

To avoid the problems associated with overtourism, consider visiting during the wet season (January-March). The days are much hotter, but you’ll find very few tourists in the National Park. Early birds can head out for the base walk (6.5 miles, which takes around 3 hours) while everyone else is sleeping, getting close to the rock in complete silence.  -Megan Jerrard of Mapping Megan

READ MORE: 10 Australian National Parks for your World Bucket List

TOURISM IN CENTRAL/SOUTH AMERICA 

CARTAGENA (Colombia)

Colombia is a country whose reputation has been unfairly plagued by its past. In recent years, as the political and criminal situation calmed down considerably, new airline routes have opened up. As a result, Colombia is now bringing in quite a bit of tourism, attracting over 2.5 million visitors in 2016.

Cartagena, Colombia’s Caribbean tourism capital, attracts around 14% of those travelers. And while the city doesn’t seem overrun by visitors, the desire to cater to them has led to the gentrification of Getsemaní. Development of this ultra-hip neighborhood is largely  being funded by international companies, who seem hell-bent on tourism profits regardless of the impact on the locals who live there.

Some of the more popular local beaches are so swamped with tourists, they’re too expensive for locals to get out to them. The tourism boom in Cartagena has also led to a staggering problem wherein young local girls are forced into prostitution to cater to foreigners.

If you’re visiting Cartagena, I recommend talking to the friendly locals. Ask them about their favorite places to go and things to do in the area. Support local businesses, and do your best to put money into the local economy rather than spending it to support international corporate interests.  – Megan Starr

READ MORE: Best Attractions in Cartagena, Columbia

EASTER ISLAND (Chile)

Easter Island is best known for the mysterious Moai, gigantic stone statues created by the ancient Rapa Nui civilization. The Rapa Nui people carved the statues (some nearly 30 feet tall and weighing 80 tons), transported them to different sites, and erected them on ceremonial platforms. No one knows their purpose, but the 887 Moai are the tiny island’s main attraction.

Unfortunately, the sheer number of tourists (around 100,000 annually) are changing the nature of tourism on Easter Island. The Moai are very fragile, and tourists who touch the statues cause irreversible damage. Two important archaeological sites were closed to tourists in recent years due to deterioration.

Easter Island once collapsed under a population of 10,000. Now the island’s infrastructure and resources are being stressed by the growing surge of visitors. Available landfill area for non-recyclable waste is extremely limited.

Being a responsible tourist on Easter Island is easy. Just don’t touch the Moai, stick to marked trails, watch where you walk (archaeological sites are everywhere), respect local culture, and leave no waste. To avoid the crowds, travel off-season in winter (June to September) and skip the Tapati Festival in January.  – Ketki Sharangpani of Dotted Globe

MACHU PICCHU/INCA TRAIL (Peru)

One special destination that’s sadly suffering from overtourism is Machu Picchu, and the increasingly popular Inca Trail that leads to it. Strict caps on visitors were put in place by the Peruvian government a few years back– 500 permits per day for the Inca Trail and 2500 per day for Machu Picchu. Yet still the famed site often sees double that number of visitors.

This is obvious in terms of countless irresponsible travelers ruining the natural beauty and mystical appeal with their ubiquitous selfie sticks. But what’s even worse is the area’s sanitation issues.

There’s toilet paper lining the hiking trails, squat toilets overflowing, and now the preservation of this precious site seems to be in danger.

There is good news: In the summer of 2017, the Peruvian government passed a new restriction for Machu Picchu visitors, requiring they enter with an official tour guide in groups of 16 or less.

Additionally, entry grants only a morning visit or an afternoon visit. So if if you want to spend the entire day, you’ll need to pay twice. While inside, visitors will need to stay on marked paths.

Hopefully new laws like these will help to ease the strain on this important UNESCO World Heritage site . –Jessie Festa of Jessie on a Journey

SALAR DE UYUNI (Bolivia)

It’s difficult to imagine how an area sprawling 4,085 square miles could ever feel crowded. But that’s just what’s happening at Salar de Uyuni, Bolivia’s famous salt pan.

Tourism has been a major contributor to the local economy, and even protected the Bolivia against Lithium mining. But the impacts haven’t been all good.

The number of visitors from the Uyuni departure point have far surpassed local infrastructure in recent years, and the city suffers from unmanaged waste.

While few studies have been conducted on the environe impacts of mass tourism, it’s impossible to imagine that hundreds of 4x4s have no impact on the ecosystem.

With more tourists feeding wildlife and treading on the plants and soil surrounding popular attractions, a change is inevitable.

From a human standpoint, increased competition has invited in big name travel companies. The prices of tours are WAY down, and margins for local operators have fallen with it.

The experience can still be incredible if you’re mindful about how you visit. Consider departing from Tupiza rather than Uyuni to support a different community.

Support the local businesses, tip your guides well, tread lightly, and leave the place like you found it so that it can be enjoyed by generations to come. – Taylor of Travel Outlandish

TOURISM IN EUROPE

AMSTERDAM (Netherlands)

Amsterdam is known all around the world as one of Europe’s most lovely cities. However in recent years the combination of drug-focused tourism and cheap budget flights have turned the city’s Centre district into a crowded mass tourism playground.

It finally reached a point in 2017 where overtourism was so bad, the government banned new tourist-oriented shops from opening in the Centre. They also started regulating Airbnb much more strictly, as the housing crisis in Amsterdam reached full bloom.

The rise in tourism has also made it very difficult for local residents in the Centre to find shops to do their errands in.

If you’re looking to contribute to a more sustainable future for Amsterdam, please consider staying outside of the Centre and NOT using an Airbnb.

Similarly, be sure to visit some of the residential neighborhoods, such as De Pijp, which are full of cute independent shops run by young Dutch entrepreneurs who are committed to making Amsterdam the best city in the Netherlands. –Karen Turner of Wanderlustingk

BARCELONA (Spain)

Barcelona has a lot to offer, including stunning Gaudi architecture, a rich tapas and wine culture, and (thanks to the 1992 Olympics) a two-mile stretch of beautiful beach.

The same Olympics that improved local quality of life by installing a municipal sailing center and public housing also put Barcelona on the map for international tourism, which grew to an unsustainable 32 million visitors in 2016.

A large number of these visitors are day-trippers, coming into the city on cruise ships carrying up to 5,000 passengers, all of whom descend on the nearby old town en masse. Barceloneta, once a quaint fisherman’s quarter, has become overcrowded.

AirBnB is forcing out locals, as renting out apartments to tourists is much more lucrative for owners than having long-term tenants. According to real estate portal Idealista, renewal contracts on apartments in 2016 saw an average price hike of over 20%.

Local shops around the Ramblas– some of them over 100 years old– are similarly being replaced by souvenir shops that can afford the rising rental prices for businesses. This gentrification is killing the area’s authenticity.

To avoid these tourism issues, seek out licensed hotels or apartments outside the most crowded areas of Barcelona. You can also visit popular tourist sites during the week, when the visitor numbers tend to be lower. – Edwina Dandler of Traveling German

CINQUE TERRE (Italy)

Up until I was 16 years old, I spent my summer holidays in a small seaside village in Liguria. Some of my grandma’s relatives lived near Cinque Terre, and we visited the area several times.

The five candy-colored villages were a popular day-trip destination, even in the 1980s. It was always hard to park, and the small beaches were packed, but no more so than elsewhere in the region.

In 2014 I returned to Cinque Terre after 15 years away, and I was shocked by what I saw. The quaint villages of my childhood were literally overrun with tourists.

The narrow, historic centre streets were a shuffling mass of bodies, litter was everywhere, and people treated local homes as if they were museums, walking in and posing for pictures.

A friend of mine from Vernazza (one of the five villages) told me that all these tourists are putting a terrible strain on the area.

First of all, these “bucket list” tourists spend little or no money– maybe a couple of euros for water and a focaccia. Tons of rubbish need to be removed daily, and locals are unable to enjoy their villages due to the multitudes of rude, rowdy people crowding them all summer.

My tip? Pretty much every town in Liguria has the same candy-colored houses that make Cinque Terre famous. I always recommend Levanto, a place with amazing nature and outdoor adventure! –Margherita Ragg of The Crowded Planet

DUBROVNIK (Croatia)

The Pearl of the Adriatic has been a popular tourist destination since the days when it was part of Yugoslavia. As if the appeal of the citrus-colored Old Town nestled atop the turquoise sea wasn’t enough, Dubrovnik also has a fascinating, tumultuous history that is very much still rooted in its local culture.

I’ve been lucky to call Dubrovnik home over the past three years. During this time, I’ve watched Game of Thrones and the cruise ship industry turn this small town into one of the trendiest destinations in Europe.

There’s no doubt this tourism boom has significantly boosted the local economy. But unfortunately the sea of mass tourism is pushing Dubrovnik far beyond its carrying capacity.

Just 40,000 people live in Dubrovnik, yet over 2 million people visit during the high season each summer. The Old Town is flooded with hot bodies and selfie sticks.

Cars honk at each other in bumper-to-bumper traffic. The buses are packed with tourists and a few locals (if they’re lucky enough to get on first).

Residents reclaim Dubrovnik in the winter months. The town celebrates local pride with holidays like St. Blaise Day and Badnjak, which are filled with dancing, eating, and singing traditional Croatian songs. This is when the city’s culture truly shines.

Efforts are currently underway to extend the tourist season beyond the summer and limit cruise ships. But living expenses are still increasing due to tourism, and many locals are struggling.

Many people, especially those from the Old Town, feel that Dubrovnik’s original spirit cannot be recovered. –Alexandra Schmidt of The Mindful Mermaid

When I spent time volunteering in the environmental field back in 2012, little did I know that one of the most striking destinations I had ever visited would soon become a victim of mass tourism.

Who knows if its popularity was caused by Game of Thrones , Star Wars , or the endless Instagram postings featuring Iceland ? Or maybe it’s because budget travel companies such as Wow Air sell low-cost flights from many European destinations.

Regardless, the harsh reality is that tourists arrive to find hotels and car rentals are expensive and in increasingly short supply during the high season (from June to August).

In June 2016, the situation was so chaotic that the government planned to restrict Airbnb rentals. Other measures to reduce the number of visitors are planned to be implemented soon.

So if you have Iceland on your bucket list, try to visit during the shoulder seasons (Spring or Fall) instead of Summer. Travelers and locals alike will benefit.

Most people believe everyone should be able to access the places we, as privileged people from first world countries, travel to regularly. But at what cost? Perhaps it’s time to rethink tourism as we know it, or else we’ll all have to live with the unfortunate consequences. -Inma Gregorio of A World To Travel

READ MORE: 10 Incredible Iceland Waterfalls

ISLE OF SKYE (Scotland)  

The Isle of Skye in northwest Scotland boasts numerous natural landmarks. There’s the Old Man of Storr and the Quiraing range, the bizarre basalt formation Kilt Rock, Neist Point lighthouse, the Cuillin mountains, and of course the magical Fairy Pools.

Skye is Scotland’s largest island, and the only one that is accessible from the mainland via a bridge. And this is were the trouble starts…

The problem is that word on Skye’s stellar beauty has spread, making it one of Scotland’s most over-popular holiday destinations. While this brings invaluable income to local businesses, it’s proven problematic in terms of infrastructure and environmental impact.

Stories of cars spilling out of the limited parking lots onto the road and blocking locals’ daily commutes are overshadowed by even worse stories about inappropriate behavior by some tourists due to a lack of public toilet facilities.

Accommodations are seriously limited, which has caused the police to limit island visits to those with reservations only.

Responsible tourism to Skye is still possible. Allow yourself to go off the beaten path and support local businesses who give back to the community and act for the environment. Treat the island as if it was your home.

And finally, take a look around: Scotland’s Inner Hebrides offer many incredible islands that are waiting for you to discover them! –Kathi Kamleitner from Watch Me See

READ MORE: Top 10 Things To Do On The Isle of Skye

LISBON (Portugal)

If we compare Lisbon to other European cities, I believe there’s still a chance to save the Portuguese capital from overtourism.

Tourism in Lisbon is a great product: We have great weather and food, killer sunsets, a diverse culture and heritage, and a young population who speaks at least one foreign language fluently.

Tourism was the only industry bringing in a decent income when everything else seemed to be crashing under the economic recession. In fact, we now have tourists visiting all year round– there’s hardly a low season or shoulder season.

The housing crisis has been the biggest issue facing Lisbon. Locals can’t find affordable houses in the center of the city because landlords can make more money by listing their apartments on short-term rental websites (and paying less taxes). Not to mention the historic buildings being refurbished by foreign investment companies into luxury condos and more short-term rental units.

It’s a vicious cycle: Old-age tenants die or get evicted, the owner sells to the highest bidder, and the house becomes a short-term rental. There’s little that’s typical about Alfama or Mouraria these days. The old quarters are being stripped of their cultural identity.

The best way a traveler can stop this is by booking a hotel instead of a short-term rental. – Sandra Henriques Gajjar of Tripper

READ MORE: Things To Do In Portugal For Nature Lovers

PRAGUE (Czech Republic) 

Travel is a good thing, for the most part. Most destinations rely on the economic gains from this $7 trillion a year industry, and there are countless benefits to travelers themselves. But when tourism grows at an unsustainable,  it can be damaging both to locals and their environment. Prague is a perfect example of mass tourism.

For me, Prague was once a fairytale bucket list destination. But now that over tourism has clouded the experience, it no longer seems like such a magical place.

The city is crowded no matter what time year you visit, with people and vendors elbow to elbow on the Charles Bridge. New developments are often under construction, which detracts from the city’s beauty. Prague has also become more expensive, both for tourists and locals alike.

To avoid huge crowds, become a morning person to beat the crowds. Connect with locals via Facebook groups or Couchsurfing, and explore with expats or locals who know the best places to visit.

Prague is still a stunning city, but for now I avoid it and explore less touristy places instead. –Olga Maria of DreamsInHeels

SANTORINI (Greece)

Not all that long ago, Santorini was a small, rocky, relatively unknown Greek Island. But it has risen in recent years to become one of the most iconic places to visit in Greece due largely to its whitewashed villages, blue-domed churches, and incredible sunsets.

But many of the locals who once lived in this Mediterranean paradise have been driven out due to rising property costs. The price for Greeks to ferry to work from neighboring islands is prohibitively high.

The locals who are left are invaded by disrespectful visitors who often destroy their property while trying to get the perfect selfie. And when it comes to the environment, the island’s main roads are littered with trash left by indifferent tourists.

Avoiding the Santorini crowds completely is almost impossible, especially if you hope to view the sunset in iconic spots like Oia. However, the island’s east-facing side affords equally beautiful views, and the gorgeous resorts there are more affordable and just as luxurious.

Take some time on the south side of the island for wine tasting and wandering through villages. Also consider going to Santorini in the off-season, when it’s cheaper and less crowded.

Three times as many hotels will be staying open throughout the winter in order to help encourage better distribution of the influx of tourists. – Eileen Cotter Wright of Pure Wander

READ MORE: The Best Places To Visit in Greece in 40 Fantastic Photos

SVANETI (Georgia)

Situated on the southern slopes of the Greater Caucasus mountains and surrounded by 16,000-foot peaks, stunning Svaneti is one of the fastest growing tourism destinations in Georgia.

The mountains, remoteness, and unique indigenous traditions make it an ideal destination for hiking, trekking, wildlife, and cultural tourism. However, negative impacts of tourism can already be seen.

When I first visited Svaneti in 2001, I didn’t see any other tourists for a week. In 2014 there were 14,160 visitors, and by 2016 there were 18,347. Because most tourists go to Mestia (2,700 inhabitants) and hike/drive east towards Ushguli (200 inhabitants) between June-September, it’s getting harder to accommodate them.

New concrete guesthouses are being built randomly, without any permission. But they’re incompatible with the local cultural and architectural heritage and ultimately spoil the picturesque landscape.

Farmland has been reduced to build new accommodations and ski facilities, causing problems with local food supplies. There’s a growing issue with solid waste disposal in villages and along the hiking trails. And the famous Svan hospitality is vanishing: Getting invited to dine with the local family is now very rare.

Svaneti is at risk of losing its traditional Georgian charm. To avoid the crowds , head west of Mestia, where tourism has hardly been developed at all. – Marta Mills of One Planet Blog

VENICE (Italy)

There is a certain aura of magic and mystery about Venice. For decades, visitors have been unable to resist the allure of the city’s romantic canals, singing gondoliers, picturesque bridges and grand architecture. The “City of Bridges” tops the ‘must visit cities in Europe’ lists year after year but for how much longer?

Aside from its risk of sinking and its threat from flooding, Venice is a city under populated and over-crowded.

Mass tourism attributed to the mega-cruise ships is causing irreversible damage not only to the fragile lagoon ecosystem but the city itself. A city that only in-habits under 55,000 residents yet welcomes over 30 million visitors a year.

Venice and its Lagoon have long been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. But due to mass-tourism, not only does it risk losing its status, it faces entering the “Endangered” list, a list normally reserved for ruins and sites damaged by war.

Vandalism, crime, destruction of some historical sites and tourist stupidity has already caused tension between residents and visitors.

To add to its woes, cruise ship visitors lack of overnight stays means city tax (that benefits the city) is not being paid, local businesses in the same “tourist” areas are strained and local necessity shops have been closed to only be replaced with souvenir stalls, further pushing locals out of their own city.

Venice is a city that strongly relies on tourism, and while many believe the ban of large ships to Venice would solve the problem, there is so much more that needs to be done to ensure this charming city continues to thrive, and be preserved for generations to come.

To avoid Venice overtourism, visit out-side of the peak seasons (so October-December & February – April) and ensure you’re a responsible tourist! –Samantha & Leonardo of The Wandering Wanderlusters

READ MORE: Le Marche, Italy: A Local’s 7 Favorite Places To Visit

TOURISM IN NORTH AMERICA

DENALI NATIONAL PARK, ALASKA (USA)

Most people wouldn’t think of mass tourism when considering Alaska, the wildest state in the USA . But having been there before the Alaska Highway was paved all the way through in 1992, I can see a major difference.

Before the opening of the highway, Alaska was a great adventure . You were lucky if you could get through the state without getting stuck in the mud somewhere. Now you can just cruise through, perhaps seeing the odd construction site along the way where last winter’s potholes are being repaired.

Denali National Park has been especially impacted by tourism development. Before 1992 there were only a few lodges and cabins along the Nenana River, and a campground with very basic facilities. Today you’ll find luxury resorts, a Good Sam Park, and a boardwalk mall with fast food and ice cream joints.

You have to wait in a line of jostling tourists to enter the park on one of the park’s buses. Photo stops along the park road are precisely timed, and the feeling of being out in the wilderness is lost in the process.

My tip? Skip the bus tours entirely and go wilderness hiking in Denali to experience the park’s true, wild nature. – Monika Fuchs of Travel World Online

READ MORE: Denali National Park: Exploring America’s Last Great Frontier

BANFF, ALBERTA (Canada)

I grew up in a small town near Banff, one of the most frequently visited destinations in Canada. Located in the Canadian Rockies, it’s home to several of Canada’s most famous ski resorts.

Tourism there created a unique set of social problems caused primarily by the fact that, as a town located inside a National Park, Banff had strict boundaries. Therefore it wasn’t able to expand beyond the 4.9 square kilometers allotted to it.

The extreme popularity of the destination and the limits on expansion means that the town’s limited real estate is extremely expensive and almost entirely devoted to high-end tourism.

Nearly everyone who lived there worked in the service industry (as I did). So they couldn’t afford the few apartments available, and were forced to live in small, dingy dormitories provided by their employers. Seasonal hiring/firing made for high turnover, which created a transient community locals were reticent to embrace.

The result was a very strange society of short-term locals and a nearly ubiquitous binge-drinking party culture. Think of a college town where all the students have enough money to get drunk every night and can leave any time they want.

Banff is by no means a terrible town. But overtourism has turned it from a quaint skiing community into a churn-and-burn business more focused on pleasing tourists than providing an affordable quality of life for locals. –Matt Gibson of Xpat Matt

MANHATTAN, NEW YORK CITY (USA)

Manhattan is the most-visited part of NYC, the USA ’s top port of entry, top generator of tourism revenue, and top big-city destination. Tens of millions of people visit every year – a fact that’s regularly emphasized by marketing org NYC & Company.

But how many millions are too many, even in a megacity? Parts of Manhattan have hit their carrying capacity– the point beyond which bigger tourism numbers just aren’t better.

As a native New Yorker, I studiously avoid places like Times Square and Rockefeller Center during heavy travel periods. They’re not pleasant to visit for anyone, whether tourists or locals.

But Manhattan’s problems run deeper. There are vital questions about the degree to which the money tourists spend in Manhattan adds to the local economy.

The gross value may tell one tale, but when factoring the economic impact of tourism, the economic leakage (money benefiting businesses based elsewhere), the hard and soft costs of managing tourism, and the relatively shallow spread of benefits, the economic yield might not make as much economic sense.

Fortunately, NYC is considering alternative tourism strategies. The new “True York City” campaign encourages visitors to explore and engage more deeply with the area.

Perhaps it’s the start of real thinking about the quality of the NYC tourism experience, rather than the quantity. –Ethan Gelber of The Travel Word

MAUI, HAWAII (USA)

Maui has topped “ Best Island in the World ” ratings for years. It’s no surprise, considering its perfect weather, perfect beaches, and perfectly picturesque views. But all this perfection comes at a cost, which is the degradation of my once-perfect vacation destination .

At just 727 square miles, Maui is a small island, yet it sees around 3 million tourists each year. Those visitors drive up local prices, crowd the more popular areas, and make it harder and harder to relax in the land of aloha.

There is also the negative environmental impact of tourism, with several endemic species needing additional protection.

One especially egregious example of the effects of tourism on Maui is Molokini. This tiny, fingernail-shaped atoll just off the coast of Maui is a popular spot for snorkeling. When I first booked a half-day snorkel trip in the early 2000s, it was fantastic.

But when I returned in 2010, there were so many packed catamarans that the snorkeling area was full of swimmers. It’s not much fun to be constantly on the lookout to avoid getting kicked in the face, and it’s likely even less fun for the fish that live there. Or did.

Maui depends on tourism for its economic health, so it’s hard to hate on the island for being so popular. But I’d love it if there was a better balance between the needs of the island’s coffers and the health of its flora and fauna. –Jen Miner of The Vacation Gals

READ MORE: Maui, Hula & Hawaiian Culture

YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK (USA) 

Located in the northwestern corner of Wyoming, Yellowstone National Park is the gem that started the United States’ National Park system . In the last 10 years, tourism has increased by 40%, with over 4.2 million visiting the park in 2016.

This dramatic increase has caused numerous tourism problems. The first is visitors walking off marked trails, causing environmental damage by killing the vegetation (which leads to erosion issues).

The second problem is with visitors who throw items such as coins and food into the geothermal features, which harm the geothermal algae. Some visitors even walk in the geothermal features, which can lead to death.

Another big issue is human/wildlife encounters. Yellowstone’s animals are learning bad habits that make them think people are food sources. Bears can become aggressive and dangerous when fed.

Poorly informed visitors will involve themselves in an “animal rescue” rather than letting nature take its course (see: the couple who put a baby Bison in the back of their car ).

The best way to avoid the masses is to avoid visiting Yellowstone during the summer. May and October are a great time to take advantage of warmer weather without dealing with major crowds.  –Jennifer Melroy of Made all the Difference

YUCATAN PENINSULA (Mexico)

From Playa del Carmen to Cancun, the uncontrolled surge of tourism to the Yucatan Peninsula has turned much of the region into one massive all-inclusive resort. What once was a series of pristine jungle and marine ecosystems is gradually being destroyed by chaotic urbanization.

Nearly 10 million visitors a year descend upon Quintana Roo (the Mexican state which includes the Yucatan coast), and their piña coladas and suntan lotion are suffocating the ecosystems with plastic bottles and organic waste.

Most locals don’t profit from this rapid rise of tourism revenue: All-inclusive resorts rarely hire indigenous natives, and these resorts rarely give back to the community.

Once a quiet fishing village, Playa Del Carmen has lost all local appeal. It’s become a throbbing beach town dominated by a tourist strip filled with splashy resorts, booming nightclubs, and drugs. Violence and theft has surged in the surrounding communities while police are occupied with patrolling the tourist areas.

If you do head to Playa del Carmen or Cancun, don’t stay at an all-inclusive. Understand that unchecked tourism has had a negative impact, and let that guide your spending. Dine at local restaurants. Shop at locally-owned businesses. Chat to local people.

It’s really the only way to ensure your visit to this mass tourism hotspot has positive benefits. –Mike Jerrard of Waking Up Wild

READ MORE : Riviera Maya: Tulum, Coba Mayan Ruins, Monkeys & More!

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Overtourism in Europe's historic cities sparks backlash

Angry protests from residents in popular areas force city hall officials to take action

A cross Europe , historic cities are buckling. Mass tourism, encouraged by cash-hungry councils after the 2008 crash and fuelled by the explosion of cheap flights and online room rentals, has become a monster. The backlash, however, has begun.

In the past decade, the number of low-cost airline seats available each year in Europe has risen by more than 10% annually, more than doubling to more than 500m.

Meanwhile Airbnb, the biggest but far from only holiday lettings platform, has reported triple-digit growth in several European cities over the past five years, driving 10 of them to ask the EU for help . The cities have between 10,000 and 60,000 listings each.

The net result is that over the course of a year, popular short-break destinations such as Barcelona and Amsterdam are hosting 20 or more visitors for each inhabitant, prompting angry protests from locals and forcing city halls to take action.

It is not always evident, however, what that action should be – or if it will work. The trade-off between the revenues and jobs generated through tourism and quality of life is a tricky one. So the idea is not discouragement but management, say city halls.

Overtourism in the historic centre of Amsterdam had gone beyond the already extreme nuisance of drunken visitors vomiting nightly on 17th-century doorsteps and urinating copiously in canals, according to city hall.

With more than 19 million tourists in 2018 thronging a warren of narrow streets and alleyways that are home to 850,000 people, it was getting dangerous. “At times there was a real safety concern,” said Vera Al, of the finance and economic affairs department.

The most crowded parts of the city – the red light district and the main nightlife areas of Rembrandtplein and Leidseplein – were becoming unliveable; in the old centre shops selling wooden tulips, vacuum-packed cheese or cannabis seeds were replacing chemists, greengrocers and hairdressers. Doctors could no longer find surgery space.

More than 60,000 jobs in Amsterdam are directly linked to tourism and visitors to the city spend more than €6bn (£5bn) annually.

But over the past two years, the council has adopted tough measures. Tour coaches have mostly been banished to the outskirts and new shops catering solely to tourists have been outlawed by rewritten zoning regulations.

There will be no new hotels once developers have exhausted existing licenses. Pending a possible outright ban in some neighbourhoods, Airbnb-style lets must sleep no more than four and cannot be let for more than 30 days a year.

A tourist tax has been launched: €3 per person per night, on top of a 7% levy on each hotel room (10% on accommodation booked person-to-person online). “Tourists increase the cost of policing and cleaning the public space,” said Al, who works with deputy mayor Victor Everhardt. “We say it’s only fair they should contribute to them.”

Some of the worst excesses, such as beer bikes – a pedal-powered mobile bar groups of drinkers – have been outlawed in the city centre. Tours of the red light district’s windows, running once every couple of minutes, are to be banned from 1 April, when all guided tours of the old centre will also require permits.

The new mayor, Femke Halsema, has even tabled four possible options for the historic sex workers’ district, known as De Wallen. These include relocating all or part of it to other parts of the city, which would be a big call, politically, for part of the fabric of old Amsterdam.

Somewhat less controversially, city hall has run several successful tourist awareness campaigns, including plastering large posters portraying residentson city centre doors, each bearing the slogan “We live here.”

The concerted drive involves the mayor and all eight deputies. “It crosses all departments,” Al said. “None of it is rocket science, and we hope that taken together these measures will add up.”

Nationally, said Elsje van Vuuren of the Dutch tourist board NBTC, the strategy is about dispersing visitors to lesser-known but equally attractive towns . The board has stopped promoting the Netherlands as a destination and aims instead to better manage the flow.

Amsterdam has no illusions, however, that its programme will reduce the number of tourists visiting the city – or even significantly slow a rate of growth due to bring 40 million visitors a year to the Netherlands by 2030.

“The focus is really about restoring liveability for all those who have been affected,” said Al. “It’s about making residents feel at home again. They shouldn’t feel like strangers in their own city. We believe a city is first for living in. Only second for visiting.”

About 30 million people will visit Barcelona this year, a seemingly unstoppable tide, which has prompted exasperated residents to resort to ill-concealed irony.

“Don’t tell anyone you have been on holiday to Barcelona,” reads one leaflet recently handed out to tourists. “They will steal the city from us, and it will stop being attractive to you and liveable for us.”

The city’s response is improved management. Its Plan 2020 initiative aims to change “from managing tourism in the city, to managing the tourist city” – although Xavier Marcé, the councillor responsible, insists residents take priority.

“I’m not interested in managing a tourist city,” he said. Dispersal is the answer, Marcé believes: the problem is not so much that Barcelona has sold itself but that it’s sold itself badly. Aware the sector brings in about €10bn a year, he said: “We don’t want more tourists but that doesn’t mean we want fewer.”

As the city’s well-known sites, such as the Sagrada Familia, la Rambla and Park Güell are over-subscribed, the idea is to divert people to other areas and activities. The city is in talks with booking.com and others to devise an alternative visitor’s package.

Barcelona has also declared a moratorium on new hotels in its most touristed areas, pushing visitors to the periphery (although as Pere Mariné of the 120-member Federation of Barcelona Residents’ Associations noted, where people sleep “doesn’t make much difference. They all want to go to the Sagrada Familia.”)

Despite trying hard, the city seems unable to control the rise of Airbnb and others. According to a Vic University study, Barcelona has the highest density of tourist apartments in Europe: 12 for every 1,000 residents, compared with 10 in Rome and seven in London.

For residents, this has translated into a 50% rent increase over the past five years. A 24-year-old earning an average wage now faces a monthly rent equal to 114% of their salary. As a result, about 80% of 16- to 30-year-olds still live with their parents.

The battle to reduce the number of available beds will not affect the millions of daytrippers. As many as 20,000 a day disembark from cruise ships to head for the sites but spend little ashore. More arrive by coach, clogging up and polluting the city.

Marcé plans to force coaches to park on Barcelona’s perimeter and their passengers to use the already saturated public transport network; extra buses will be financed by a new Barcelona tourist tax, he says.

While residents are fed up with mass tourism, Mariné says there is no real popular movement for change, partly because tourists mean jobs. A demo with the slogan “Barcelona is not for sale” drew 2,000 people: “That’s not going to change anything.”

Ultimately, the city’s powers are limited and the Catalan regional government tends to share the hospitality industry’s view that more is better. As tour operators survey the growing Asian market, millions more are due to discover Barcelona’s not-so-secret treasures. Stephen Burgen

Sick of the sight of tourists picnicking on the steps of Renaissance monuments, the mayor of Florence, Dario Nardella, announced in 2017 that he would douse the surfaces with water to keep people at bay.

The hosepipe ploy never became permanent, only being used a couple of times on the steps of key monuments, such as the Basilica of Santa Croce, the burial place of Michelangelo, and the Chiesa di Santo Spirito. But the message resonated.

“There does seem to have been a rise in awareness and sensitivity among visitors,” said Cecilia Del Re, Florence’s councillor for tourism and the environment. “We did a lot of campaigning, telling people not to throw their rubbish on the street and to respect the city, and this is showing some results.”

Hefty fines for people caught scrawling their name on the Ponte Vecchio or peeing in the street in the historic centre, a Unesco world heritage site, have also improved decorum.

Attracting 14 million tourists a year, Florence is Italy’s most-visited city after Venice and Rome. Boasting a huge and rich variety of the world’s heritage and surrounded by Tuscany’s rolling hills, the city’s popularity is easy to understand.

But as with Venice and Rome, the growth in tourism has seen residents driven out of town by the rising cost of living and arrival of Airbnb: according to a Siena university study, one in five properties in the historic centre is advertised as a short-term let.

Some measures, however, seem to be paying off. “One of the main issues is that everyone is so focused on the historic centre, which is only a 5km sq area in a city of 105km sq,” said Del Re. “So we are heavily promoting areas outside of the centre.

“We are also close to launching an app that will direct people to other sites if, for example, the Uffizi Gallery is too crowded.” The city is also working with lesser known, but equally beautiful, towns in Tuscany, such as Arezzo, to promote them.

City leaders are against imposing daily limits on the numbers who can enter the centre, but have increased tenfold the cost of taking tour buses that bring people to the city for a couple of hours. They are also promoting “congress tourism”, where people visit the city for a conference or business meeting and stay for a few days.

Meanwhile, Florence authorities have converted some public property into social housing to motivate young people to move in. “We want to re-incentivise people to live in the historic centre,” said Del Re. Angela Guiffrida

The crowds surging into Prague’s majestic Old Town Square to witness last year’s seasonal illumination of Christmas lights were so vast that ambulance crews and squads of police officers were needed in case things got out of hand.

The packed scene and cosmopolitan nature of the gathered multitudes seemed to attest to a marketing triumph that had assisted the Czech capital’s arrival as a first-rank global tourist draw.

Yet the vast number of foreign visitors crammed into the modestly sized square crystallised what has become one of Prague authorities’ biggest headaches, prompting a major rethink of its tourism strategy that may eventually include a crackdown on short-term lettings.

The sheer numbers drawn by the beautiful but relatively small medieval old town – encompassing Prague castle, the 600-year-old Charles bridge and a maze of ancient cobbled streets – has put a strain on resources and quality of life that many long-established residents find intolerable.

A rising exodus of native residents and the growth of often tacky tourist shops at the expense of those catering for locals finally forced the authorities to act.

The first step is a major publicity campaign to encourage visitors to explore greater Prague, a city of 1.4 million residents, beyond the limited quarter on either bank of the River Vltava, where the majority of its most storied buildings, as well as touristy restaurants and pubs, are located.

“Too many people are coming just for a very small number of purposes, of buildings,” said Pavel Čižinský, the former mayor of the Prague 1 municipality, which includes the historic old town district. “To disperse the tourists more, I think it is necessary to involve more those who are running the tourist industry.

“The guides must say to their groups, do you want to go through these crowds where everything is twice as expensive, or do you want to go and see something which is maybe half a kilometre from Charles bridge, but which is also nice.”

The local tourist authority has published brochures called Prague Walks promoting the attractions of other neighbourhoods of historic interest, including Vinohrady, Karlín, Holešovice and Žižkov. For the strategy to work, however, strategists need to succeed in a far trickier goal: persuading visitors to come back for another look.

“We are trying to inspire repeated visits to Prague, and to motivate visitors to stay longer,” said Barbora Hrubá, spokesperson for Prague city tourism authority. “So far 70% of visitors to Prague are here for the first time. It’s understandable that the likelihood that they will leave the city centre is limited.”

Compounding the rising volume of visitors has been the growth of alcohol-fuelled tourism spurred by the Czech Republic’s deserved reputation as home to some of the world’s best, and cheapest, beer.

Lucrative organised pub crawls and stag nights have become the bane of many locals’ lives, with high noise levels and rowdy behaviour commonplace in a city centre residential area that is home to about 25,000 Praguers. Robert Tait

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Mass Tourism Is Destroying the Planet

Dec 12, 2019 | 16 videos video by the atlantic.

Last year, 1.4 billion people traveled the world. That’s up from just 25 million in 1950. In China alone, overseas trips have risen from 10 million to 150 million in less than two decades.

This dramatic surge in mass tourism can be attributed to the emergence of the global middle class, and in some ways, it’s a good thing. But the consequences are grave—particularly for the planet. In a new episode of The Idea File , the staff writer Annie Lowrey explains how overtourism has contributed to large-scale environmental degradation, dangerous conditions, and the immiseration and pricing-out of locals.

“Tourists can alter the experience of visiting something such that they ruin the very experience that they’ve been trying to have,” Lowrey says in the video. “That’s the essential definition of overtourism.”

For more, read Lowrey’s article, “ Too Many People Want to Travel .”

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Is UNESCO World Heritage status for cultural sites killing the things it loves?

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Hoi An is a beautiful coastal town in central Vietnam that escaped the devastation of the American War. In 1999, it was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage site because of the charm of its original architecture, river location, and continuity of cultural practices. UNESCO recognition has made it a major cultural tourism destination. In 2017, 3.22 million people visited, an increase of 22% on the previous year.

Authorities have introduced a ticketing system for visitors, but its purpose is to raise revenue and record tourist numbers rather than control them. The streets are relatively narrow. With the influx of mass tourism, some streets are impossible to walk in and the town has turned into an “ersatz” version of itself with all buildings turned into cafes and shops to service tourist needs. Many large tourist buses park for much of the day on the edges of the old town, to disembark and collect passengers, making an ugly impression as you enter.

The local Vietnamese have been forced to move from the town’s centre to live on the outskirts. Ironically, while it is an important cultural tourism destination for its buildings, the culture of Hoi An has changed completely due to mass tourism. From once being a lively trading community, it is becoming a theme park.

In Cambodia, meanwhile, Angkor Wat is a major international cultural heritage site. It received UNESCO recognition in 1992. From 2004-14 visitor numbers to Angkor Wat increased by more than 300% . While the local authorities have introduced a visitors’ ticket to ostensibly control numbers (and bring in revenue), there are challenges from “wear and tear” as visitors touch structures and walk on ancient paths .

Read more: 'Sustainable tourism' is not working – here's how we can change that

The major challenge for Angkor Wat, however, is uncontrolled tourist development around the site. For instance, the construction of large hotels and the illicit tapping of groundwater have affected the water table beneath the temples, which in turn affects their stability .

While continuing to preserve the temples is not easy, the far greater problem is the lack of planning around the site, which has been left to the whims of the marketplace. Ultimately this unplanned development has the potential to destroy Angkor Wat itself.

The impact of mass tourism anywhere can be overwhelming, but it is compounded in communities in developing countries with less economic resources to undertake adequate protection or planning. The town of Luang Prabang in Laos faces similar issues to Hoi An. The local community is now mostly living outside the old town , which again has been given over to tourists and their needs.

Read more: The carbon footprint of tourism revealed (it's bigger than we thought)

Other UNESCO World Heritage sites around the world are battling similar problems in dealing with mass tourism. The number of people travelling by air internationally has increased by an average of around 7% a year since 2009. This growth is expected to continue at a similar rate .

As far back as 1972, UNESCO adopted the Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. Two more conventions, adopted in 2003 and in 2005, further protect Intangible Cultural Heritage and the Diversity of Cultural Expression. The intent of these was to draw attention to cultural sites and practices to ensure their ongoing protection and longevity.

Achieving UNESCO status is an internationally competitive process. Nations want this recognition because they can promote a place or practice as a unique cultural tourism attraction.

Communities and nations do have obligations when they receive UNESCO recognition. They are expected to undertake various measures to protect the site or practice and ensure proper planning occurs. But while more attention may be applied to restoration or reduction of unsympathetic behaviour (for example, at Angkor Wat the authorities have introduced rules about appropriate clothing to be worn by visitors), the broader implications of increased visitation may not have been considered.

Read more: Friday essay: war crimes and the many threats to cultural heritage

Encouraging tourism as a means to improve the economic situation of communities can, in fact, destroy their uniqueness and cultural value. With the continuing increase in tourism, the situation will inevitably worsen.

The focus is at present on earning money from the site/practices, not preserving them. Mass tourism can damage sites irreversibly. Communities and countries have some hard choices to make.

With colleague Dr Mariana Vecco, I recently published a research article about these issues. Some of our recommendations for vulnerable sites include:

• introducing control of visitor numbers as a matter of urgency
• tighter planning controls on adjacent development
• querying the use of sites for any tourist activities
• auditing sites for damage already incurred.

All of this should occur if UNESCO status is to be continued. However, there is also a bigger conversation we need to have – should tourists visit vulnerable sites and practices?

Hoi An is still a beautiful town but the presence of “wall to wall” tourists mars it. Sadly, as long as UNESCO status is used more as a marketing device than a route to preservation, the situation will continue to deteriorate.

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22 destinations that were ruined by tourists over the past decade

• The 2010s saw more people traveling than ever before, according to The Guardian's report on recent figures from the World Tourism Organization.
• But millions upon millions of people going on adventures has put pressure on numerous destinations.
• Some, like Venice , have long been affected by overtourism, but others like Dubrovnik, Croatia, are facing new challenges caused by the popularity of TV shows like "Game of Thrones." 
• Already in 2020 there are issues, too — several tourists were arrested for damaging a sacred temple at Machu Picchu .
• Here are 22 places around the world we're loving to death.
• Visit Insider's homepage for more stories .

Iceland has had a moment — but the attention brought by the likes of "Game of Thrones," "Star Wars," and Justin Bieber has had consequences.

It's hard to think of somewhere that's been a more "it" destination in the past decade than Iceland. There are concerns , however, about the environmental impact of the increase in tourism, impact on quality of life for locals, and whether the tourism boom is a bubble that could burst .

This could lead to serious economic challenges in a country with just 360,000 people — issues that local outlets like the English-language Reykjavik Grapevine have covered extensively . To boot, attractions like the Blue Lagoon have been deemed overrated by some .

Greek islands like Santorini and Mykonos are seemingly made for Instagram — but not for the crowds.

If it wasn't posted to Instagram, did someone visit a place at all? One could be forgiven for thinking that when it comes to Greek islands. Some locals even say that to have an authentic Greek experience you should avoid Santorini and Mykonos, or any Greek island with an airport .

Ibiza is as legendary as ever — that includes the hordes of partiers.

Sun. Sand. Surf. Clubs. And crowds. Lots of crowds. What else is new in Ibiza? These days, crowds are so intense, people are recommending going to parts of the Spanish island that don't have bars and nightclubs .

Visiting Bali these days feels less and less as if you're experiencing some of Indonesia's many rich cultures.

There's a joke among some people in Australia and New Zealand that the Indonesian island of Bali is "Sydney North." Ben Groundwater from Traveller.com.au points out that it really can feel like that in spots, where you seem just as likely to hear people saying "g'day" and "kia ora" as you are to meet locals. There are still places you can go to get away from it all, but it does take a bit of effort.

Machu Picchu is not "hidden" anymore. Now, there's a limit for how many people can visit a day.

These days, so many people visit, that there's a limit of 2,500 tickets a day, according to the Inca Trail Machu blog . They are good for only four hours, do not allow re-entry, and cost $50 for adults. At least selfie sticks have been banned, as reported by the Peruvian Times.

And there continue to be problems in 2020. Six tourists were arrested after human fecal matter was discovered inside the sacred Temple of the Sun. 

More tourists could be coming, too. Last year, construction began on a multibillion-dollar international airport at Machu Picchu that would bring travelers straight to the ancient site. Thousands of people signed a petition to stop construction , but the Peruvian government has said construction will continue .

Everest also now has serious issues with overcrowding — issues that have become deadly.

"A limited number of days, too many people, too many inexperienced people, inadequate support — those all things all came together and that's where we saw most of the deaths," the veteran climber and Mount Everest expert Alan Arnette, who has studied the overcrowding issue for years, told Business Insider earlier this year .

Eleven people died in this year's climbing season on Everest — and images posted to social media of huge line to reach the summit shocked many people. But while hundreds of people now reach the summit annually, many more just trek to Base Camp — leaving several tons of garbage and human waste behind. In sum: The world's highest mountain is being desecrated.

Dubai is synonymous with glitz and glam — and lots of tourists.

As reported by Gulf Business , Dubai is one of the world's most visited cities and leads everywhere in tourist spend (a whopping $553 a person a day, almost double that of second-place Paris, where tourists spend $296 a person a day).

But all those visitors spending all that money means personal space can come at a premium — literally (as anyone who's tried to book a cabana or table at one of the emirate's beach clubs can attest). It remains to be seen how the much-hyped Expo 2020 might affect things.

Petra, Jordan, once had an otherworldly feel, thanks to a starring role in an "Indiana Jones" movie. That's not quite the case today.

The climax of "Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade" was filmed in Petra, Jordan. While it certainly is an impressive sight that can conjure all kinds of treasure-hunting fantasies, a lot of other people seem to have the same idea — crowds can be pushy, merchants even pushier (not to mention price gouges), and overall it can feel like anything but an escape from everyday life.

Venice, Italy, is the first place many people think of when they hear the word "overtourism."

So many stories have been written about overtourism and Venice that they've basically become synonymous with each other in many people's minds. Locals for years have expressed fear of their city being turned into "Veniceland," according to DW Akademie .

Switzerland's Lake Lucerne can get especially packed in the summer.

The word "crowded" features a lot in online reviews of Lucerne and the surrounding area. According to Swissinfo it has been a concern for a while , and it comes as no surprise the issue is especially acute during the warmer summer months.

Portland, Oregon, is very different from the way it's portrayed in "Portlandia."

Yes, people sometimes do put birds on things as they did in the cult IFC show "Portlandia." But — and this is coming from someone who grew up near the Rose City — a lot of the things shown in the series stretch reality, to put it mildly.

The problem is a large number of folks seem to think PDX really is all about honest folk music , quirky coffee shops , and dreaming of the '90s . It's not. If anything, you'll see more dads in Old Navy than with piercings and tribal tattoos.

Dubrovnik, Croatia, has been inundated with "Game of Thrones" fans ...

Dubrovnik was the filming location for King's Landing in the wildly popular HBO adaptation of "Game of Thrones" — and, not unlike how Daenerys Targaryen's army was able to storm the city, real-life Dubrovnik is struggling against the horde of smartphone and selfie-stick-wielding tourists.

One thing that's been done is capping the number of cruise ships allowed to dock each day, The Independent reports. But it may be too little to win the battle.

... just like how Forks, Washington, still gets swamped by "Twilight" devotees.

Having grown up nearby, I can say that Forks and the surrounding Olympic Peninsula have an almost supernatural beauty — the towering old growth forests, with the ground carpeted in soft, moist moss, are just so unbelievably green.

A safety tip: While there are no vampires or werewolves (sorry to disappoint), there are bears and cougars. And unlike a certain Edward Cullen, they are not likely to fall in love with any humans they encounter.

Burning Man is in danger of becoming burnt out, thanks to the crowds and commercialization.

As ever-increasing numbers of celebrities, the ultra-wealthy , and even ordinary folks attend Burning Man each year in the Nevada desert, there's concern the event could be losing its way. At the most recent edition, a $100,000-a-ticket camp favored by influencers was banned , following backlash from fellow attendees.

Berlin is "poor but sexy" — and also gentrifying.

Berlin is, as always, Berlin, and is "poor but sexy," as former Mayor Klaus Wowereit famously declared . But more people want to experience Berlin to the fullest — just look at how long the lines are these days to try to get into Berghain. Rising rents and gentrification are also killing the vibe — plus, it's hard to make money from a club .

While the Maldives are still gorgeous (and expensive), large numbers of tourists and climate change are threatening locals' way of life.

The Maldives are now synonymous with luxury tropical escapes. But all those fancy overwater bungalows are filled with tourists, not local people. The Independent reports that environmental impact is a concern , for one. And then there's the issue of climate change and rising sea levels — many of the nation's islands could be underwater before this century ends , according to The Telegraph.

La Pelosa in northwestern Sardinia is so crowded, officials plan to start charging admission.

La Pelosa is one of the world's most beautiful beaches — and thus extremely crowded. As many as 6,000 people visit the beach during the day in the summer months.

To counter the ever-growing influx,  CNN reports , officials in the town of Stintino (about 2 miles away) plan to start charging visitors admission. Mayor Antonio Diana said it's expected to be about €4, or $4.40, to help cut tourist numbers to roughly 1,500 visitors a day.

Maya Bay in Thailand, made famous by the Leonardo DiCaprio film "The Beach," has been closed because of overtourism.

Expected to be closed until 2021 , Maya Bay was dealing with up to 5,000 tourists a day, which the BBC reports was harming native coral. In the Philippines, Boracay was shut for similar reasons, but it has since reopened .

Hallstatt, Austria, is another place that has drawn crowds because of Instagram.

As Insider's Rachel Hosie wrote when she visited , Hallstatt may look as if it's straight out of "Frozen," but she said: "Despite the adorable buildings and natural scenery of Hallstatt, I found it hard to enjoy it. I found myself craving space, peace, and quiet, and was desperate to find somewhere not rammed with people."

India's Taj Mahal is also struggling with a rising influx of international visitors.

To try to reduce overcrowding, authorities introduced fines for people who stay at the Taj Mahal too long . Ticket prices have also been increased, according to CNN. But the huge crowds and neglect means the site is at risk .

Crowds converging on the set of Bronx stairs made famous by "Joker" are disrupting locals' lives.

Not everyone is happy about the large numbers of tourists stopping to pose for pictures on a stairway that many Bronx locals use daily. Things have even gotten testy at times: In October, someone was filmed throwing eggs at people taking pictures at the stairway .

The Netherlands is a leader in promoting sustainability — so the "I amsterdam" sign was taken down to try to stem the tide of mass tourism.

Amsterdam's "I amsterdam" sign was iconic — so much so, Dezeen reports, that it was taken down  in part because of concerns it was encouraging mass tourism. In another move, tours of Amsterdam's well-known red-light district will be banned starting in 2020 .

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From Mass Tourism and Mass Culture to Sustainable Tourism in the Post-covid19 Era: The Case of Mykonos

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• First Online: 22 June 2021
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• Konstantinos Skagias 3 ,
• Labros Vasiliadis 4 ,
• Dimitrios Belias 5 &
• Papademetriou Christos 6  

Part of the book series: Springer Proceedings in Business and Economics ((SPBE))

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One of the key challenges that tourist destinations have to face today is mass tourism and its impact on local culture. Indeed, during the past years, tourist development had relied on mass tourism, which meant that the destinations had to accommodate a significant number of tourists, something that had an impact on the destination’s culture. Such an example is the case of Mykonos. This a case of an island that has constructed its brand name as a high-end cosmopolitan destination by including mass tourist activities on its product offering but also with mass culture activities, such as major dance music events. Nonetheless, the current situation has found Mykonos, like many other destinations, without tourist demand and with the need to reposition its tourist product. In the post-covid19 tourist industry, it seems that sustainable tourism can be the answer on how Mykonos shall develop so as to recover from the current crisis. Therefore, the suggested strategy is to shift from mass tourism and mass culture into sustainable tourism and emphasis high culture. This means that the destination will have to rely on a “less tourists and more income per tourist” model of development while Mykonos can focus on cultural tourism as part of its shift into sustainable tourism.

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Skagias, K., Vasiliadis, L., Belias, D., Christos, P. (2021). From Mass Tourism and Mass Culture to Sustainable Tourism in the Post-covid19 Era: The Case of Mykonos. In: Katsoni, V., van Zyl, C. (eds) Culture and Tourism in a Smart, Globalized, and Sustainable World. Springer Proceedings in Business and Economics. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-72469-6_23

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The Cultural Costs of Tourism

INTRODUCTION: WHO BENEFITS?

At a time when many tribal peoples and ethnic minorities face the prospect of cultural, and at times physical, annihilation, it may seem grotesque to examine the effects of mass tourism on poorer countries and regions in the same way as we would consider the consequences of a large-scale development scheme in a tropical forest zone. Tourism, quite clearly, has never led to the massacre of native inhabitants, and only rarely to the uprooting of local populations.

But while tourism is a relatively benign form of economic change, it does share with many other developmental strategies a potential for cultural dislocation, which is not to say that it is inherently bad or exploitative. At the root of the problem lies the nature and organization of modern tourism, especially as it affects less developed countries. Mass tourism is really quite new and came into being after World War II as a manifestation of Western mass consumption and an increasingly interdependent global economy. Of course, tourism in the sense of travel to distant lands is very ancient, but the scale and reach of contemporary tourism is something new.

GROWTH OF TOURIST ARRIVALS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES, 1964-1976

Average annual Average annual

growth rate, growth rate,

Country 1964-1976 1971-1976

Bahamas(a) 21 -1

Brazil 29 18

Colombia 88 33

Grenada 11 -6

Hong Kong 27 14

India 20 15

Israel 18 4

Jamaica 17 -2

Jordan(a) 8 44

Kenya(a) 41 2

Mexico(a) 116 7

Morocco 16 7

Pakistan 17 21

Panama 20 10

Philippines 60 72

Republic of Korea 242 44

Singapore 113 22

Sri Lanka 41 40

Thailand 35 14

Trinidad and Tobago11 16

Tunisia 51 12

Turkey 58 34

Venezuela 88 51

Source: WTO, World Travel Statistics, 1976. Cited In UNCTC 1982:91.

(a) Up to 1975 only.

There are really very few places off the beaten path any more. Regular flights now reach Eskimo villages and Amazonian tribes, trips of a few hours that a generation ago would have taken weeks. As for scale, some eight hundred million vacationers travel every year, a quarter of them crossing national frontiers. This constitutes a huge movement of people and a large transfer of resources.

The lure of tourist money, In many cases more apparent than real, initially attracted the Interest of development agencies and governments. The basic argument in favor of touristic development stresses exchange: the tourist purchases goods and services in exchange for recreation and leisure. Very important in this equation is the role of natural, human and cultural environments as resources and commodities. For less developed countries there is a particularly heavy stress on exotic locations and peoples: rustic modes of life, the appeal of sun and sand, open and "wild" spaces, etc. The less industrialized portions of the globe have landscapes that are climatically and economically different from those to be found in developed countries. Economic backwardness and rural poverty may even seem to have an idyllic quality.

How well does this exchange work? A reasonable answer is that in economic terms the benefits to host countries and societies correlate closely to the degree of control they have over the industry. This control is very much a function of the economic strength and political autonomy of the society. Thus, while there is tourism in Senegal and in Switzerland, the Swiss benefit a great deal more from every tourist that visits their country: not only are tourists in Switzerland likely to leave more money in local pockets, staying at Swiss-owned hotels and buying Swiss watches, but much of the infrastructure (tour operators, transportation, etc.) will be Swiss.

The reverse tends to hold true in poor countries. Resort hotels are generally foreign-owned, and so are the agencies and airlines that take tourists to their destination. In such circumstances, a high percentage of the profits earned from tourism are repatriated to parent companies in the developed world. Furthermore, most tourists do not expect to rough it but count on accommodation and cuisine similar to that at home, all adding up to high import costs for materials and food. Maintaining a resort complex in a developing country is not simply expensive; such vast expenditure often underwrites a style of life in sharp contrast to that of local people. As a case in point, every room in a recently built Ivory Coast hotel consumes 150 gallons of water a day, while in neighboring villages even a central water supply is a recent luxury.

AVERAGE BREAKDOWN OF COSTS OF PACKAGE TOURS (HIGH SEASON)

% of revenue revenue

Destination Average revenue for trans- to tour

(miles from market) revenue for hotel portation operator

1,000 miles

2/3-star hotels $270 52 40 8

4-star hotels $390 58 33 8

1,500 miles

A- and B-class

hotels $420 58 36 6

4,000-5,000 miles $840 33 48 19

Source: UNCTC 1982:76.

In summary, the economic benefits of tourism for developing societies may turn out to be Illusory, especially at the local level. Even if tourism does help with a country's balance of payments, it does not follow that It will be of much help to the local farmer or shopkeeper.

CULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS

Obviously, the economic costs and benefits of tourism should be examined on a case-by-case basis, and the same is true for what we may term cultural considerations. In this respect, it is very important to keep in mind that, fundamentally, tourism involves the merchandising of fantasy.

For the tourist, San Francisco is cable cars and Fisherman's Wharf (too expensive for locals) and Spain is bullfights and flamenco music (local stations carry rock and Spaniards much prefer to watch soccer).

In Amsterdam "sex tours" are organized to fly men to Bangkok. In common with all package tours, payment was in advance; but this particular arrangement included the chance to act out scenarios of dominance in suitable "Oriental" environments.

Much more typical is the situation of tourists in a Senegal resort who are offered the opportunity to "fish in the native style" and cheerfully lend a hand helping the natives haul in the nets. What the visitors don't know is that the authentic local fishermen have been ordered away from this part of the coast; in fact, the people they help are employed by the hotel to give the requisite degree of native flavor.

Whatever these scenarios may achieve in satisfying the variety of needs of the tourist, this fabrication of cultural images for mass consumption is disturbing.

Tourism in its present form can carry prohibitive cultural costs for the so-called host societies. This argument is succinctly stated by Anthony Smith, the director of the British Film Institute:

Tourism places the whole of the visited culture on sale, distorting its imagery and symbolism, turning its emotions loose, transforming a way of life into an industry...A culture...is turned from subject to object, from independent to dependent, from audience-in-its-own-right to spectacle.

I quote Smith because of the linkage he makes between imagery and fantasy on the one hand and economic and social forces on the other. There is, of course, nothing inherently destructive about fantasy. What matters is how such fantasies are played out and how they reflect the relative power of the actors.

In Amherst, Massachusetts, where I live, I do not have to worry about uninvited strangers entering my kitchen to photograph me as I prepare supper. I would enjoy no such privacy if I were an Eskimo butchering a seal behind my house when tourists were in town. My private world, my private affairs, respected by my fellow villagers, become public property, open to public scrutiny. In a small but significant way, my culture and my tranquility have been disturbed. The tourist, no doubt told that he will be free to record the everyday life of the natives, is unaware of the intrusiveness of his behavior. It should come as no surprise that when the pressure of the external world gets too high people react by closing off their life to outsiders, sometimes by erecting physical barriers.

TOURISM AND PUBLIC POLICY

Because modern tourism carries both economic and cultural consequences, it is inevitable that it will also have repercussions of a political nature. How people respond to tourism depends a great deal on the control they have over it, in the developed as well as in the poorer countries. Thus, some small tourist enterprises in the United States are reacting to the power of industry giants with much the same anguish as similar businesses in the less-developed world. A San Francisco tour-bus operator phrased the problem this way: "What we want to break through is a multinational monopoly that keeps a grip on the Japanese tourist and his money from the time he leaves Tokyo to the time he returns".

Natural resources and their utilization constitute another area of possible contention. In recent years, for example, there have been several episodes in Wales of nationalist militants setting fire to the houses of English summer residents, outsiders seen as unfairly buying up a shrinking supply of farm land. In the village of Cap Lloc in Catalonia, northeastern Spain, a confrontation lasted several years between local fishermen and summer residents, who planned to transform what was left of the town beach (where the fishermen keep their boats) into a yacht basin and club. Because the fishermen were able to win extensive public support, this particular development project was shelved.

At the more general level of group identity and cultural maintenance, tourism can also become a critical political issue, and not only for tribal people. Again, the problem has to be understood in terms of power relations. Here we have to keep in mind not only the power of the tourist industry to distort cultural reality, but also the power of higher-order political structures, especially the state, to influence the cultural dynamics of society. Depending on their policies and long-term goals, states may either wish to support cultural pluralism or to insist that such pluralism does not exist. While these issues are internal to a political system, they influence the perceptions that tourists have of the country they visit. The South African government, wishing to project an image of stability and tranquility, distributes tourist brochures with glossy pictures of traditionally-costumed Africans living peacefully (and colorfully) in their "homelands." In Turkey, it has long been government policy not to recognize the ethnic distinctiveness of Kurds - they are officially categorized as "mountain Turks."

Very few tourists have the knowledge or background that would make them aware of such distortions. In Spain, when the Franco government decided to espouse a development program heavily dependent on tourism in the 1960s, it did so knowing it would obliterate the linguistic and cultural diversity of the country. Since all the place names and road signs were in Spanish (even in minority language areas), the visitor was hardly in a position to understand that he was crossing cultural frontiers - unless local inhabitants corrected the signs, as regularly happened on Catalan roads off the main highway from France.

The crux of the matter is that tourism lends itself very easily to manipulation. There is, of course, no reason why tourism should not be a mutually beneficial experience and a reasonable source of income for the societies visited. Tourism, for instance, has been largely responsible for the survival of folk crafts in Mexico and the Southwest, and in Scotland it is tourists (and nostalgic descendants of emigrant Scots) who provide the audiences for Highland games and similar activities.

But if the positive effects of tourism are to become more widespread, it is indispensable that the societies and groups being visited be allowed to define and control much more stringently the conditions of interaction, both economic and cultural. The alternative for many societies is economic exploitation and increasingly sterile cultural environments, settings of "staged authenticity" with little meaning for the principal actors. Needless to say, the cultures most at risk are the economically vulnerable and politically subordinated.

Article copyright Cultural Survival, Inc.

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How Does Tourism Affect Culture

Published: December 12, 2023

Modified: December 28, 2023

by Dorolisa Templin

• Arts & Culture
• Plan Your Trip

Introduction

Travel and tourism have become increasingly popular activities in recent years, with people from all over the world exploring new destinations and immersing themselves in different cultures. While tourism brings numerous benefits, such as economic growth and job opportunities, it also has some less desirable effects on culture. In this article, we will examine the impact of tourism on culture, including its economic, social, environmental, and cultural aspects.

When tourists visit a new destination, they bring with them their own set of beliefs, customs, and behaviors. These interactions between tourists and the local community can significantly influence the cultural dynamics of a place. It is crucial to understand how tourism affects culture to ensure that the positive aspects are maximized, while the negative repercussions are minimized.

Over the years, the global tourism industry has grown exponentially, resulting in an increasing number of tourists venturing to various parts of the world. This influx of visitors can put immense pressure on the local culture and traditions.

In the following sections, we will explore how tourism affects culture from different perspectives, including the economic impact, social impact, environmental impact, and cultural impact. We will also delve into the challenges and issues that arise in preserving culture amidst the growth of tourism, as well as strategies to strike a balance between tourism and cultural preservation.

Additionally, we will examine real-life case studies that illustrate the effect of tourism on culture. These examples will serve to highlight the diversity of experiences and shed light on the various ways tourism can shape and transform a culture.

By understanding the complexities of tourism’s impact on culture, we can work towards creating sustainable and responsible tourism practices that not only benefit the economy but also respect and preserve the cultural heritage of communities around the world. Join us as we delve into this fascinating topic and explore the multifaceted relationship between tourism and culture.

Economic Impact of Tourism on Culture

The economic impact of tourism on culture is significant and multifaceted. Tourism can boost the local economy by creating jobs and generating revenue through visitor spending. When tourists visit a destination, they often engage in various cultural activities, such as visiting museums, attending traditional events, or purchasing local handicrafts. These activities contribute to the preservation and promotion of the local culture, while also providing economic benefits to the community.

One of the key economic benefits of tourism is the creation of employment opportunities. As tourism increases, there is a growing demand for workers in various sectors such as hospitality, transportation, and retail. This leads to job creation, reducing unemployment rates and improving the standard of living for local residents. Additionally, the revenue generated from tourism can be reinvested in the cultural sector, supporting the development and maintenance of cultural sites and activities.

Moreover, tourism can stimulate entrepreneurship and the growth of small businesses within the local community. Local artisans and craftsmen can showcase and sell their products to tourists, providing a sustainable source of income and contributing to the preservation of traditional crafts. This not only supports the local economy but also helps to promote and preserve unique cultural traditions.

However, it is essential to strike a balance between economic growth and the preservation of culture. The pursuit of economic benefits should not come at the expense of cultural integrity. It is crucial to implement sustainable tourism practices that respect and preserve the authenticity of local culture, ensuring that economic growth is coupled with cultural preservation.

Overall, the economic impact of tourism on culture can be highly beneficial if managed responsibly. By leveraging the economic opportunities that tourism presents, while also respecting and preserving cultural heritage, destinations can create a sustainable and thriving tourism industry that benefits both the local economy and the cultural richness of the community.

Social Impact of Tourism on Culture

Tourism has a significant social impact on culture, both positive and negative. It brings people from different backgrounds together, fostering multicultural exchanges and promoting understanding and tolerance. However, it can also lead to social disruptions and conflicts if not managed properly.

One of the positive social impacts of tourism on culture is the promotion of cultural exchange and appreciation. When tourists visit a destination, they often engage with the local community, interact with locals, and learn about their traditions, customs, and way of life. This exchange of ideas and experiences can lead to a greater understanding and respect for diverse cultures, promoting global citizenship and breaking down cultural barriers.

Furthermore, tourism can empower local communities, especially marginalized groups, by providing them with opportunities to showcase their culture and traditions. Indigenous communities, for example, can use tourism as a platform to share their rich cultural heritage, enabling them to preserve their traditions and generate income at the same time. This empowerment can boost self-esteem, cultural pride, and preserve the social fabric of the community.

However, tourism can also have negative social impacts on culture. The influx of tourists can cause overcrowding and disrupt the daily lives of locals. Traditional communities may experience changes in their social dynamics, as they adapt to cater to the preferences and demands of tourists. Additionally, there can be instances of cultural commodification, where cultural practices are commercialized for the sake of tourism, leading to the dilution or distortion of authentic traditions.

It is crucial to mitigate the negative social impacts of tourism by implementing sustainable tourism practices and fostering community engagement. Local communities should be actively involved in decision-making processes, ensuring their voices are heard and their cultural needs are considered. This can include regulating visitor numbers, promoting responsible tourism behavior, and providing locals with opportunities to participate in tourism-related activities.

Overall, the social impact of tourism on culture is complex and multifaceted. By promoting cultural exchange, empowering local communities, and fostering responsible tourism practices, we can harness the positive social benefits of tourism while mitigating its negative effects, ultimately creating a harmonious relationship between tourism and culture.

Environmental Impact of Tourism on Culture

The environmental impact of tourism on culture is a critical consideration in sustainable tourism practices. While tourism can contribute to the preservation and conservation of natural and cultural resources, it can also pose significant threats to the environment.

One of the key environmental impacts of tourism on culture is the degradation of natural habitats and ecosystems. The increased visitor footfall in ecologically sensitive areas can disrupt local flora and fauna, leading to habitat destruction and loss of biodiversity. Moreover, improper waste management and pollution associated with tourism activities can contaminate water bodies, degrade air quality, and harm the natural environment.

Cultural sites and heritage buildings can also be adversely affected by tourism activities. A high influx of tourists can result in excessive wear and tear on archaeological sites, monuments, and historical sites. It is crucial to implement proper conservation measures and visitor management strategies to protect these cultural treasures.

However, tourism can also have a positive environmental impact on culture. Sustainable tourism practices that prioritize environmental conservation can help protect natural resources and preserve cultural heritage. Responsible tourism initiatives such as eco-tourism, community-based tourism, and nature conservation projects can contribute to the preservation of the environment while providing opportunities for visitors to experience and appreciate the local culture.

By implementing sustainable tourism practices, such as reducing carbon emissions, minimizing waste generation, conserving water resources, and supporting local conservation efforts, tourism can have a positive impact on the environment and contribute to the long-term preservation of cultural heritage.

Educating tourists about the importance of environmental conservation and cultural preservation is crucial. Tourists should be encouraged to engage in responsible tourism behavior, respecting the natural environment, and adhering to local cultural norms. This can be achieved through informative signage, guided tours, and educational programs that highlight the significance of culture and the environment.

Overall, the environmental impact of tourism on culture is a complex issue. By implementing sustainable practices, raising awareness, and fostering a sense of responsibility among tourists, we can ensure that tourism not only enriches cultural experiences but also contributes to the protection and conservation of the natural environment.

Cultural Impact of Tourism on Culture

The cultural impact of tourism is perhaps one of the most profound and direct effects of tourism on a destination. It influences the local traditions, customs, and identity of a community. The interactions between tourists and the local culture can result in both positive and negative outcomes.

One of the positive cultural impacts of tourism is the revitalization and preservation of traditional cultural practices. When tourists show interest in local traditions, communities may feel a renewed sense of pride in their cultural heritage. This can lead to the preservation and promotion of traditional arts, crafts, music, dances, and festivals. Additionally, tourism can provide economic incentives for the continued practice of these cultural activities.

Tourism can also create platforms for cultural exchange, promoting intercultural understanding and appreciation. Through interaction with visitors, locals have the opportunity to share their stories, traditions, and beliefs, fostering a sense of mutual respect and understanding. This cultural exchange can challenge stereotypes, break down barriers, and foster empathy among people from different backgrounds.

However, there are also negative cultural impacts associated with tourism. One such impact is the erosion of local culture under the influence of mass tourism. When a destination becomes overly reliant on tourism, there is the potential for the commodification and commercialization of culture, where authenticity is compromised for the sake of catering to tourist expectations. This can lead to the loss of cultural integrity and the homogenization of local traditions.

Furthermore, the sheer volume of tourists in popular destinations can disrupt the social fabric of local communities. The influx of tourists can lead to overcrowding, making it challenging for locals to maintain their way of life and feel a sense of belonging in their own neighborhoods. This can result in tensions between residents and tourists and a loss of cultural cohesion.

It is crucial to strike a balance between tourism and cultural preservation. This can be achieved by implementing sustainable tourism practices that prioritize cultural preservation, empowering local communities in decision-making processes, and promoting authentic and responsible cultural experiences. Encouraging visitors to interact respectfully with the local culture and educating them about cultural norms and traditions can also help mitigate negative cultural impacts.

Overall, the cultural impact of tourism on culture is both complex and influential. By recognizing and addressing the positive and negative outcomes, destinations can harness the power of tourism to foster cultural appreciation, preserve local traditions, and create meaningful and authentic cultural experiences for both locals and visitors.

Challenges and Issues in Tourism and Cultural Preservation

While tourism has the potential to positively impact cultural preservation, it also poses significant challenges and issues that need to be addressed to ensure the long-term sustainability and preservation of culture. These challenges include:

Over tourism: Overcrowding of popular destinations due to excessive tourism can place immense pressure on local communities and their cultural heritage. The sheer number of visitors can lead to the degradation of cultural sites, erosion of authentic traditions, and a loss of quality of life for residents.

Cultural commodification: There is a risk of cultural commodification, where cultural practices and traditions are exaggerated or distorted solely for the purpose of attracting tourists. This can result in the loss of cultural authenticity and the exploitation of cultural heritage for commercial gain.

Unbalanced economic benefits: Tourism can result in an uneven distribution of economic benefits, with large tourism companies or outside investors reaping the majority of profits while local communities and cultural practitioners receive only minimal benefits. This can lead to socio-economic disparities and the marginalization of local cultures and communities.

Lack of community participation: Inadequate involvement of local communities in tourism planning and decision-making processes can result in the mismanagement and unsustainable development of cultural sites. It is crucial to empower local communities and engage them in shaping tourism policies and practices that align with their cultural values and aspirations.

Inadequate infrastructure and resources: Insufficient infrastructure and resources to support tourism and cultural preservation can hinder effective management and protection of cultural heritage sites. Without proper facilities and sustainable practices, the preservation of culture may be compromised, resulting in irreversible damage.

Climate change and environmental degradation: The impacts of climate change and environmental degradation pose a significant threat to cultural preservation. Rising sea levels, natural disasters, and habitat destruction can lead to the loss of cultural sites and traditions that are closely tied to the environment.

To address these challenges, it is essential to adopt a holistic and sustainable approach to tourism and cultural preservation. This includes the implementation of responsible tourism practices that prioritize cultural authenticity, community involvement, and environmental sustainability. Engaging local communities in decision-making processes and ensuring equitable distribution of economic benefits can also foster a sense of ownership and commitment to preserving culture.

Moreover, raising awareness among tourists about the importance of cultural preservation, encouraging respectful behavior, and promoting sustainable travel choices are all vital in supporting cultural resilience and safeguarding cultural heritage for future generations.

Cultural preservation should be seen as a collective responsibility, involving collaboration between local communities, governments, tourism stakeholders, and visitors. By addressing these challenges and working towards sustainable solutions, we can create a tourism industry that preserves and celebrates the rich cultural diversity of our world.

Strategies for Balancing Tourism and Cultural Preservation

Striking a balance between tourism and cultural preservation is crucial to ensure the long-term sustainability and authenticity of destinations. Here are some key strategies that can help achieve this balance:

1. Sustainable tourism planning: Implementing comprehensive tourism planning that considers the cultural, social, economic, and environmental impacts is essential. This involves conducting thorough impact assessments, setting carrying capacities for tourist sites, and establishing regulations and guidelines to protect cultural heritage.

2. Community involvement: Engaging local communities in decision-making processes is vital for successful cultural preservation. Involving community members in tourism planning, development, and management empowers them to take ownership of their cultural heritage and ensures that their voices are heard.

3. Cultural education and awareness: Educating tourists about the cultural significance of a destination fosters respect and understanding. Providing information and organizing cultural workshops or guided tours can help visitors appreciate the local culture, customs, and traditions, encouraging responsible and respectful behavior.

4. Promotion of sustainable practices: Encouraging sustainable tourism practices is crucial for protecting cultural heritage. This includes promoting responsible travel, supporting local businesses, reducing resource consumption, and minimizing waste generation. Collaborating with tourism operators and businesses to adopt sustainable practices can have a positive impact on both culture and the environment.

5. Development of alternative attractions: Developing alternative attractions and dispersing tourist flows can help alleviate the pressure on overcrowded destinations. By promoting lesser-known sites and encouraging visitors to explore different areas, tourism can be better distributed, benefiting both popular and emerging destinations.

6. Preservation of authenticity: It is essential to preserve and promote cultural authenticity. Encouraging the continued practice of traditional crafts, cuisine, music, and dances, while discouraging the commercialization and dilution of cultural traditions, helps maintain the integrity of the local culture.

7. Capacity building and training: Providing training and capacity-building programs for local communities, tourism operators, and cultural practitioners equips them with the knowledge and skills necessary to manage tourism sustainably. This ensures that cultural preservation is effectively integrated into tourism practices.

8. Collaboration and partnerships: Collaboration between different stakeholders, including government agencies, community organizations, tourism operators, and NGOs, is essential for effective cultural preservation. Building partnerships and fostering dialogue can facilitate the exchange of ideas, resources, and best practices, leading to more sustainable tourism development.

9. Monitoring and evaluation: Regular monitoring and evaluation of tourism impacts on culture are crucial to identify emerging issues and assess the effectiveness of implemented strategies. This allows for adjustments and improvements to be made, ensuring that cultural preservation remains a priority.

By adopting these strategies, destinations can achieve a balance between tourism development and cultural preservation. Promoting responsible tourism practices, involving local communities, and preserving the authenticity of cultural traditions contribute to the long-term sustainability and enjoyment of cultural heritage for both present and future generations.

Case Studies on the Effect of Tourism on Culture

Examining real-life case studies can provide valuable insights into the diverse ways in which tourism can impact culture. Here are two notable examples:

1. Bhutan: Bhutan, a small country in the Himalayas, has gained international recognition for its unique approach to tourism and cultural preservation. In an effort to protect its cultural heritage and promote sustainable tourism, Bhutan has adopted a high-value, low-impact tourism policy. The government regulates tourist numbers through a daily fee and requires visitors to book through authorized tour operators. This approach has allowed Bhutan to carefully manage its cultural sites and traditions while ensuring that tourism benefits local communities. Visitors have the opportunity to immerse themselves in Bhutanese culture, participating in local festivals, engaging with the community, and experiencing traditional arts and crafts. By prioritizing cultural preservation and sustainable tourism practices, Bhutan has successfully maintained its unique cultural identity.

2. Venice, Italy: Venice, known for its historic canals and stunning architecture, has been facing significant cultural challenges due to tourism. The city has experienced an overwhelming influx of tourists, which has put immense pressure on its infrastructure and local lifestyle. The overwhelming number of visitors has caused congestion, increased pollution, and driven up housing prices, leading to the displacement of local residents. As a result, Venice has been grappling with the preservation of its cultural heritage and ensuring the well-being of its residents. To address these issues, the city has implemented measures to manage tourism, including limiting the number of cruise ships, regulating tourist accommodations, and promoting responsible visitor behavior. These efforts aim to strike a balance between preserving the city’s cultural heritage and creating a sustainable tourism industry that respects the local community’s way of life.

These case studies highlight the importance of proactive measures in managing the impact of tourism on culture. By implementing well-designed policies, destinations can protect their cultural heritage, support local communities, and create a harmonious relationship between tourism and culture.

The relationship between tourism and culture is a complex and dynamic one. Tourism has the potential to bring both positive and negative impacts on the preservation and promotion of culture. It is crucial to strike a balance that ensures the long-term sustainability and authenticity of cultural heritage while harnessing the economic and social benefits that tourism can bring.

Throughout this article, we have explored the economic, social, environmental, and cultural impacts of tourism on culture. We have seen that responsible tourism practices can create opportunities for economic growth, job creation, and cultural preservation. By engaging with local communities, promoting sustainable practices, and empowering cultural practitioners, tourism can generate positive social and economic outcomes while respecting and promoting local traditions.

However, challenges and issues exist that must be addressed. From over-tourism to cultural commodification, these challenges require thoughtful strategies and collaboration between various stakeholders. It is essential to involve local communities in decision-making processes and prioritize the preservation of cultural authenticity and integrity.

Real-life case studies have provided valuable insights into how destinations navigate the complex relationship between tourism and cultural preservation. From Bhutan’s successful approach to sustainable tourism to the challenges faced by Venice, these examples illustrate the importance of proactive measures and responsible tourism practices in achieving a balance that benefits both cultural preservation and the tourism industry itself.

In conclusion, by adopting strategies that prioritize cultural preservation, responsible tourism behavior, community involvement, and sustainable development, destinations can create a thriving tourism industry while safeguarding their cultural heritage. The effective management of tourism’s impact on culture requires collaboration, education, and continuous monitoring to ensure that future generations can enjoy and appreciate the rich diversity of cultures around the world.

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Social and cultural impacts of mass tourism on the host community

This article aims to explore some of the social and cultural impacts of mass tourism on the host community. Mass tourism has been defined in different ways over the years with notable differences; however, one definition all researchers agree on is that mass tourism refers to a large number of tourists going to the same place simultaneously (BBC, 2019). This type of tourism was pioneered by Thomas Cook during the second half of the 19th century in the UK.

There is no doubt that mass tourism has both positive and negative impacts on the host communities. Both tourists and local people can benefit from each other through their mutual interactions. Mass tourism provides them with an opportunity to learn different cultures and customs.  Tourists come into contact with different types of attire, food, festival, language and belief that are practiced by local people. Locals can also get to know many different things from tourists. As a result, a greater understanding of diversity can be achieved.

Mass tourism impacts on social mobility and social inclusion. It is widely seen that many young people and women work in their local tourism and hospitality businesses. This helps them financially and equip them with the experience they need in order to work in higher positions within the same industry and beyond. It is virtually impossible for women in many poor economies to travel far from home to explore employment opportunities. Therefore, when tourism brings jobs to their doorsteps, it does really work for them. And with this process, a greater level of social mobility and social inclusion is achieved.

However, there is no denying that mass tourism has negative social and cultural impacts on the host communities. For instance, many researchers argue that mass tourism creates demonstration effect i.e. locals start copying the behaviour patterns of tourists (Fisher, 2004). Many locals assume that imitating the consumptions of tourists will improve their social standing. However, what they miss is that this demonstration effect may force them to some extent, to compromise with their traditional value systems.

It is not unlikely that tourists may sometimes offend local people inadvertently due to their lack of cultural awareness. For instance, their topless sunbathing in beaches and limited clothing when visiting religious sites may offend the local habitants badly. Likewise, a public display of affection between couple is also an example of violation of cultural norms in some countries (Tourism Concern, 2014). For instance, tourists from the Western countries may face cultural conflicts when they visit many African, Middle Eastern, and South Asian countries.

Mass tourism has also been found to have correlations with the rise of anti-social behaviour and crime rates in the host communities. For instance, illegal use of drugs and alcohol, gambling, prostitution, and loud noises have all been evidenced to have correlations with mass tourism in some destinations. In fact, tourism has been a cause of disruption in the daily life of host communities. In the extreme cases, it has also been the cause of removal of local people in many places.

We hope the article ‘Social and cultural impacts of mass tourism on the host community’ has been helpful. You may also like reading Different types of resorts and their key features and Positive and negative impacts of tourism . Other relevant articles for you are:

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Last update: 22 September 2019

References/Further reading:

BBC (2019) Tourism, available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zqk7hyc/revision/3 (accessed  22 August 2019)

Fisher, D. (2004) The demonstration effect revisited, available at:  https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0160738304000180?via%3Dihub (accessed 20 September 2019)

Tourism Concern (2014) Cultural impacts, available at: https://www.tourismconcern.org.uk/cultural-impacts/ (accessed 20 September 2019)

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Author: m rahman.

M Rahman writes extensively online and offline with an emphasis on business management, marketing, and tourism. He is a lecturer in Management and Marketing. He holds an MSc in Tourism & Hospitality from the University of Sunderland. Also, graduated from Leeds Metropolitan University with a BA in Business & Management Studies and completed a DTLLS (Diploma in Teaching in the Life-Long Learning Sector) from London South Bank University.

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Culture, heritage looting, and tourism: A text mining review approach

Sandra maria correia loureiro.

1 ISCTE-Instituto Universitário de Lisboa and Business Research Unit, Lisbon, Portugal

Amr Al-Ansi

2 Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, Macao SAR, China

Hyungseo Bobby Ryu

3 Food Franchise Department, College of Health Sciences, Kyungnam University, Changwon-si, South Korea

Antonio Ariza-Montes

4 Social Matters Research Group, Universidad Loyola Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain

5 College of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Sejong University, Seoul, South Korea

Associated Data

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Tourism scholars have been devoted to exploring the significance of cultural heritage in generating economic, environmental, and social values. However, limited efforts were found to verify potential threats that demolish these values such as looting issue in the global heritage tourism industry. Therefore, this study has reviewed extant publications to demonstrate the potential emerged textual clusters discussed by previous studies. It also summarized the network distribution of articles journals and authors’ affiliations to capture the mobility and diversity with a focus on the business and tourism management field. Hence, the core clusters discovered were related to heritage destruction, public access, world heritage, human rights, cultural heritage preservation, and protection of cultural heritage in the event. The results have established theoretical insights and research agendas for future tourism studies, while it determined critical drawbacks in employing technology tools including virtual reality, augmented reality, and artificial intelligence for cultural heritage preservation/protection.

Introduction

Cultural heritage is the core identity and the national character of communities across the globe ( Giakoumis, 2020 ; Trinh et al., 2020 ). Losing its authenticity and historical values leads to demolishing the community principles ( Brodie and Renfrew, 2005 ; Al-Ansi et al., 2021 ; Saifi, 2021 ). Scholars from different fields attempted to demystify the invisible impacts involved along with the evolution of cultural heritage looting. From the tourism management perspective, it tends to be an essential part of a global organized crime that created an active illegal market ( Bowman, 2008 ; Campbell, 2013 ; Greenland et al., 2019 ). This global issue has established a barrier for many governments, local authorities, and international organizations to restrain its rapid growth due to its striking trades of looted antiquities. The global effort regarding this issue has called for several emergency initiatives to overcome and eliminate its uncontrolled growth to protect the nations’ valuable possessions ( UNESCO, 2016 ). The global illegal business of cultural heritage has far-reaching consequences on the coherence of communities, sustainable principles, tourism management, transparency values, and human rights ( Mackenzie and Yates, 2016 ). Thereby unraveling the intricacies of this black-market nexus with the social development of communities and characteristics of human values is a critical matter.

Cultural heritage looting is defined as an illegal act breaking the global business law in dealing or trading with cultural heritage objects such as antiques, artifacts, or any historical items ( Al-Ansi et al., 2021 ). In a sense, it is committing a crime against the cultural heritage and human civilization values that were inherited from past generations. Many global organizations (e.g., governmental and non-governmental) have apprehended it as a total threat to society, the economy, and the environment. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNESCO have acknowledged the drawbacks among global state members to cooperate in fighting closely against this black market ( UNESCO, 2016 ). Recently, the International Criminal Police Organization INTERPOL has urged the global states to combat this phenomenon through enhancing collaborations and partnerships. The absence of an effective tool and plan to combat cultural heritage looting has raised the illegal trade activities of antiques and artifacts across the world during past decades ( INTERPOL, 2019 ).

As a shift from commitment into an action, an early alarm was reported by the international council of museums ICOM to protect many valuable cultural heritage objects inherited from the most vulnerable areas across the world including [Asia: Afghanistan, Cambodia, China; Africa: Nigeria, Mali, Ghana, Chad, Senegal, Cameron, Burkina Faso; South America: Mexico, Colombia, Brazil, Chile, Peru, Ecuador; and the Middle East: Egypt, Yemen, Iraq, Syria, Libya] ( ICOM, 2020 ). The proliferation of looted cultural heritage property has been observed in many art houses and auction centers across Europe, United Kingdom, and United States ( Altaweel, 2019 ).

In turn, the increased action of looting cultural treasures reflects on the local society characteristics and harms values including identity and authenticity ( Al-Ansi et al., 2021 ). Past literatures have overviewed the critical role of preserving and protecting cultural heritage to reinforce new tourism development and sustainability ( Trinh et al., 2020 ). However, the efforts conducted by previous scholars have highlighted limited insights and perspectives about the global phenomenon of cultural heritage looting which produced an insufficient understanding of its economic, environmental, and social repercussions.

The twofold scopes of this global crime and phenomenon in looting practice involved theoretical and practical dimensions that spawned a complex topic to understand its processes, aspects, and attributes through the past years. Even though some scholars’ endeavors have addressed its critical entangled and impacts from different perspectives, the intricate spheres of this global dilemma require more sophisticated work that explores the present paths of this illegal active market. To delve into this topic, academia and other relevant educational fields must decipher the unseen zones of this phenomenon. Thereby, academics, heritage managers, and non/governmental agencies are required to reshape their present strategies when dealing with this global dilemma through assessing their goals and reviewing previous studies’ efforts in protecting the cultural heritage sites ( Mualam and Alterman, 2020 ). This can help to create a plausible approach for future studies and its theoretical orientations. It also can demonstrate an implemented guidance to foster management process skills to curb its illegal business market. Therefore, cultural heritage and looting is a relevant topic for tourism in cultural sites that deserve further attention. Yet, so far, no past research provides a perspective on the extant literature on the topic. Thus, this report seeks to answer the following research question: “What tourism research has been conducted on cultural heritage and looting and how future research could evolve from now?”

Therefore, this study aims to provide the main clusters that emerge from the prior studies and suggestions for future research on the topic. It also attempts to give an initial light to pave a visible path on the topic by assessing and reviewing the prior published documents after a comprehensive search and collection of them, presenting the main clusters and highlighting the future research agenda.

Our study contributes to the tourism management in three ways. First, it is the first comprehensive review of cultural heritage and looting research, covering 30 years of publications on the topic with 30 scientific articles and 16 other documents. Second, we point out the scientific journals where this topic has been published, the network of authors and the countries where their universities are located and the cluster analyze with six core clusters, namely: heritage destruction, public access, world heritage, human rights, cultural heritage preservation, and protection of cultural property in the event. Finally, we outline the future research agenda.

Materials and methods

We collected documents on cultural heritage and looting from two well-known online libraries—Web of Science (WOS) and Scopus—using the following query applied to the title, abstract, and keywords: (“Culture* heritage” AND looting). Figure 1 illustrates the documents found in both databases. When filtered for business, economic and finance/accounting and merging, 57 documents remain. Other areas are associated with agriculture, biology, environmental science, physics, computer science, earth and planetary science, or art and humanities and are not considered due to the focus on business and tourism management. The full text reading was performed by two researchers independently regarding the consistency standards suggested by Macpherson and Holt (2007) . This process led to an agreement of excluding eleven documents, with a Cohen’s Kappa coefficient of >0.85 ( Cohen, 1960 ).

Documents search and selection.

The VOSViewer software tool was then used to conduct the network analysis ( Van Eck and Waltman, 2010 ). The network analysis performed includes journals and researchers and is built on co-authorship. VOSViewer employs visualization-of-similarities (VOS) mapping to create two-dimensional bibliographic networks ( Waltman et al., 2010 ). The weakly (strongly) related nodes emerge far from one another (close together) ( Van Eck and Waltman, 2014 ). Co-authorship analysis explores the social relationships among authors and their country of affiliations and equivalent impacts on the development ( Acedo et al., 2006 ) of the cultural heritage and looting research.

Co-authorship is relevant because allow to understand how authors interact among themselves and what are the countries of affiliated institutions ( Acedo et al., 2006 ; Cisneros et al., 2018 ). The increase theoretical and methodological complexity of the research leads authors to collaborate among them and this analysis allow to understand the network and who are the most prolific authors ( Tahamtan et al., 2016 ). The insights that come from co-authorship analysis can be used to stimulate new research and collaborations. Therefore, the information about authors affiliation that come from both WOS and Scopus is introduced in the VOSViewer software to be able to trace the networks.

We also used MeaningCloud text mining tool for text clustering. The MeaningCloud tool analyze the text of the papers and create clusters, each one representing text that is similar ( Spinakis and Chatzimakri, 2005 ); groups (clusters) by analyzing the text of each article ( Fan et al., 2006 ).

MeaningCloud software uses Text Clustering API that allows to uncover the implicit structure and the meaningful subjects embedded in the contents of the articles. This API takes a set of texts and distributes them in groups (clusters) according to the similarity between the contents of each article. The aim is to include in each cluster articles that are very similar to each other and—at the same time—highly different from the ones included in other clusters.

The clustering process (1) employs lemmatization technology to consider all the morphological variants of a term (e.g., high/higher/highest), (2) allows to define words that should not be considered in the analysis process due to their little semantic relevance, (3) groups the articles according to their relevance with respect to the context in the analyze and not purely textual similarity, (4) assigns to each cluster a name which semantically represents its contents ( Fan et al., 2006 ; MeaningCloud, 2022 ).

Overview of the documents

The group of the other documents (16) is composed by three books, eleven book chapters, one review, and one editorial. The editorial refers to the introduction of the Timothy’s (2017) book, which deals with issues of conservation, interpretation, impacts of tourism and the management of those impacts. The review is a perspective on the interactions and expectations of community members, archeologists, and the state as they interact within the archaeoscape of Uxbenká ( Parks, 2010 ). The three books address issues relating to law and restitution ( Stamatoudi, 2011 ), or is devoted to antiquities are the cultural property ( Cuno, 2012 ), or even deals with the public health humanitarian responses to natural disasters Chan (2017) . As for book chapters, the majority belongs to the book edited by Chappell and Hufnagel (2014) dedicated to art and antiquity crime. Other chapters are more focused on heritage, museums, and galleries (e.g., Corsane, 2005 ; Campelo et al., 2018 ).

The first articles are published in 1990s ( Evans-Pritchard, 1993 ; Shackley, 1997 ), but the inflection point occurred in 2015, with a growing number of publications from that date. The journals—and the respective number on the ABS ranking—where the articles have been published is shown in Figure 2 .

Number of articles per journal.

The network of authors and countries of the universities of those who published in the field is illustrated in Figure 3 . The United States and United Kingdom are the most prominent countries. Yet, the target of the study tends to be diversified for instance, Peru ( Payntar et al., 2021 ), Norway ( Runhovde, 2021 ), the Dead Sea ( Kersel, 2021 ), Italy ( Pollard, 2020 ), Iraq ( Kathem, 2020 ), Spain ( López et al., 2018 ), South Africa ( Mofokeng, 2018 ), Bangkok Singapore ( Bhati and Pearce, 2017 ), and Turkey ( Tanaka, 2015 ).

Network of authors and countries of affiliation.

Cluster analyze

The text clustering returned six core clusters—representing concepts—shown in Figure 4 , that is, heritage destruction, public access, world heritage, human rights, cultural heritage preservation, and protection of cultural property in the event. The figure also presents the score for each cluster.

Text clustering. Only clusters with scores higher than 50 that represent concepts were considered. Score: shows the relevance value assigned to the cluster.

Heritage destruction

World War II led the world community to create diverse intergovernmental organizations dedicated to mapping critical locations and creating conventions and laws for their protection, as well as human rights, such as the United Nations and the United Nations Economic, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Different countries adopted their conventions and recommendations focused on humanitarian issues, such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Geneva Conventions, or the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and the Genocide Convention. The destruction of cultural heritage or any work of art of any city, location or nation is regarded as an act of vandalism against the culture of our planet.

This cluster aggregated publication that deals with examples and situation where such world damage occurs. For instance, religious and political iconoclasm on the basis of the attack on various heritages sites in Iraq and Syria, that is, the mass looting of archeological zones, of ancient, buildings and statues, of religious and secular sites, museums, art galleries, and libraries (e.g., Brodie, 2015 ; Isakhan, 2015 ; Cunliffe et al., 2016 ; Isakhan and González Zarandona, 2018 ; Matthews et al., 2020 ).

Other studies discuss the concepts of protection and destruction to elaborate on how cultural objects should be dealt with (e.g., Baraldi et al., 2013 ; Tanaka, 2015 ). Yet, different stakeholders interpret protection and destruction in different ways, which causes issues when attempts to act in favor of cultural heritage, as happened in Turkey’s museum ( Tanaka, 2015 ). Because of the unfortunate proliferation of local with heritage damages, Isakhan (2015) proposed a methodology for cataloguing heritage destruction in a database. This database prepared in Iraq can be extended to other nations. Aligned with heritage concerns, Bhati and Pearce (2017) developed and evaluated an observational approach to auditing the damage to tourist attractions in Asia: Bangkok and Singapore. The same process can be extended to other locations. Although academics tend to not focus on looting and plundering underwater sites, these sites deserve more attention in the future and the Bhati and Pearce’s (2017) tool should also be consider and adapted to such situations.

Public access

Crowds in a heritage area can have a negative impact on cultural heritage, causing damage and property thefts (e.g., Stone, 2012 ; Grove et al., 2018 ; Al-Ansi et al., 2021 ). For instance, the floor can be damaged due to the flow of visitors, visitors can also leave trash, steal objects, or cause other damages (e.g., Evans-Pritchard, 1993 ; Egloff and Sayavongkhamedy, 2018 ; Grove et al., 2018 ). The public access and the respective damages caused can also be observed in looting and plundering underwater sites, such as shipwrecks ( Grove et al., 2018 ). The theme of cultural heritage also includes the illegal trade in art and stolen pieces in the market (e.g., Hart and Chilton, 2015 ; Runhovde, 2021 ), which demands surveillance, knowledge and protection, and control systems.

Public access deserves more research in terms of flow of the tourists visiting heritage sites. Data mining and learning can make a huge contribution in predicting such flow and in reorganizing the flow of tourists. If tourists do not all pass through the same places and at the same time, the managers of these places will be contributing to their preservation. Therefore, the use of data mining and learning processes are a priority in research.

World heritage

The concept of world heritage comes from UNESCO. This is a label that considers natural and cultural sites throughout the world. One important mission of such a label is to promote the protection of the places, destinations, or even transcends borders of nations. These sites are recognized as having worldwide relevance and represent examples of cultural or natural heritage. The situations of conflict and war represent threats to these world heritage sites ( Geering, 2020 ). The concerns of mutilation, damage, and destruction of world heritage during the armed conflict is an issue that has deserved considerable attention (e.g., Zubrow, 2016 ; Brosché et al., 2017 ).

Human rights

The right to education and the right of cultural and art belong to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Yet, war, vandalism, and destruction of heritage restricts such rights, leaving people and nations poorer, causing irreparable damage (e.g., Stone, 2012 ; Matthews et al., 2020 ). The priority of research in this cluster is to create replicas that can be stored and viewed from historical sites and monuments. This can be done with virtual and extended reality, as well as with the use of artificial intelligence algorithms. Thus, in case of war or natural disasters, humanity will be able to have a glimpse of what these ancestral spaces were like. Virtual reality can even contribute as reference information for the recovery of partially destroyed spaces or monuments.

Protection of cultural property in the event

The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict of 1954 was created with the intention of protecting movable cultural property, such as works of art, museum collections, books, and archives ( Geering, 2020 ). This cluster represents a small group of studies that examine damage and risk to cultural property sheltered in refuges, which were created due to specific events, as World War II ( Pollard, 2020 ) or Cold War ( Geering, 2020 ). Although sheltered the movable cultural properties have suffered careless military occupation, deliberate combatant damage, accidental and collateral damage, and looting ( Pollard, 2020 ). Thus, the studies draw attention to movable cultural pieces and greater care to be taken with them in future dramatic events.

Cultural heritage preservation

The damage due to the influx of visitors associated with looting and the walking and breathing of visitors have led cultural heritage mangers to use new technologies, such as virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR) and artificial intelligence (AI) and social media (e.g., Afkhami, 2017 ; Falk and Hagsten, 2020 ; Ocón, 2021 ). These technologies allow visitors to immerse themselves in cultural heritage sites and gain the experience of being there without actually being in the real world (VR). They also enhance the visitor experience, with complementary information or help to map, record, and organize information about cultural heritage and be guide (AI) ( Loureiro et al., 2020 ; Loureiro, 2021 ). As Ocón (2021 , p. 1) claims, “digitalization has reached cultural heritage” and “can help preserve its memories and lengthen its life.” The pandemic situation of COVID-19 forced citizens to stay at home and several cultural heritage places provide virtual visits ( Loureiro, 2021 ), incrementing the use of such technologies.

Research agenda

We develop future research lines focusing on the combination of research cluster with core actors in the cultural heritage context (e.g., Stamatoudi, 2011 ; Campelo et al., 2018 ). We recognize that technologies—as virtual (VR), augmented (AR) reality and artificial intelligence (AI)—has been gradually used in the tourism (e.g., Loureiro et al., 2020 , 2021 ), but in the particular context of cultural heritage business and tourism management such technologies are still in an early stage of implementation. Thereby, we emphasize the encouragement of research on how technologies can benefit cultural heritage and contribute to preventing damage (see Table 1 ).

Research suggestions.

Heritage destruction and cultural heritage preservation

Heritage destruction is the representative cluster in prior documents involving different actors, such as tourism operators, heritage managers, local governments, or local communities. Although it is very relevant to present case studies where heritage was destroyed and recommend that these situations should be avoided, future research should focus more on prevention. Although is quite relevant to present and describe case studies showing that cultural heritage has been destructed and recommendation to avoid such situation, future research should focus more on prevention. Another relevant aspect concerns the looting and plundering underwater sites, such as shipwrecks Academics so far have not paid due attention to these sites, so further studies are strongly recommended.

Thus, researchers can work together with different actors to contribute to create preservation strategies. Tourism operators have an important role in promoting heritage sites and artifacts but should also be more open to contribute to prevention and to avoid overcrowding. Technology can also contribute to mapping the heritage sites and the location of artifacts, helping to spread the tourists and visitors (e.g., GIS-Geographic Information System and other AI systems).

Heritage managers are core actors because the planification and organization of the heritage sites and artifacts depend on them. Although in cooperation with other stakeholders, they should lead the preservation and prevent damages in the heritage sites and artifacts. AI systems are capable of analyzing and processing large amounts of data (big data) giving managers tools to facilitate key decisions. They collect, aggregate, analyze, compare, and interact, being even able to take some decisions and learn with previous situations and interactions conducted. Thus, researchers have the opportunity to investigate how AI systems can be implemented and how to create integrate networks of AI toward a more efficiency management of different heritage sites in the world. Managers should also be aware that in interactions between humans and non-humans (AI agents or robots), human workers need training. In this new work system, where humans interact with non-humans, issues such as work tasks, ethics and politics will arise.

Local governments need to operate in tandem with heritage managers to develop policies to organize and protect the cultural heritage sites and artifacts. Heritage managers and international traders benefit from cooperating with each other through the exchange of data. VR and AR have been used to enhance the experience of visiting museums and heritage sites and can also be a support for heritage artifacts. For instance, instead of handling an old book, tourists and potential buyers will be able to experience this through VR. This virtual experience can prevent damage to the artifact due to breathing and handling. This way, more research is needed to understand how tourists and potential buyers can experience cultural heritage virtually. New business models will be developed using VR, AR, and AI systems and cultural heritage.

Public access and human rights

Public access and human rights clusters are more associated with tourists and society. Future studies should be more concerned with education for the preservation of cultural heritage. Basic and higher education levels should be more concerned with incorporating issues of destruction and preservation of cultural heritage into their tourism courses to develop a global awareness of cultural heritage.

Researchers should be more open to develop research on the acceptance of AI robots to support tourists in visiting cultural heritage sites and artifacts. AI robots-virtual (e.g., holograms) and physical (e.g., level of humanoid appearance, social capabilities) can perform an important role in in serving, guiding, and informing visitors about the history of the sites and managing the flow of visitants.

The multisensory virtual tourism experiences are also a theme to be explored, since virtual sites, instead of real ones, can avoid overcrowding and consequently contribute to preserve heritage sites. The combination of virtual and augmented reality can even make experiences more exciting and vivid. We recommend analyzing several concepts, such as tourist’s emotions, subjective well-being, authenticity perception, inspiration, self-connection, or cultural expertise. Hence, more studies employing mixed approach and quantitative data treatment are suggested.

World heritage and protection of cultural property in the event

International organizations have performed a fundamental work in drawing worldwide attention to the relevance to the culture and citizen identity the preservation of nature, destinations, sites, and artifacts. For instance, UNESCO encourages countries to sign the World Heritage Convention of 16 of November of 1972 and ratified on 1975, to create plans for its protection, and to provide emergency assistance for situations of immediate danger. Yet, heritages sites are vandalized and destroyed for religious, political, and war reasons. So, what else should be done? How can these organizations act in such dramatic situation? How can they promote education and knowledge to gain more members for the cause?

Academics should conduct research on tourists and citizens pro-cultural heritage preservation. In another words, academics need to investigate what can drive—cognitively, emotionally and relationally—tourists and citizens in different cultural context and counties to preserve cultural heritage.

The war events cause by humans and or those due to natural causes should not be neglected. International organization should operate near by the heritage managers and local governments to plan how to reduce damage when such events occur. Academics should develop more accurate forecasting models to predict natural disasters, which can give managers time to rescue cultural heritage.

This study uses text mining to give an overview of the network of authors and counties and extract the main clusters of the themes analyzed in prior studies to create suggestions for future research. Although the first Scopus indexed article—in the field of business and tourism management—goes back to the 1990s, this theme of cultural heritage and looting has not received due attention from researchers. This study can be a call for more research in the field of tourism management.

This study contributes by highlighting the publications—books and above all the articles—journals, authors, countries, and clusters that have been in the heart of the discussion of the topic. We also contribute to academics and managers by presenting the cluster analysis and the research suggestions.

Academics can benefit from this study by having a comprehensive review of the literature on cultural heritage and looting, the network of researchers and the cluster themes. The suggestions for future research and the research questions offer academics the possibility to strategically organize themselves and prepare the next steps of their future research (see Table 1 ). Thus, we offer (1) the clusters emerging on cultural heritage and looting and (2) new avenues for future research that give high value for the academic development in cultural heritage and looting. The six clusters from prior research adds to academia by clearly expose what have been discussed on cultural heritage and looting.

This study unveils to business and tourism managers what has been discussed on the topic of cultural heritage and looting. They can use such information to alert themselves about the risks and benefits associated with cultural heritage sites, artifacts, and destinations in terms of destruction, preservation, overcrowding and human rights. This knowledge can contribute to help business and tourism managers to strategically manage their business, tourist sites, artifacts, and destinations. This study contributes to tourism management because summarize the relevant topics that has been discussed in literature: heritage destruction, public access, world heritage, human rights, protection of cultural property in the event, and cultural heritage preservation. Heritage destruction deals with religious and political iconoclasm that contribute to the destruction of monuments and heritage sites. Public access is dedicated to the flow of tourists in heritage sites. World heritage gives examples on sites recognized as relevant worldwide. The right to education of cultural and art belongs to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the cluster human rights is dedicated to those rights. Protection of cultural property in the event is dedicated to damage and risk to cultural property sheltered in refuges and finally immersive and extended technologies can be used to give visitors different perspectives in cultural heritage. Therefore, the current paper highlights others that can be read by managers depending on the topic that is more relevant for them and their institutions.

Regarding limitations, we focused our study on business and tourism management, but eventually we can find other interesting documents in other fields. Although WoS and Scopus are two well-reputed and known databases aggregating different publishers (e.g., Wiley, Emerald, Elsevier, Taylor and Francis, Sage), future studies can consider other databases to search for related documents on the topic. Lastly, this research centers on the qualitative text-mining review process. For future research, integrating a quantitative process for exploring the role of core clusters identified in this research is suggested.

Data availability statement

Author contributions.

All the authors contributed to conceptualization, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, writing and editing the original draft, and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Barcelona Mass Tourism – Destroying Local Culture

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Visiting Barcelona holds many attractions for travelers around the world, yet despite the large volume of tourism that this Spanish city attracts every year, did you know that the capital of Catalonia is experiencing many negative issues associated with this? Barcelona mass tourism is undoubtedly having a detrimental effect, so it’s no surprise to hear that the patriotic locals are trying to keep the masses away from destroying the heritage they all love to cherish.

The best way for any outsider visiting a city like Barcelona to be welcomed is to show a certain appreciation for the beauty that lies within, rather than trying to take advantage and spoil the inherent look and feel of it. However, we all know that this doesn’t always happen so I wanted to take a look at Barcelona as a perfect case study to see how tourism is impacting this city!

History of Tourism

According to an article by Duran in the early 21st century, tourism in Barcelona equated to 14% of the overall economy. It’s likely that this figure is still a consistent number so it’s inevitable that tourism is a huge component of Barcelona’s rapidly growing economy.

The history of tourism in Barcelona really dates back to the 1992 Summer Olympics which changed the direction of the city’s rapid expansion. But tourism statistics are also attributed to the well-developed investment legacies of the local governments in recent decades.

So let’s take a look at some numbers…In 1990, Barcelona saw only 1.7 million visitors enter the city limits! In 2012, this number had increased to a staggering 7.4 million! We are now seeing over 8 million over the last 3 years making Barcelona the 10th most visited city around the world, and third in Europe behind only London and Paris.

Mass Tourism Problems

It’s all well and good having 8 million tourists wandering Barcelona’s Ciutat Vella (Old City), but there are clearly a number of drawbacks that Barcelona has recently been exposed to. I recently read a really interesting article by Barcelona local resident, Yara Coelho from Heart of a Vagabond, who discussed this very topic of how tourism is out of control and destroying the city of Barcelona . I think Yara hit some really key points here and certainly voiced what many locals are clearly thinking.

I decided to reflect on our experiences in Barcelona and consider some of the main issues related to mass tourism.

1. Lack of Respect

I don’t care where you are traveling to, but when you enter another country or city you better be respectful of the customs, society and overall environment that you are surrounded by. Unfortunately not everyone follows these guidelines and Barcelona has been experiencing many unruly visitors taking advantage of local ideologies.

During our recent trip to Barcelona, we participated in an awesome food tour of the Gràcia neigbohood by Devour Barcelona, and our tour guide gave us a pretty cool insight into the locals impressions of tourists. As we wandered around the local market, we took several pictures of the stalls and then asked our guide if the stall owners were ok with this. She was pretty open with us when she said, “Honestly, no they are not ok with it!”

Drunken behavior is a typical reflection of tourists visiting the streets of Barcelona. With football being such a huge spectacle in this city, locals are frequently encountering drunken tourists from all corners of the globe enjoying Barça in action both before and after matches. Knock-on effects lead to vandalism and other negative social issues around the city such as drug abuse.

2. Price Hikes

Increased tourism may helps diversify and stabilize the local economy, but at the same time it can have the reverse effect for local communities in that the price of living rise astronomically. The stereotypical multiplier-effect takes place through new money being brought into the economy leading to the creation of new jobs within these industries. But what we rarely establish is just how much these new jobs are paying. Frequently these new positions reflect in the lowest paying jobs throughout the local economy!

Have you ever wondered when you walk around a ‘touristy’ neighborhood why you are paying extortionate prices for souvenirs or even day to day products? The answer is simply to look at yourself! Increased numbers of visitors leads to an influx of tourism centered industries and this even spreads into local businesses who feel the need to raise their prices simply to survive.

How does this affect local communities? Yet again it is another unfortunate negative response! I recently read an article in the British newspaper, The Daily Mail, that focused on the Barcelona demonstrations that took place in September 2014 around La Sagrada Familia. Price hikes among other reasons are simply making locals fed up with tourism and honestly I don’t blame them.

3. Inherently Rude Behavior

I’m fed up with being elbowed. I’m not a rude person but at times I run out of patience. (Abel Maruny, 2014 Barcelona protestor)

This was a quote by one of the many protestors during the 2014 events that took place in an attempt for local authorities to see what mass tourism is doing to the local economy. You may think that this is directly related to ‘lack of respect’ which I focused on first, and ultimately you would be correct! But I want to emphasize that this rude behavior is what really irks many of the locals and understandably so.

Could you imagine walking around your home town and seeing thousands of tourists walking around like it is their very own, even wandering around naked? Me either! So why should we take this approach when visiting another country?

I’m completely opposed to this and I hope that when we read posts like this it will encourage all of us to take a look at just how we travel and perhaps ALL OF US could do something a little different to really enhance our reputation.

I want to add a caveat right now that it’s a real small population of tourists that are extremely rude and I am sure most of us are vigilant and respectful. But do we go above and beyond? I will turn this over to you to take a moment and consider your response!

4. Urban Gentrification and Modernization

Arriving at Barcelona El Prat International airport for the first time, we headed to the train that would take us downtown to the heart of the city. My initial impression saw us pass through almost a rural setting with fields heavily populated with crops and a real sense of local community as we saw farmers harvesting their products. This didn’t last long as we approached the suburbs and soon after central business district of Barcelona.

Walking out of the train station, we were immediately faced with Passeig de Gracia. I will admit that my first impression was just how beautiful it was here. The hustle and bustle of city life was apparent here and I had a real feeling of a modernized society, though fortunately Gaudi’s inspiration is still apparent through the upkeep of La Pedrera and Casa Batllo.

From Tiffany & Co. to Valentino, the highest profile designer stores are located along this street and everywhere you look, there is another store opening!

Urban gentrification is a familiar yet controversial concept in many cities around the world.

… any facet of urban renewal that inevitably leads to displacement of the occupying demographic. (Wikipedia)

Many of the local neighborhoods in Barcelona are seeing low-cost housing being replaced with high-rise corporate offices or apartment complexes. A real positive vs. negative comparison has to be realized here when considering the outcome of what we can term ‘urbanization’ throughout Barcelona.

5. Beach City vs Cultural Haven

What is the first thing that springs to mind when you think about Barcelona? The answer to this question may very well depend on the type of traveler or dare I say ‘tourist’ that you are. Unfortunately, Barcelona is widely recognized as a beach city due to its proximity to the gorgeous Mediterranean and the pristine beaches that are available. With a perfect climate, why wouldn’t you want to experience this part of Spain!

However, this is NOT what Barcelona is about! There is so much more to see and experience in this city and I am delighted that the Barcelona CVB is making a real push right now at focusing on “Barcelona as a cultural haven”. From Gaudi inspiration to the rediscovery of modernism in the aftermath of the 1992 Summer Olympics, Barcelona is hub of cultural flair.

The key point here is that tourists are missing a lot of what Barcelona’s heritage is all about. I don’t want to stereotype everyone here because clearly Gaudi’s leading attractions such as La Sagrada Familia and Park Guell are hugely popular, but what about some of those hidden gems that deserve more attention.

But perhaps this is a Catch-22 situation with some of the aforementioned issues as exposing some of the cultural gems to more tourism would lead to other negative consequences!

Having visited Barcelona only once, I am by no means an expert on tourism in this part of the world. However, it doesn’t take very long to see what is happening to such a beautiful city and I just hope that visitors to this city pay the respect that it richly deserves.

Tourism is a concept that every city strives for because it undoubtedly boosts the overall economy. Without it a city would likely be destroyed, but reflecting on Barcelona’s situation it’s possible that even with it, a city may be struggle to survive, at least from the locals perspective!

Perhaps this is being a little over-cynical because Barcelona is clearly thriving in many ways, but I hope this post provides a little more thinking material before you take a destination for granted.

Take a step back and think about the locals for a moment and consider how you would feel if millions of visitors walked into your homeland. You may just be surprised at the outcome!

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20 COMMENTS

I’ve visited Barcelona twice. One in February back in 2001 and then again in July 2006. Barcelona is considered a city that took advantage of the Olympic heritage from the 1992 Olympic Games compared to my hometown of Athens, where more than half of the Olympic Venues remain unused after the Olympic Games. I never thought that the locals there would be annoyed with the tourists. In Athens we certainly are not, but then again most people don’t spend more than 2 days here. We do have many cases of drunken tourists though (especially British ones) in Rhodes, Corfu, Kos and Crete. In these islands there are whole villages (by the beach naturally), who are not at all traditional and picturesque. They are there to cater the needs of the tourists, who apparently (a portion of them at least) don’t look for a local flavor. In these places you will most probably run into pubs than the typical Greek tavernas. Without being disrespectful here (and trying not to offend anyone as well), I believe that these tourists that cause trouble are uneducated and don’t come to our country to experience local living, or culture or anything like that. They just want to get drunk.

Very thought provoking article. Tourism does provide a double edge sword. The creation of jobs in a variety of fields and the influx of revenue and taxes which can help a city thrive, also create the negative effects of high traffic. I live in one of the most visited destination in the world and the effects of reduced tourism after 9/11 and the recession were felt by everyone. As much as locals don’t like traffic we are happy to take the good with the bad. Sadly, it’s difficult to have a place retain its charm from when it was undiscovered once it becomes popular. I hate hearing the phrase “it’s a tourist trap” being used to refer to places that only became such because the word spread. Only with very strong systems in place in the part of city leaders to preserve the right balance can the negative effects of surge in tourist population be mitigated. I have seen many cities display negative unwelcoming attitudes towards tourists as a result of the points you make in this article, only to see them beg tourists to come back years later when they have found new more welcoming destinations. I agree that the lack of respect is one of the key issues why tourists are unwelcome and I don’t know that there is a solution to that. I do think that smart destination tourist boards and city governments that approach tourism with a marketing plan to target their desired tourist demographic have a much better chance at reducing the negative effects. For example, If you don’t want the drunk tourist crowd, then don’t make it so easy for them to over-imbibe in your city. Thank you for such a great article. I hope Barcelona figures out the right balance, it is a beautiful city.

Christina, thanks so much for your kind comments and adding such valuable information to this article! It’s clearly a difficult industry to completely understand and there is such a fine line between the huge positives and detrimental negatives associated with tourism. As I was writing this post I really felt that this could be related to many cities around the world and as you rightly say, the tourism boards really do have a tough job at fighting this fine line! The key is balance here and determining the right type of tourists that you want to attract! I love how Barcelona’s CVB right now is focused on prioritizing culture which I think is a great approach but only time will tell if it is successful and they can win back the locals opinion on tourism.

That is a great approach on Barcelona’s part. You’re right, only time will tell.

[…] Linked up with Weekend Waunderlust […]

Hi I have just found your weekend wanderlust link up. However I can’t find the code to add your badge to my sidebar. In the meantime I loved Gaude park in Barcelona – the architecture was AMAZING

Chris, Very good article. I visited Barcelona and other popular European cities before the recession hit the United States. It was during summer and the crowds were ridiculous. I felt like I needed to escape. I cannot imagine how a local, who has to walk and drive thru streets full of tourists every day, may fill (at least during the summer season). I understand it is a complicated situation. I agree visitors should show respect and courtesy to the locals. In my case, I try visit lesser known attractions in the places I visit, put my money in local businesses (hotels, restaurants, etc.) and try to engage with the locals. I also research etiquette rules and accepted behavior before arriving to a place. Having a humble attitude and a desire to learn about a new place can make a difference.

I also think you do not have to be a Barcelona with millions of visitors to have this problem. Destinations in Central and South America have seen an increase in tourists due to the high prices in Europe and other parts of the world. But, those “tourists” are interested in activities such as drinking and partying (not everybody of course). They stay in close resorts and use services owned by international companies. Does that helps the communities? I am not sure. Does it cause a problem? It causes a lot of problems.

I feel so strongly about this with regards to my beloved Rome. I get so mad when I see tourists just throwing garbage on the floor and getting drunk and acting disrespectfully, especially because most times it’s something they would never do at home (of course it also has to do with how the local police deals with it, but that’s a different story). Although Italy relies so much on tourism, sometimes I would just like to see it empty 🙂

[…] […]

Interesting read. The dark side of tourism is becoming all too familiar in popular destinations.

Shaun http://www.thislifeintrips.com

A fantastic post guys – thankyou for highlighting this, because it’s an aspect of tourism that people don’t often see. It’s very hard to strike the balance between the pros and cons of tourism, especially as the population of the world is growing by the seconds, and travel is becoming one of the largest industries in the world. It’s sad that we’re all being so ridiculously entitles that we’re rude and direspectful to both people and property while overseas…obviously that’s a generalization, though I think the most extreme example of this is the full moon party in Thailand. What once used to be a pristine beach with many local communities along the shore has now become full of trash for drunk alcoholic teens who have pushed out the manjority of the locals who were once there. I don’t know the full details on it, though I saw a Nat Geo doc and it really stops and makes you think!!

It’s all about balance of course, and I think the first step is to actually start discussing the issue and spread awareness, so thankyou for this post!

I get really irked by people not respecting the local culture, on my recent trip to Thailand I was gob-smacked by some of the behaviour I observed in and around temples…. I think this is a really important article and one that people need to be aware of whilst travelling, but I think there is a fine line because most countries need the tourist dollar to sustain their economy, imagine if millions of visitors suddenly walked out. There has to be some sort of compromise and I think sharing articles like this and educating tourists is a great start!

This is such an excellent and thought provoking post. I had no idea that Barcelona is the third most visited city in Europe. Although it’s so beautiful and with a great climate that I can understand why. I visited Barcelona in 1998, and the hotel we stayed at was built for the Olympics and overlooked the soccer stadium. We aren’t beach people, so we focused on the cultural sites, although I’ll admit it was just the really popular ones. The food and Gaudi architecture were my favorite parts of the city. Living in Penang, Malaysia, I was able to watch how an increase in tourism really affected its UNESCO World Heritage site. It got to the point where I’d avoid the whole area during tourist season. The traffic was horrible. My favorite street in the heritage area is becoming more gentrified and tourist focused. Small trades and businesses are converting into souvenir shops. I feel almost guilty blocking street art when I park my car, but I have to park somewhere. My biggest pet peeve is when I’m trying to do my grocery shopping at the wet market, but the stalls are blocked by tourists trying to get the perfect photo of lotus roots, long beans and other exotic produce. As a blogger, I get their desire to capture a great shot, but I just want to elbow my way in and get my chores done for the day.

It’s a really interesting discussion to have…obviously you can’t stop people from visiting a particular country, but an increase of tourism has both positive and negative effects. It’s tough to see places get more touristy to appeal to a particular crowd from other places in the world rather than staying authentic and true. It would be annoying as a local to deal with obnoxious tourists. As someone who obviously loves to travel and will visit Barcelona someday, I always try my best to be respectful and not be disruptive. I’d love to visit the more cultural aspects of Barcelona, for sure!

You bring up such interesting ideas, Chris! I’m actually starting a new grad class tomorrow on Travel and Tourism. I’m an English student, but this will be my first class in the Communications department and I’m really looking forward to diving into these kinds of topics that you bring up. Thanks for highlighting the big issues!

Chris, what a great and thought provoking article. I was in Barcelona in 2013 and glad it wasn’t during the summer tourist season. Unfortunately tourism does sometimes come at a cost, but rudeness should not be something that has to be tolerated.

Thanks for this post! I did not know that Barcelona is the third most visited city in Europe, and tenth in the world! I am from there (even though I live abroad now) and I agree with these points. In my visits to my family in Barcelona I have seen the increase of tourists year after year, I have heard people in markets complain about tourists taking pictures and touching food (which they do not buy), seen the prices rise… it is a pity that some people do not know about respect, if all visitors shared your point of view it would be much better 🙂 Thanks again!

Hi Chris, Great post indeed. Barcelona is a fantastic example of what can happen and how locals can feel when tourism reaches this “height” and too many visitors lack mindfulness.

Not only is it a very interesting and sadly true post, it is also timely as one of Spain’s biggest newspapers has featured an article around the same topic. You can read it with the help of a Translate tool, or not ..if your Spanish is good enough! 🙂

http://www.eldiario.es/politica/Colau-plantea-limites-turismo-Barcelona_0_394060765.html

Years ago when I worked in Crete, there was a very similar feeling from many locals about tourism there, in the island’s hotspots. It was viewed as kind of a necessary evil.

Cheers Jackie

Great post! I have never visited Barcelona, but all the issues you mentioned here are definitely important ones! As tourists, I think it’s easy to get so caught up in “seeing the sights” that we forget the importance of preserving local cultures. Thank you for this reminder!

A very interesting and thought provoking article. In recent years tourism has really boomed in Barcelona, bringing with it both the positive and negative effects that you have mentioned.

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